MAPPABLE DATA

Before we begin the cartographic process, we should ask ourselves why we create a map in the first place.
Normally, we have a reason to generate a map. Such a reason may be to communicate graphically
something that we know (personal knowledge) to someone else (public knowledge), the reader of the
map. We create maps for many of the same reasons that we take photographs, send emails to friends, or
post a short movie on the Web. We want to show some-thing or tell something to someone else about
things we’ve seen or things we know, or we want to present a map of our area. We also create maps to
visually display geographic phenomena. A map becomes a form of communication similar to the written
or spoken word.

Spatial data is described by (1) its characteristics of location, form, and time, and (2) its level of
measurement hierarchy. Characteristics of location tell us about the manner in which the data are
distributed, that is, do the data distributions exist as points, lines, or areas. Form describes the data
characteristics according to its inherent nature, such as are the data qualitative or quantitative, discrete or
continuous, totals or derived. The characteristics of the spatial data dictate the type of thematic map used.
Data measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio) categorizes the data ac-cording to a hierarchical
structure.

THE NATURE OF DATA

Data are facts observed or measured from which conclusions can be drawn. Geographic data are selected
features (usually numerical) that geographers use to describe or measure, directly or indirectly,
phenomena that have a spatial quality. For example, the phenomenon of climate can be described in part
by looking at precipitation data. The use of thematic maps allows the user to understand the where, what,
and when factors of spatial data. These three represent the nature of all data as they are tied to location,
characteristics, and time. These locations may be at a point, along a line, or over an area. Their spatial
components are generally considered as zero-dimensional (point), one-dimensional (line), two-
dimensional (area), three-dimensional (volume), and four-dimensional (space-time continuum).

A city, for example, may be a point phenomenon at the macroscale but can be considered to have two-
dimensional qualities when examined at micro levels. At one level of investigation, a road may be a link
between points (one-dimensional), but at micro levels the road can have the two-dimensional, areal
qualities of length and width. Examples of volume phenomena include landforms, oceans, and the
atmosphere.
Data Characteristics

A. Location

Observations of data may be found as a point, line, or area feature.

Point Data. Data that it is applied to a specific location and that has a unique geospatial coordinate set (x–
y)— or eastings and northings (which are actually y–x). Within a particular topic, population for example,
there will be only a single value for each point. The data value is referred to as the attribute, the location
(point) as a node or location ID, and the number of individual points as the observations of the data set.

Line Data. A series of nodes or points can be used to define a path and the attributes are used to define the
characteristics of that path. For example, transportation flow maps are generated by a series of data
collection points along a street or highway. These points are selected by the traffic engineer as
representative of travel along a particular corridor. By determining how many vehicles pass that point in a
given time period and then associating that point to the other col-lection locations, one can determine the
flow volume of vehicles per day along a roadway. Therefore, a set of point data attributes is used to
create line data. Data can be inferred only along the length of the line based upon the attributes
determined to exist at various points along that line. The data would apply to the length of the line
without spatial variation along the line.

Area Data. Attributes that exist over a two-dimensional extent (polygon) comprise area data. In certain
instances we are able to determine the attribute from aerial photography or other remote sensing
techniques. The area of the polygon in square kilometers of a lake or land in forest can be determined
based upon the scale of the photograph or image. The polygon area is frequently generated automatically
by the GIS or mapping software whereas the area data are assigned, observed, or measured for that
polygon. Examples: The government collects statistics that tell us how much land area is associated with
a particular land use. By knowing the total number of acres in farms and the total bushels of corn
produced by those farms, we can calculate an attribute of bushels per acre. Other common examples of
area data include population density of people per square mile.
 B. Form

Data form establishes the contextual characteristics in which the data are found. Three context forms
permit the user to understand the details of the data characteristics. These forms include either
quantitative or qualitative, discrete or continuous, and total or derived data.

Qualitative/Quantitative Context. The qualitative attribute of the data describes the inherent nature of the
feature, for example, house, church, railroad, swamp. These features may appear as point, line, or area
locations and are described according to their cultural or physical form. Quantitative data utilize
numerical values to indicate the differences in attributes according to some measurement scale, for
example, feet above sea level, total population, or degrees Celsius. The quantitative data form also applies
to any of the locational characteristics.

