Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

CHAPTER TWO

C++ BASIC
Structure of C++ program

Structure of a C++ program includes:

 Documentation section
 Linking section
 Definition section
 Global declaration section
 Class declaration
 Function
 main() functions
{
Initializations;
Executable parts;
}
 Function1()
{
Initializations;
Executable parts;
}…n
Documentation Section: include comment parts, which are ignored by compiler.
The comments are used to describe the functionality of each statement in the
program, its copyright, author, and date of compilation and purpose of the
program to the user. C++ supports single line (// comment) and multiline (/*
comments*/).
Syntax: //This statement is a single line comment
/*This is multiline comment*/
Link section: here we can link the necessary files and libraries to current files. Using
#include directive we can link the necessary libraries to current files.
Syntax: #include<file or library name>
Example: #include<iostream.h>
Definition Section: It is possible to define symbolic constants. Symbolic constants
are normal identifiers in which their values cannot be altered.
Syntax: #define identifier constant

Global declaration Section: variables declared under this section are available
throughout the program.
Class declaration Section: defines the class declaration.
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Functions: The function main, which has been written in the program, is an example
of function. A function is defined as group of instructions, which are assigned a
name and accessed by the name.
Syntax:

return type function name ()

{
Statement of function;
}
A function is identified by the compiler with the help of parenthesis ( ) after the
function name. Without the parenthesis the compiler thinks it as a variable or
complaints that it is undefined symbol. So to define a function, parenthesis is
must.
The statement inside the brace {} forms the body of the function and specifies the
task of the function.
Return type specifies the type of data the function has to send to the calling function
after the execution. It may be the result of the task performed in the function.
main ( ) function: the execution of the program starts from main function. Every
program must have only one main function. All other functions are called either
directly or indirectly from main. The initialization or other executable statements
are included with in the main function.
Initialization part: the variables that are used in the program should be initialized
here. These variables are not available to all the functions. In C++ we can initialize
the variables at any part in the function.
Executable part: A statement declared under executable part performs some tasks.
Every statement under global declaration, initialization and executable parts
should be terminated with the semi colon ‘;’. A semi colon acts as a statement
terminator like full stop in English.
Syntax:
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
Statements;
Other functions;

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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

The C++ Compilation Process

C++ is a 3rd-generation language. These types of languages must be translated into a

machine language in order to be executed by a CPU. The process of translating high-
level language into machine language is called the compilation process.
The compilation process consists of the following steps.
edit source code -> compile -> link -> execute
(editor) (compiler) (linker) (loader)
Program source code is entered into a file using a text editor. After the code has been
entered, a compiler program is started that translates the source into an object code
file. The object code file is linked with other object code files that come with the
compiler and an executable file (or program) is created. In order to execute the
program, a program called the loader copies the executable file into the memory of the
computer and sends an execute command to the CPU.
It should be noted that errors can occur during each step.

A source file ending with ".c" contains C source code; whereas, a file ending with
".cpp" is a C++ file. A file ending with ".h" can be both a C and C++ header file.
Sometimes the suffix ".hpp" (or ".H") is used to indicate a C++ only header file.
The compiler is a program that usually consists of many phases. The first phase of
compilation is called preprocessing. The preprocessor does many things, but two
features that must be learned immediately are file inclusion and macro (manifest
constant) definitions. After preprocessing, the compiler executes two primary steps:
lexical analysis and parsing. During lexical analysis, the source code is broken up into
tokens and the tokens are passed to the parser. The parser does syntax and semantic
analysis, which includes the generation of object code (i.e. machine language).
The linker "combines" all object code files into an executable file. Typically, the object
files created by your source files are linked with object files that are packaged into
libraries.
Most implementations allow each step of the compilation process to be executed as a
stand-alone procedure. For example, compile a source file but do not invoke the linker;
execute the preprocessor only; or, invoke the linker only.
Some older compilers translate C source code into assembly language, then execute an
assembler program to translate the assembly language into machine language.
Early C++ compilers (those prior to 1992) translated C++ code into C code and then
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executed the C compiler.

The loader reads a program (i.e. executable file) into memory. Once this is completed,
it becomes a process and the CPU executes it.

