10/18/2023

Chapter 7

Learning

EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY in Modules DAVID G. MYERS | C. NATHAN DEWALL

How Do We Learn? (part 1)

• Learning: Process of acquiring through

experience new and relatively enduring
information or behaviors
• Associative learning: Learning that certain
events occur together. The events may be two
stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a
response and its consequences (as in operant
conditioning).

How Do We Learn? (part 2)

• Stimulus: An event or situation that evokes a response.

• Conditioning: The process of learning associations,
which takes two main forms:
• Classical conditioning: We associate stimuli that we do not
control, and we automatically respond (exhibiting respondent
behaviors).
• Operant conditioning: We associate a response (our
behavior) and its consequence (producing operant behaviors).
• Cognitive learning: The acquisition of mental
information, whether by observing events, by watching
others, or through language.
• Observational learning: A form of cognitive learning that lets
us learn from others’ experiences.

1
 10/18/2023

Classical Conditioning (part 1)

• Ivan Pavlov’s early twentieth-century

experiments are psychology’s most famous
research.
• Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which
one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events.
• Behaviorism:
• Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2)
studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
• Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not
with (2).

Classical Conditioning (part 2)

Classical Conditioning (part 3)

• Neutral stimulus (NS): In classical conditioning, a

stimulus that elicits no response before
conditioning.
• Unconditioned response (UR): In classical
conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned
stimulus (such as food in the mouth).
• Unconditioned stimulus (US): In classical
conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—
naturally and automatically—triggers an
unconditioned response.

2
 10/18/2023

Classical Conditioning (part 4)

• Conditioned response (CR): In classical

conditioning, a learned response to a previously
neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): In classical
conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus, that,
after association with an unconditioned stimulus,
comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• For three decades, Pavlov’s research
demonstrated associative learning, exploring five
major conditioning processes: acquisition,
extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization,
and discrimination.

Classical Conditioning (part 5)

• Acquisition
• Initial stage
• When one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the
conditioned response
• Extinction
• Diminishing of a conditioned response
• Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned
stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous recovery
• Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished
conditioned response

Idealized Curve of Acquisition, Extinction, and

Spontaneous Recovery

3
 10/18/2023

Classical Conditioning (part 6)

• Generalization
• Tendency, once a response
has been conditioned, for
stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit
similar responses
• Discrimination
• Learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned
stimulus (which predicts the
unconditioned stimulus) and
other irrelevant stimuli

10

Generalization

• Pavlov
demonstrated
generalization by
attaching miniature
vibrators to various
parts of a dog’s
body.

11

Pavlov’s Legacy

• The consensus among psychologists is that

classical conditioning is a basic form of learning.
• Why should we care that dogs can be conditioned
to the sound of a tone? Many other responses to
many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in
many other organisms.
• Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can
be studied objectively.
• Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning
that applies to all species.

12

4
 10/18/2023

Applications of Classical Conditioning

(part 1)
• Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human
health and well-being:
• Areas of consciousness
• Motivation
• Emotion
• Health
• Psychological disorders
• Therapy
• Addicts are counseled to avoid stimuli (for example,
people and settings) that may trigger cravings.
• Pairing a particular taste with a drug that influences
immune responses may eventually lead to immune
response from the taste alone.

13

Applications of Classical Conditioning

(part 2)
• Pavlov’s work provided a basis for Watson’s
ideas that human emotions and behaviors,
though biologically influenced, are mainly a
bundle of conditioned responses.
• Watson applied classical conditioning principles
in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate
how specific fears might be conditioned.
• Watson boasted that he could take any healthy
infant and train the child for any career
specialization, regardless of any inborn traits,
but later admitted to “going beyond his facts.”

14

Operant Conditioning (part 1)

• Operant conditioning: A type of learning in

which behavior is strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a
punisher.
• Operant behavior: Behavior that operates on
the environment to produce rewarding or
punishing stimuli.
• In contrast, classical conditioning involves
respondent behavior—automatic responses to a
stimulus.

15

5
 10/18/2023

Operant Conditioning (part 2)

• Behavior operates on the environment to

produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.
• Organisms associate their own actions with
consequences.
• Actions followed by reinforcement increase;
those followed by punishments often decrease.

16

Skinner’s Experiments (part 1)

• B. F. Skinner (1904–1990): Modern

behaviorism’s most influential and controversial
figure
• Expanded on Edward L. Thorndike’s law of effect,
which states that rewarded behavior tends to recur
• Developed behavioral technology that revealed
principles of behavior control
• Designed and used an operant chamber (Skinner
box) for experiments that included a bar (a lever) that
an animal presses (or a key or disc that the animal
pecks) to release a reward of food or water, as well
as a device that records these responses.