Spatial Context. Refers to data distribution. Point data is unique in form and represents a value that
applies to a specific node within the spatial frame-work. Data may be considered as unique if the node
represents a single x–y coordinate location or if the node represents a centroid identifying a line or area
component. That is, both temperature data measured at a weather station and the total population of a
county or other enumeration unit are considered as discrete data (Vector Data; data represented suing
basic geometric primitives)

Non-unique data are those data that are considered to be of a continuous form. Examples of continuous
data include most weather-related variables and the topographic surface. Continuous data are areal and
exist everywhere. It is impractical to measure these variables at every position so we utilize a sampling
procedure to collect data at various locations within the areal extent. These data may then be displayed as
a computed continuous variable using interpolation procedures (Raster Data represented using grids,
tessellations or pixels)

Attribute Context. This data form is characterized as either a total or derived form. Total data, may be
observed, collected, or measured at a location so that it has a single value. That value is associated only
with the location for which it was acquired. Derived data are represented by an attribute definition that
indicates the data have been mathematically calculated. This is frequently done to normalize (standardize)
the data so as to either adjust for the impact of area/size or to represent the data as a rate or percentage.
Derived data are also used to make comparisons, for example, the variation in crime rates per county.

C. Time

It is also important to recognize that all data are time specific. Therefore, time is a necessary attribute to a
data set. We display data on a map and we tell the map reader the subject matter being presented. It is also
necessary to communicate the time period for which the data applies. Temporal data are used either to
graph sequential (longitudinal) changes in values for a location or to determine magnitude of change
between time period one and time period two. For example, the change in population between 1960 and
2005 may be mapped as a percentage change between the two time periods.
 Characteristic form of data

Data Transformations

The cartographer will frequently modify the data prior to its display. Data collected or imported may be
appropriate as nonspatial tabular data and yet not be ready for cartographic applications. In order to
prepare the data for mapping, the cartographer will manipulate either the attribute data or the geographic
space to which it applies. Three forms of transformations which may occur prior to mapping include the
modification of scale, form, or geometric boundary.

a. Scale

The first is the modification of the data based upon changes in map scale. Data that may be appropriate
for a large scale map, such as 1:24,000, may not be appropriate for a small scale map, such as
1:1,000,000. If we are converting the scale of display from the large-scale to the small-scale map, the data
may need to be aggregated. Thus, data that originally was displayed according to census tracts may
require aggregating to county values at the smaller scale. E.g Neighbor-hood statistics may be combined
to represent city statistics. The data transformations include a change in the definition of the data location.
Data that originally was applied to a point location may now be aggregated and applied to an area location
Note: The transformation of data when changing to a larger scale presents different problems. Data that
are collected for a larger area in order to produce the small-scale map will appear highly simplified when
retained for the depiction at the larger scale. A disaggregation of the data requires a greater effort. Census
data collected at the county level may also be available at the census tract level. If the data cannot easily
be disaggregated, a return to the original data source may be required in order to acquire more appropriate
data for the new map scale. This may require revisiting the original data source for acquisition of more
refined data.

b. Form

A second type of transformation of the data may be associated with the data form. Data that are collected
at a series of random sampling points may be used to transform the data from discrete point data to the
display of the data as a continuous variable. Such a transformation is common when mapping surfaces.
Data that occur at random locations will require a transformation to continuous data via interpolation.

c. Boundary Changes

One problem frequently overlooked when comparing data in a temporal sequence is that the boundary of
an enumeration unit may vary in different time periods. This is commonly referred to as the Modifiable
Area Unit Problem (MAUP). Just as important as it is to compare data of the same data form, it is equally
important to compare data covering comparable areas. E.g. The manner in which the Census Bureau
defines census tracts and their boundaries often changes from one decennial census to another. Some
boundary changes are minor. Other times the changes are significant. You will even find situations where
the boundary remains the same but the census tract number is changed so that the tract number may
appear in sequential censuses but applies to different polygons. As a cartographer, you must be aware that
such boundary definitions and locations may be different between the dates of comparison.
DATA MEASUREMENT