Syntax and Semantics

The Syntax of a programming language consists of the rules for the correct use of the
language. This involves the correct grammatical construction and arrangement of the
language, correct spelling, hyphenation, inflection and so on.

The semantics of a programming language deal with the meanings given to syntactically
correct constructs of the language. Usually, semantics is defined in terms of the program’s
run-time behavior: What happens when the program is executed with a certain set of
inputs, what statements are executed, what values are assigned to the variables, and what
output is produced.

Thus syntax has nothing to do with “meaning” or run-time behavior of a program. A

program could be syntactically correct yet meaningless. The program below (code
fragment) is syntactically correct but does not have any meaning at runtime (never
terminates).

sum=0;

while (sum!=-1)

sum=sum+10;

Yet syntax is a prerequisite to meaningful expression. Thus, a programming language

must have a good syntactic definition before it can properly support the development of
meaningful programs.

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The parts of a simple C++ Program

 To understand the basic parts of a simple program in C++, lets have a look at
the following code:

#include<iostream.h>

void main()

cout<<”\n Hello World!”;

 Any C++ program file should be saved with file name extension “ .CPP ”
 Type the program directly into the editor, and save the file as hello.cpp,
compile it and then run it. It will print the words Hello World! on the
computer screen.
 The first character is the #. This character is a signal to the preprocessor. Each
time you start your compiler, the preprocessor runs through the program and
looks for the hush or sharp (#) symbols and act on those lines before the
compiler runs.
 The include instruction is a preprocessor instruction that directs the compiler
to include a copy of the file specified in the angle brackets in the source code.
 If the path of the file is not specified, the preprocessor looks for the file under
c:\tc\include\ folder or in include folder of the location where the editor is
stored.
 The effects of line 1, i.e. include<iostream.h> is to include the file iostream.h
into the program as if the programmer had actually typed it.
 When the program starts, main() is called automatically.
 Every C++ program has a main() function.
 The return value type for main() here is void, which means main function will
not return a value to the caller (which is the operating system).
 The main function can be made to return a value to the operating system.
 The Left French brace “{“signals the beginning of the main function body and
the corresponding Right French Brace “}” signals the end of the main function
body. Every Left French Brace needs to have a corresponding Right French
Brace.
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 The lines we find between the braces are statements or said to be the body of
the function.
 A statement is a computation step which may produce a value or interact with
input and output streams.
 The end of a single statement ends with semicolon (;).
 The statement in the above example causes the string “Hello World!” to be
sent to the “cout” (VDU) stream which will display it on the computer screen.

A brief look at cout and cin

 Cout is an object used for printing data to the screen.
To print a value to the screen, write the word cout, followed by the insertion
operator also called output redirection operator (<<) and the object to be
printed on the screen.
Syntax: Cout<<Object;
The object at the right hand side can be:
 A literal string: “Hello World”
 A variable: a place holder in memory
 Cin is an object used for taking input from the keyboard.
To take input from the keyboard, write the word cin, followed by the input
redirection operator (>>) and the object name to hold the input value.
Syntax: Cin>>Object
Cin will take value from the keyboard and store it in the memory. Thus the cin
statement needs a variable which is a reserved memory place holder.
Both << and >> return their right operand as their result, enabling multiple
input or multiple output operations to be combined into one statement. The
following example will illustrate how multiple input and output can be
performed:
E.g.:

 Cin>>var1>>var2>>var3;
Here three different values will be entered for the three variables. The
input should be separated by a space, tab or newline for each variable.

 Cout<<var1<<”, “<<var2<<” and “<<var3;

Here the values of the three variables will be printed where there is a “,”
(comma) between the first and the second variables and the “and” word
between the second and the third.