17

Skinner’s Experiments (part 2)

18

6
 10/18/2023

Skinner’s Experiments (part 3)

• By shaping animals’
natural behaviors,
Skinner was able to teach
these animals unnatural
behaviors (such as
teaching pigeons to walk
in a figure 8, play Ping-
Pong, and keep a missile
on course by pecking at a
screen target).
• Reinforcement: Any
event that strengthens the
behavior it follows.

19

Shaping Behavior

• Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced

and shaped.
• Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward
closer and closer approximations of the desired
behavior.
• With the method of successive approximations,
responses that are increasingly closer to the
final desired behavior are rewarded; all other
responses are ignored.

20

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcement: Increases behaviors

by presenting positive reinforcers.
• A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when
presented after a response, strengthens the
response.
• Negative reinforcement: Increases behaviors
by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.
• A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when
removed after a response, strengthens the response.
(Note that it is not punishment.)

21

7
 10/18/2023

Ways to Increase Behavior

Operant Conditioning Term Description Examples

Positive reinforcement Add a desirable stimulus Pet a dog that comes
when you call it; pay
someone for work done.
Negative reinforcement Remove an aversive Take painkillers to end
stimulus pain; fasten seatbelt to
end loud beeping.

22

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

• Primary and conditioned reinforcers

• Primary reinforcer: An unlearned, innately reinforcing
stimulus, such as one that satisfies biological needs
• Conditioned (secondary): A stimulus that gains
power through association with primary reinforcer
• Immediate and delayed reinforcers
• Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior
• Delayed: Involves a time delay between the desired
response and delivery of the reward

23

Reinforcement Schedules (part 1)

• Reinforcement schedule: A pattern that

defines how often a desired response will be
reinforced
• Continuous reinforcement schedule:
Reinforcing the desired response every time it
occurs
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
schedule: Reinforcing a response only part of
the time; results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater resistance to
extinction than does continuous reinforcement

24

8
 10/18/2023

Reinforcement Schedules (part 2)

• Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcing a response

only after a specified number of responses
• Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcing a
response after an unpredictable number of
responses
• Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcing a
response only after a specified time has
elapsed
• Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcing a
response at unpredictable time intervals

25

Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

26

Reinforcement Schedules (part 3)

Fixed Variable
Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after After an unpredictable number:
every nth behavior, such as buy 10 reinforcement after a random number
coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers of behaviors, as when playing slot
per product unit produced machines or fly fishing
Interval Every so often: reinforcement for Unpredictably often: reinforcement for
behavior after a fixed time, such as behavior after a random amount of time,
Tuesday discount prices as when checking our phone for
a message

27

9
 10/18/2023

Punishment (part 1)

• Punishment administers an undesirable

consequence or withdraws something desirable in
an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior
(e.g., a child’s disobedience).
• Positive punishment: Presenting a negative
consequence after an undesired behavior is
exhibited, making that behavior less likely to
happen in the future.
• Negative punishment: Removing a desired
stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is
exhibited, resulting in reducing that behavior in the
future.

28

Punishment (part 2)

Fixed Variable
Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after After an unpredictable number:
every nth behavior, such as buy 10 reinforcement after a random number
coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers of behaviors, as when playing slot
per product unit produced machines or fly fishing
Interval Every so often: reinforcement for Unpredictably often: reinforcement for
behavior after a fixed time, such as behavior after a random amount of time,
Tuesday discount prices as when checking our phone for
a message

29

Four Major Drawbacks of Physical

Punishment
• The punished behavior is suppressed, but not
forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively)
reinforce parents’ punishing behavior.
• Punishment teaches discrimination among
situations—perhaps only selectively decreasing
the undesired behavior.
• Punishment can teach fear.
• Physical punishment may increase aggression
by modeling violence as a way to cope with
problems.

30

10
 10/18/2023

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• At school: Electronic technologies and adaptive

learning software used in teaching and learning
have helped realize Skinner’s goal of individually
paced, customized instruction with immediate
feedback.
• In sports: Behavioral methods are used to shape
behavior in athletic performance.
• At work: Rewards have been successfully used to
increase productivity and skill development.
• At home: Basic rules of shaping are used in
parenting, and to reinforce our own desired
behaviors.