Data measurement is an attempt to structure observations about reality. Ways of doing this can be
grouped into four levels, depending on the mathematical attributes of the observed facts. A given
measurement system can be assigned to one of these four levels: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio,
listed in increasing order of sophistication of measurement. Methods of cartographic symbolization are
chosen specially for representing geographic phenomena or data at these levels of measurement. The
measurement scale will also play an important role in identifying the thematic map type to be used.

a. Nominal

Nominal scaling is the simplest level of data measurement, sometimes considered a qualitative
measurement to be descriptive; answering the question of what is being mapped. An example would be
the nominal identification of wheat regions, corn regions, and soybean regions. Each crop region is
distinct; arithmetic operations between the regions are not possible at this level. Political party affiliation
(Democrat, Independent, Republican), sex (male, female), and response (yes, no) are other examples. At
this level of measurement, mathematical operations cannot be performed between classes. Equality/
inequality between groups according to their classification or identification or the dominance spatially of
one group versus another may be ascertained using this data measurement level.

b. Ordinal

The major structure of ordinal measurement is a hierarchy of rank. Objects or events are arranged from
least to most or vice versa, and the information obtainable is of the “greater than” or “less than” variety.
Ordinal measurement provides no way of determining how much distance separates the items in the array.

Examples of the ordinal measurement are social class, social power (more, less), and agreement (strongly
agree, strongly disagree). We may also utilize the ordinal class in refining a nominal description based
upon importance of the category. Whereas, nominally we identify a linear feature as a road, we use the
ordinal measurement to differentiate between a major road or minor road, an inter-state highway or a
national highway. Other examples would include the distinction between a seaport versus a major sea-
port or a forest versus a mixed deciduous forest.

c. Interval

At this measurement, we can array the events in order of rank and know the distance between ranks.
Observations with numerical scores at the interval measurement are important in geographical analysis
because data at this level are needed to perform fundamental statistical tests having predictive power.
Units on an interval scale are equal throughout; that is, one degree on the Fahrenheit scale is assumed to
be the same regardless of whether it’s at 22–23 or 78–79 degrees.

Magnitude scales at the interval level have no natural origin; any beginning point may be used. The
classic example is the Fahrenheit temperature scale. There are no absolute values associated with interval
measurement; they are relative. In the interval approach, units are agreed upon by researchers and are
assumed to be standard from one set of conditions to another. Variables at the interval scale do not have
absolute zero as a starting point.

d. Ratio

Like interval, ratio measurement involves ordering events with known distances separating the events.
The difference is that ratio magnitudes are absolute, having a known starting point. This scale of
measurement has a zero (absence of a magnitude) as its starting point. The Kelvin absolute temperature
scale is an example here. Other examples include weight (20 lbs is twice as heavy as 10 lbs), and distance
(100 miles is twice as far as 50 miles). Elevation above sea level is another ratio scale where the average
elevation of sea level is set as zero. The ratio approach is important to geography because more
sophisticated statistical tests can be performed using this level of measurement.

Map Symbols

The selection of symbols is one of the more interesting tasks for the cartographic designer. The choice is
wide, and no firm rules prevail. Symbol selection, however, is increasingly based on a compelling system
of logic tied to both the type of geographic phenomenon mapped and certain graphic primitives or
variables.

Symbols are the graphic marks used to encode the thematic distribution onto the map. From a vast array of
symbols having different dimensions, the cartographer selects the symbol that best represents the
geographic phenomena. Fortunately, the task is reduced somewhat by controlling factors, such as
cartographic convention and the inability of most map readers to easily understand the more complex
symbols that might be chosen.

The three generally recognized cartographic symbol types are directly tied to the data characteristics of
location. These point, line, and area symbols continue to be the standard in thematic mapping. The use of
GIS and advanced mapping software has given the cartographer the power to generate maps in either two-
or three-dimensional design. Maps that use the three-dimensional design display either volumetric data or
surface phenomena.