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Putting Comments on C++ programs

 A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of a
program.
 Program comments are text totally ignored by the compiler and are only
intended to inform the reader how the source code is working at any
particular point in the program.
 C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:
 Single Line Comment: Anything after // {double forward slash} (until the
end of the line on which it appears) is considered a comment.
o Eg:
cout<<var1; //this line prints the value of var1

 Multiple Line Comment: Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is

considered a comment.
o Eg:
/*this is a kind of comment where

Multiple lines can be enclosed in

one C++ program */

 Comments should be used to enhance (not to hinder) the readability of a

program. The following two points, in particular, should be noted:
 A comment should be easier to read and understand than the code which
it tries to explain. A confusing or unnecessarily-complex comment is
worse than no comment at all.
 Over-use of comments can lead to even less readability. A program
which contains so much comment that you can hardly see the code can
by no means be considered readable.
 Use of descriptive names for variables and other entities in a program,
and proper indentation of the code can reduce the need for using
comments.

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Variables and Constants

Variables:
 A variable is a reserved place in memory to store information in.
 Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be used in various
computations in a program.
 All variables have three important properties:
 Data Type: a type which is established when the variable is defined.
(e.g. integer, real, character etc). Data type describes the property of the
data and the size of the reserved memory
 Name: a name which will be used to refer to the value in the variable. A
unique identifier for the reserved memory location
 Value: a value which can be changed by assigning a new value to the
variable.

Fundamental Variable types

 Several other variable types are built into C++. They can be conveniently classified as
integer, floating-point or character variables.
 Floating-point variable types can be expressed as fraction i.e. they are “real numbers”.
 Character variables hold a single byte. They are used to hold 256 different characters
and symbols of the ASCII and extended ASCII character sets.
 The type of variables used in C++program are described in the next table, which lists
the variable type & how much it can hold.
Data Types:
Type Length Range

unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255

Char 8 bits -128 to 127

Enum 6 bits -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 16 bits 0 to 65,535

short int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767

Int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295

Long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Float 32 bits -3.4x10-38 to 3.4x10+38

Double 64 bits -1.7x10-308 to 1.7x10+308

long double 80 bits -3.4x10-4932 to 1.1x10+4932

Bool 8 bits true or false (top 7 bits are ignored)

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Signed and Unsigned.

 Signed integers are either negative or positive. Unsigned integers are always positive.
 Because both signed and unsigned integers require the same number of bytes, the
largest number (the magnitude) that can be stored in an unsigned integer is twice as
the largest positive number that can be stored in a signed integer.

E.g.: Lets us have only 4 bits to represent numbers

Unsigned Signed

Binary Decimal Binary Decimal

0 0 0 0 →0 0 0 0 0 →0

0 0 0 1 →1 0 0 0 1 →1

0 0 1 0 →2 0 0 1 0 →2

0 0 1 1 →3 0 0 1 1 →3

0 1 0 0 →4 0 1 0 0 →4

0 1 0 1 →5 0 1 0 1 →5

0 1 1 0 →6 0 1 1 0 →6

0 1 1 1 →7 0 1 1 1 →7

1 0 0 0 →8 1 0 0 0 →0

1 0 0 1 →9 1 0 0 1 → -1

1 0 1 0 →10 1 0 1 0 → -2

1 0 1 1 →11 1 0 1 1 → -3

1 1 0 0 →12 1 1 0 0 → -4

1 1 0 1 →13 1 1 0 1 → -5

1 1 1 0 →14 1 1 1 0 → -6

1 1 1 1 →15 1 1 1 1 → -7

 In the above example, in case of unsigned, since all the 4 bits can be used to represent
the magnitude of the number the maximum magnitude that can be represented will
be 15 as shown in the example.

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 If we use signed, we can use the first bit to represent the sign where if the value of the
first bit is 0 the number is positive if the value is 1 the number is negative. In this case
we will be left with only three bits to represent the magnitude of the number. Where
the maximum magnitude will be 7.

Declaring Variables
 Variables can be created in a process known as declaration.
 Syntax: Datatype Variable_Name;
 The declaration will instruct the computer to reserve a memory location with the
name and size specified during the declaration.
 Good variable names indicate the purpose of the variable or they should be self
descriptive.
E.g. int myAge; //variable used to store my age

 The name of a variable sometimes is called an identifier which should be unique in a

program.
 Certain words are reserved by C++ for specific purposes and can not be used as
identifiers. These are called reserved words or keywords and are summarized in the
following table.
- Note:- Variables must be declared before used!
Asm continue float new signed Try

Auto Default For operator sizeof Typedef

Break Delete friend private static Union

Case Do Goto protected struct Unsigned

Catch Double If public switch Virtual

Char Else inline register template Void

Class Enum Int return this Volatile

Const Extern Long short throw While

 Identifiers
 A valid identifier is a sequence of one or more letters, digits or underscore symbols.
The length of an identifier is not limited.
 Neither space nor marked letters can be part of an identifier.
 Only letters, digits and underscore characters are valid.
 Variable identifiers should always begin with a letter or an underscore. By any means
they should not begin with a digit.
 Key words should not be used as names for identifiers.