31

Reinforcing Desired Behaviors and

Extinguishing Undesired Behaviors
• State a realistic goal in measurable terms.
• Decide how, when, and where you will work
toward your goal.
• Monitor how often you engage in your desired
behavior.
• Reinforce the desired behavior.
• Reduce the rewards gradually.

32

Contrasting Classical and Operant

Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Basic idea Learning associations between events we do Learning associations between our
not control. behavior and its consequences.
Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment.
Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and Associating a response with a
becomes CS. consequence (reinforcer or punisher).
Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly Responding decreases when
presented alone. reinforcement stops.
Spontaneous The reappearance, after a rest period, of an The reappearance, after a rest period,
recovery extinguished CR. of an extinguished response.
Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to Responses learned in one situation
the CS. occurring in other, similar situations.
Discrimination Learning to distinguish between a CS and Learning that some responses, but not
other stimuli that do not signal a US. others, will be reinforced.

33

11
 10/18/2023

Biology, Cognition, and Learning

34

Biological Limits on Classical Conditioning

(part 1)
• Biological constraints: Evolved biological
tendencies that predispose animals’ behavior and
learning, making certain behaviors easier to learn
than others.
• Example: Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion research
• Animals, including humans, seem biologically
prepared to learn some associations rather than
others.
• Conditioning is stronger when the CS is
ecologically relevant.
• The genetic predisposition to associate a CS with
an US that follows predictably and immediately is
adaptive.

35

Biological Limits on Classical Conditioning

(part 2)
• Nature limits species’ capacity for operant
conditioning.
• Biological constraints predispose organisms to
learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
• Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to
biologically predisposed patterns.

36

12
 10/18/2023

Cognition and Classical Conditioning

(part 1)
• Mental information that guides behavior is
acquired through cognitive learning.
• Animals learn the predictability of an event
(Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).
• The more predictable the association between a
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus,
the stronger the conditioned response.
• It’s as if the animal learns an expectancy—an
awareness of how likely it is that the US will
occur.

37

Cognition and Classical Conditioning

(part 2)
• Skinner acknowledged the biological underpinnings
of behavior but has been criticized for discounting
the importance of cognition.
• Evidence of cognitive processes
• Development of cognitive maps in rats (latent learning
that becomes evident only when there is an incentive to
demonstrate it)
• Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior
effectively for its own sake
• Extrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to
receive promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment

38

Cognition and Classical Conditioning

(part 3)

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Biological influences Natural predispositions constrain Organisms most easily
what stimuli and responses can learn behaviors similar to
easily be associated. their natural behaviors;
unnatural behaviors
instinctively drift back
toward natural ones.
Cognitive influences Organisms develop an Organisms develop an
expectation that a CS signals the expectation that a response
arrival of a US. will be reinforced or
punished; they also exhibit
latent learning, without
reinforcement.

39

13
 10/18/2023

Learning by Observation

• Observational learning: Higher animals,

especially humans, learn without direct
experience by watching and imitating others.
• Albert Bandura is the pioneering researcher of
observational learning
• His Bobo doll experiment showed direct imitation by
children of adult behavior.
• Modeling: The process of observing and
imitating a specific behavior.
• Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
are experienced by watching models.

40

The Bobo Doll Experiment

41

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

• Mirror neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that some

scientists believe fire when a person performs
certain actions or observes another doing so;
provide a neural basis for everyday imitation and
observational learning.
• The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may
enable imitation and empathy.
• In humans, imitation is pervasive: So strong is the
human predisposition to learn from watching adults
that children will overimitate, copying even
irrelevant adult actions.
• The brain response to observing others makes
emotions contagious.

42

14
 10/18/2023

Experienced and Imagined Pain in the Brain

43

Applications of Observational Learning

(part 1)
• Prosocial effects
• Prosocial modeling of behavior can have prosocial
effects.
• Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication,
sales, and customer service skills in new employees.
• Modeling nonviolent, helpful behavior prompts similar behavior
in others.
• Research across seven countries showed that viewing
prosocial media increased later helping behavior.
• Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong internalized
conscience as preschoolers.
• Models are most effective when they include consistent
actions and words.

44

Applications of Observational Learning

(part 2)
• Antisocial effects
• Abusive parents may have aggressive children.
• Watching TV and videos may teach children:
• Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.
• Free and easy sex doesn’t have later consequences.
• Men should be tough; women should be gentle.
• The violence-viewing effect is demonstrated when
viewing media violence triggers violent behavior.
• Watching cruelty may foster indifference.

45

15