Point data (for example, cities at the appropriate scale) are customarily mapped by point symbols such as
dots, or scaled circles. Roads, which are linear phenomena, can be mapped by line symbols; geographic
phenomena having areal extent (lakes, countries, nations) can be mapped with areal symbolization—solid
fills of varying hue, intensity, or value, or sometimes patterns. Geographical landforms have been mapped
by a form of area symbolization called hypsometric tinting: areas between selected elevation boundaries
are rendered in various color shades. Elevation, also a 3-D form, is mapped by contours of elevation,
which are 2-D line symbols. The use of three-dimensional mapping has become a standard form of map
symbol in which to represent volume phenomena

Symbolization choice is enhanced through careful consideration of the visual variables.

 The complexity of map symbols

Visual Variables

The way we use symbols to display spatial phenomena is to create a graphic scene in which the reader
observes and reacts to the individual components. These symbols serve as visual variables from which the
reader gathers information and interprets the map.

Size

Size is used to imply relative levels of importance. Proportional symbols are used in which the size of the
geometric form is scaled proportionally to the data. Proportional circles, squares, and other geometric
forms as well as irregular shapes like cartograms are frequently used to portray variations in data through
the use of varying size of the symbol. Line thickness is also a representation of size and thus
communicates the nature of flow data.

Shape

Shape is used to (1) reveal similar elements, and therefore, different elements and (2) to facilitate external
identification, through shape symbolization Thus, we select point symbols to represent a graphic display
of the actual entity being mapped. For example, we use squares with a small flag on top to represent
schools, those with crosses to represent churches, crossed pickaxes to represent mines, and countless
other symbol shapes that we have grown to recognize by cartographic conventions. Carto-graphic
traditions have established certain shape-object relationship. For example, the use of a star to represent a
capital or squares to represent buildings is recognized by the most novices of map users.

Orientation

The order of things on the landscape should not be changed to increase the interpretation of information.
The orientation of building symbols and symbols of other structures should be such that it represents their
actual position as closely as possible. A similar orientation creates an essence of order and thus similarity,
misalignment of symbols can achieve the opposite affect so that objects stand out on the map landscape.

Texture

Texture can be used in the area symbolization to help communicate areas where the landscape is
somewhat coarse or smooth. The use of aerial photographs in a map layer helps to create this texture of
the surface. E.g. The upper surface of a forest canopy is coarse when compared to a plowed field. We can
also design symbols through the use of texture. The variation in line or dot density per linear
measurement along with the variation in dot or line size will create a (visual) texture variation.

Saturation and Value

Hue is the name we apply to a particular color. Red, blue, or green are created by a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths that separate these colors out from one another. We can use
hue to represent a large variety of symbols. Certain hues, through the establishment of certain
cartographic conventions, are reserved for symbolizing specific features. Blue for water, red for roads or
areas of building omission, green for vegetation are just a few hues that have become standard practices in
symbolization. When designing thematic maps, the selection of color is one of the most exciting activities
available to the cartographer.

Saturation is thought of as a level of brightness of the hue where value is considered as a sequence of
steps between light and dark. The combination of these two variables provides the cartographer with the
capability of designing quality maps using either grayscale or a color model.
 The visual variables

CARTOGRAPHIC ERROR

There are many places where inaccuracies can enter in the mapping process. The kinds of error that are
encountered in creating a map include source error, processing error, and design error.

Source errors are those errors that are found in the data collection, compilation, and date entry
procedures. As a mapping project begins, a search is conducted to determine the existence of maps (both
digital and paper) for the study area and data topic. Often these maps are used as reference or a base on
which other information is compiled or placed. The use of base maps is quite common in cartography
providing foundations for exploratory design and layout. Caution must be taken in the selections of
existing maps for use as a layer in the generation of a new map. These maps are limited in scale, detail,
accuracy, projection, and the date to which the information applies. The caution applies to both hard-copy
maps and those in digital form. Assuming that the map is correct doesn’t necessarily make it so.