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 C++ is case sensitive. Small letter and capital letters are different for C++. Eg: variable
Age is not identical with variable age
Initializing Variables
 When a variable is assigned a value at the time of declaration, it is called variable
initialization.
 This is identical with declaring a variable and then assigning a value to the variable
immediately after declaration.
 The syntax:
DataType variable name = initial value;

e.g. int a = 0;

or: int a;

a=0;

Scope of Variables
 Scope of a variable is the boundary or block in a program where a variable can be
accessed. The boundary or block is identified by the left and right French brackets.
 In C++, we can declare variables anywhere in the source code. But we should declare a
variable before using it no matter where it is written.
 Global variables: are variables that can be referred/accessed anywhere in the code,
within any function, as long as it is declared first. A variable declared before any
function immediately after the include statements are global variables.
 Local Variables: the scope of the local variable is limited to the code level or block
within which they are declared.
In the following example, the integer data type num1 is accessible everywhere whereas
z and is only accessible in the add function and num2 is accessible in main function.
This means cout<<z; or any statement involving z is only valid in add function.
e.g:

#include<iostream.h>
int num1;

int add( int x, int y)

{
int z;
….
}
int main()
{
unsigned short age;
float num2;
cout<<”\n Enter your age:”;
…
}
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 In C++ the scope of a local variable is given by the block in which it is declared.
 If it is declared within a function, it will be a variable with a function scope. If it is
declared in a loop, its scope will be only in the loop, etc.

Characters
 Characters variables (type char) are typically one byte in size, enough to hold 256
different values. A char can be represented as a small number (0 - 255).
 Char in C++ are represented as any value inside a single quote.
E.g.: ‘x’, ‘A’, ‘5’, ‘a’, etc.

 When the compiler finds such values (characters), it translates back the value to the
ASCII values. E.g. ‘a’ has a value 97 in ASCII.

Special Printing characters

 In C++, there are some special characters used for formatting. These are:
\n new line

\t tab

\b backspace

\” double quote

\’ single quote

\? Question mark

\\ backslash

Constants
 A constant is any expression that has a fixed value.
 Like variables, constants are data storage locations in the computer memory. But,
constants, unlike variables their content can not be changed after the declaration.
 Constants must be initialized when they are created by the program, and the
programmer can’t assign a new value to a constant later.
 C++ provides two types of constants: literal and symbolic constants.
 Literal constant: is a value typed directly into the program wherever it is needed.
E.g.: int num = 43;

43 is a literal constant in this statement:

 Symbolic constant: is a constant that is represented by a name, similar to that of a

variable. But unlike a variable, its value can’t be changed after initialization.

Example:

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Int studentPerClass =15;

students = classes * studentPerClass;

studentPerClass is a symbolic constant having a value of 15.

And 15 is a literal constant directly typed in the program.

 In C++, we have two ways to declare a symbolic constant. These are using the #define
and the const key word.

Defining constants with #define

 The #define directive makes a simple text substitution.
 The define directive can define only integer constants
E.g.: #define studentPerClass 15

 In our example, each time the preprocessor sees the word studentPerClass, it inserts 15
into the text.

Defining constants with the const key word

 Here, the constant has a type, and the compiler can ensure that the constant is used
according to the rules for that type.
E.g.: const unsigned short int studentPerClass = 15;

Enumerated constants
 Used to declare multiple integer constants using a single line with different features.
 Enables programmers to define variables and restrict the value of that variable to a set
of possible values which are integer.
 The enum type cannot take any other data type than integer
 enum types can be used to set up collections of named integer constants. (The keyword
enum is short for ``enumerated''.)
 The traditional way of doing this was something like this:
#define SPRING 0

#define SUMMER 1

#define FALL 2

 An alternate approach using enum would be

enum { SPRING, SUMMER, FALL, WINTER };

 You can declare COLOR to be an enumeration, and then you can define five possible
values for COLOR: RED, BLUE, GREEN, WHITE and BLACK.
E.g.: enum COLOR {RED,BLUE,GREEN,WHITE,BLACK};

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 Every enumerated constant has an integer value. If the programmer does not specify
otherwise, the first constant will have the value 0, and the values for the remaining
constants will count up from the initial value by 1. thus in our previous example
RED=0, BLUE=1, GREEN=3, WHITE=4 and BLACK=5
 But one can also assign different numbers for each.
E.g.: enum COLOR{RED=100,BLUE,GREEN=500,WHITE,BLACK};

Where RED will have 100 and BLUE will have 101 while GREEN will have 500, WHITE 501
and BLACK 502.

Expressions and Statements

 In C++, a statement controls the sequence of execution, evaluates an
expression, or does nothing (the null statement).
 All C++ statements end with a semicolon.
E.g.: x = a + b;

The meaning is: assign the value of the sum of a and b to x.

 White spaces: white spaces characters (spaces, tabs, new lines) can’t be seen
and generally ignored in statements. White spaces should be used to make
programs more readable and easier to maintain.
 Blocks: a block begins with an opening French brace ({) and ends with a
closing French brace (}).
 Expressions: an expression is a computation which yields a value. It can also
be viewed as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns a value).
E.g.: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.

 Some examples of an expression:

E.g.1:

3.2 returns the value 3.2

PI float constant that returns the value 3.14 if the constant is defined.

secondsPerMinute integer constant that returns 60 if the constant is

declared

E.g.2: complicated expressions:

x = a + b;

y = x = a + b;

The second line is evaluated in the following order:

1. add a to b.
2. assign the result of the expression a + b to x.
3. assign the result of the assignment expression x = a + b to y.
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Operators
 An operator is a symbol that makes the machine to take an action.
 Different Operators act on one or more operands and can also have different
kinds of operators.
 C++ provides several categories of operators, including the following:
Assignment operator
Arithmetic operator
Relational operator
Logical operator
Increment/decrement operator
Conditional operator
Comma operator
The size of operator
Explicit type casting operators, etc

Assignment operator (=)

 The assignment operator causes the operand on the left side of the assignment
statement to have its value changed to the value on the right side of the statement.
 Syntax: Operand1=Operand2;
 Operand1 is always a variable
 Operand2 can be one or combination of:
 A literal constant: Eg: x=12;
 A variable: Eg: x=y;
 An expression: Eg: x=y+2;

Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=)
 Compound assignment operator is the combination of the assignment operator with
other operators like arithmetic and bit wise operators.
 The assignment operator has a number of variants, obtained by combining it with
other operators.
E.g.:

value += increase; is equivalent to value = value + increase;

a -= 5; is equivalent to a = a – 5;

a /= b; is equivalent to a = a / b;

price *= units + 1 is equivalent to price = price * (units + 1);

 And the same is true for the rest.

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Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %)

 Except for remainder or modulo (%), all other arithmetic operators can accept a mix of
integers and real operands. Generally, if both operands are integers then, the result will
be an integer. However, if one or both operands are real then the result will be real.
 When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers, then the division is
performed as an integer division and not the normal division we are used to.
 Integer division always results in an integer outcome.
 Division of integer by integer will not round off to the next integer
E.g.:

9/2 gives 4 not 4.5

-9/2 gives -4 not -4.5

 To obtain a real division when both operands are integers, you should cast one of the
operands to be real.
E.g.:

int cost = 100;

Int volume = 80;

Double unitPrice = cost/(double)volume;

 The module(%) is an operator that gives the remainder of a division of two integer
values. For instance, 13 % 3 is calculated by integer dividing 13 by 3 to give an outcome
of 4 and a remainder of 1; the result is therefore 1.
E.g.:

a = 11 % 3

a is 2

Relational operator (==, !=, > , <, >=, <=)

 In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions, we can use the relational
operator.
 The result of a relational operator is a bool value that can only be true or false according
to the result of the comparison.
E.g.:

(7 = = 5) would return false or returns 0

(5 > 4) would return true or returns 1

 The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number. Characters are valid
operands since they are represented by numeric values. For E.g.:
‘A’ < ‘F’ would return true or 1. it is like (65 < 70)
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Logical Operators (!, &&, ||)

 Logical negation (!) is a unary operator, which negates the logical value of its operand.
If its operand is non zero, it produce 0, and if it is 0 it produce 1.
 Logical AND (&&) produces 0 if one or both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise it
produces 1.
 Logical OR (||) produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise, it produces
1.
E.g.:

!20 //gives 0

10 && 5 //gives 1

10 || 5.5 //gives 1

10 && 0 // gives 0

N.B. In general, any non-zero value can be used to represent the logical true, whereas
only zero represents the logical false.

Increment/Decrement Operators: (++) and (--)

 The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide a convenient way
of, respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a numeric variable.
E.g.:

if a was 10 and if a++ is executed then a will automatically changed to 11.

Prefix and Postfix:

 The prefix type is written before the variable. Eg (++ myAge), whereas the postfix type
appears after the variable name (myAge ++).
 Prefix and postfix operators can not be used at once on a single variable: Eg: ++age-- or -
-age++ or ++age++ or - - age - - is invalid
 In a simple statement, either type may be used. But in complex statements, there will be
a difference.
 The prefix operator is evaluated before the assignment, and the postfix operator is
evaluated after the assignment.
E.g.

int k = 5;

(auto increment prefix) y= ++k + 10; //gives 16 for y

(auto increment postfix) y= k++ + 10; //gives 15 for y

(auto decrement prefix) y= --k + 10; //gives 14 for y

(auto decrement postfix) y= k-- + 10; //gives 15 for y

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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

Conditional Operator (?:)

 The conditional operator takes three operands. It has the general form:
Syntax:

operand1 ? operand2 : operand3

 First operand1 is a relational expression and will be evaluated. If the result of the
evaluation is non zero (which means TRUE), then operand2 will be the final result.
Otherwise, operand3 is the final result.
E.g.: General Example

Z=(X<Y? X : Y)

This expression means that if X is less than Y the value of X will be assigned to Z otherwise (if
X>=Y) the value of Y will be assigned to Z.

E.g.:

int m=1,n=2,min;

min = (m < n ? m : n);

The value stored in min is 1.

E.g.:

(7 = = 5 ? 4: 3) returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5

Comma Operator (,)

 Multiple expressions can be combined into one expression using the comma operator.
 The comma operator takes two operands. Operand1,Operand2
 The comma operator can be used during multiple declaration, for the condition
operator and for function declaration, etc
 It first evaluates the left operand and then the right operand, and returns the value of
the latter as the final outcome.
E.g.

int m,n,min;

int mCount = 0, nCount = 0;

min = (m < n ? (mCount++ , m) : (nCount++ , n));

 Here, when m is less than n, mCount++ is evaluated and the value of m is stored in
min. otherwise, nCount++ is evaluated and the value of n is stored in min.

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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

The sizeof() Operator

 This operator is used for calculating the size of any data item or type.
 It takes a single operand (e.g. 100) and returns the size of the specified entity in bytes.
The outcome is totally machine dependent.
E.g.:

a = sizeof(char)

b = sizeof(int)

c = sizeof(1.55) etc

Explicit type casting operators

 Type casting operators allows you to convert a datum of a given type to another data
type.
E.g.

int i;

float f = 3.14;

i = (int)f;  equivalent to i = int(f);

Then variable i will have a value of 3 ignoring the decimal point

Operator Precedence
 The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is significant and is
determined by precedence rules. Operators in higher levels take precedence over
operators in lower levels.

Precedence Table:

Level Operator Order

Highest sizeof()++ -- (pre fix) Right to left

* / % Left to right

+ - Left to right

< <= > >= Left to right

== != Left to right

&& Left to right

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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

|| Left to right

? : Left to right

= ,+=, -=, *=, /=,^= ,%=, &= ,|= ,<<= ,>>= Right to left

++ -- (postfix) Right to left

, Left to right

E.g.

a==b+c*d

c * d is evaluated first because * has a higher precedence than + and = =.

The result is then added to b because + has a higher precedence than = =

And then == is evaluated.

 Precedence rules can be overridden by using brackets.

E.g. rewriting the above expression as:

a = = (b + c) * d causes + to be evaluated before *.

 Operators with the same precedence level are evaluated in the order specified by the
column on the table of precedence rule.
E.g. a = b += c the evaluation order is right to left, so the first b += c is evaluated
followed by a = b.

Debugging and programming errors

When we attempt to produce an efficient program we should take sufficient care to
maintain clarity and readability of a program. The program errors are called bugs. The art
of locating and eliminating bugs or errors is called debugging.

There are actually three different kind of errors:

 compile-time errors: identified by the compiler, includes

o missing brackets
o undeclared variables
(e.g. misspelling variable name in one place)
o incorrect use of single or double quotes
o invalid identifier names
 run-time errors: attempts by the program to do something illegal while executing,
can include
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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

o trying to divide by zero (will crash)

o using or printing a variable value before initializing it (usually will not crash,
just give very weird results)
 logic errors: the implementation doesn't correctly solve the problem, includes any
form of miscalculation or incorrect ordering of instructions

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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

Worksheet 2

For each of the problems, write a C++ code to perform the required task. Your program
should be based on the flow chart you’ve drawn in the first worksheet.

1) Receive a number and determine whether it is odd or even.

2) Obtain two numbers from the keyboard, and determine and display which (if either) is
the larger of the two numbers.
3) Receive 3 numbers and display them in ascending order from smallest to largest
4) Add the numbers from 1 to 100 and display the sum
5) Add the even numbers between 0 and any positive integer number given by the user.
6) Find the average of two numbers given by the user.
7) Find the average, maximum, minimum, and sum of three numbers given by the user.
8) Find the area of a circle where the radius is provided by the user.
9) Swap the contents of two variables using a third variable.
10) Swap the content of two variables without using a third variable.
11) Read an integer value from the keyboard and display a message indicating if this number
is odd or even.
12) read 10 integers from the keyboard in the range 0 - 100, and count how many of them are
larger than 50, and display this result
13) Take an integer from the user and display the factorial of that number

Spotting errors
For each of the following programs, spot the flaws:
Program 1:
// this program will calculate the area of a square

#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
int area; / store calculated area of square
int side; / input length of side of square
cout << "How wide is the square?" << endl;
cin >> side;
area = side * side;
cout << "The square has area area" << endl;
}
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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

Program 2:
// this program prints information about the author
void main()
{
cout << 'This program was written by Wubet N';
cout << 'He didn't do a great job of it, ' << endl;
cout << 'It won't even compile';
}

Program 3:
// this program calculates user age
#include <iostream.h>
int main()
int currentyear;
int birthyear;
cout << "Enter the year you were born" << endl;
cin >> birthyear;
cout << "Enter the current year" << endl;
cin >> currentyear;
age = currentyear - birthyear;
cout << "This year you will be" << age << endl;
}

Program 4:
// this program gets the user to enter three
// integers and prints them out lined up on
// three separate lines, e.g.
// 17
// 1024
// 206
#include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
// variables for the three integers
int firstint; int secondint; int thirdint;
cout << "Please enter three integers" << endl;
cin << firstint
cin << secondint
cin << thirdint
cout << "The three integers are:;
cout << setw(5) << firstint;
cout << setw(4) << secondint;
cout << setw(3) << thirdint;
return 0;
}
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Fundamentals of Programming I (Comp231) Chapter Two: C++ Basics

Program 5:

// given the radius of a circle,

// this program calculates its circumference,
// and prints its area to three decimal places

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
const int Pi = 3.1415
void mian()
(
int radius; // input circle radius
int circumference; // calculated circumference
float area; // calculated area
cout << "Enter the integer radius of the circle";
cout << endl;
cin >> radius;
circumference = 2 * radius * Pi;
area = Pi * raduis * radius;

cout << "The circumference is " << circumference;

cout << ", the area is ";
cout << setprecision(2) << area << endl;
)

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