Error can also enter via the data entry process. This process includes the acquisition of digital boundary
files and associated attribute data. The source of the boundary file must be carefully considered when
downloading from the Web. Only reputable sources should be considered. The production of new
boundary/location files via manual or heads-up digitizing also generates the potential for errors in
geometry of the map or subsequent creation of erroneous polygons that are nonexistent. The accuracy and
precision of the instrument and the experience of the operator are also sources of error in the map
geometry. Careful editing must be included in the project to be certain that errors of omission or
commission are not included

Processing errors can result from the cartographic transformation of data as a result of changing scale,
projection, or data form. Line simplification and data classification are techniques involved in
generalization. Cartographic generalization based upon scale, such as the removal of islands or the
straightening of sinuous lines, often produces errors that are unknown to the map user. Classification that
overly generalizes the data will tend to reduce the spatial patterns that exist in that data. Careful
consideration of classification methods is crucial. Transformation from discrete to continuous data
requires the use of interpolation in order to generate the database. Care must be taken to use an
appropriate algorithm for that interpolation.

Cartographic Design Error; Once the data have been collected and processed, the cartographer should
take time to examine the data attribute table for inconsistencies and completeness. Following that
examination, the cartographic design process begins. The first potential for design error is in the selection
of the wrong thematic map type based upon the data. As suggested, the data dictate the map type for the
display of spatial data. Careful consideration of the nature of the data will serve as a guide in the selection
of the appropriate thematic map. The cartographer must make many decisions when it comes to map
design. Each of those decisions has the potential for introducing map error whether it is factual on the
map or one of incorrect perception by the map user. Choices in scale, projection, generalization,
symbolization, and color are based upon traditions and conventions in cartography. Not all errors can be
eliminated, but every conceivable means must be employed to reduce error to tolerable levels.
MORE ON …..Data

Individual and Aggregate

Phenomena are all the stuff in the real world. Data are records of observations of
phenomena. Maps show us data, not phenomena. Carefully consider the data you are
mapping, how it relates to the stuff in the world it stands for, how it’s similar, how it’s
different, and how that may affect our understanding of the phenomena. Differentiate, for
example, between individual and aggregated data:

A map of individual trees smacked flat by

a tornado in a forest. The phenomena are
trees, and the data – individually mapped
by orienteers – retain this individuality.
The cross bar of the “t” point symbol
is the root ball of the tree, indicating
the direction the tree fell.

A map of major vegetation zones in the

Eastern U.S.
M
The area labeled “D” is broadleaf deciduous forest.
D

“M” is mixed broadleaf and needle leaf

forest. The phenomena here are trees not
but forest, and the data M
– aggregated from many different maps

Aggregating data changes phenomena,

as here, from individual trees, to forest.
Creating and Getting Data
Data are records of observations of phenomena. These records may be made by
machines (like those made by a recording thermometer) or by the map makers
themselves. All these are primary data, that is, records of observations made in the
environment itself. Maps made from primary data can be considered evidence. Most map
makers use secondary or tertiary data sources created and published by others, but
it’s surprisingly easy to create mappable data yourself. It is common, and often necessary,
to combine primary, secondary, and tertiary data sources on a map.

Primary Data Sources

Collecting data at addresses. Data collection on existing maps. It’s easy

Researchers recorded 20 different facts to collect primary data by marking them on an
about the exterior of houses (above: existing map. Researchers used a city
data collection sheet). Such data can be property map to record the location of
geocoded (address matched) using GIS electrical poles and powerlines. Such data
or web geocoding tools. Geocoding can be digitized, scanned, or added (by hand)
provides mappable coordinates for your to, and used with, existing layers of data in
addresses, allowing it to be used in GIS GIS and other mapping software.
and other mapping software.
Remote sensing imagery. Images of the
Global positioning systems (GPS). A earth, taken from airplanes or satellites
series of satellites relays signals used by (remote sensing devices). Imagery is
a GPS receiver to determine the location available at different resolutions and can
of the device. Inexpensive GPS include non-visible energy such as
receivers provide location and elevation. ultraviolet. Imagery can also be used to
More sophisticated devices allow you to generate mappable data: roads can be
append attribute information (data at the traced or vegetation types delineated.
location) and export the data so that it Remotely sensed imagery is often
can be mapped in GIS. combined with other map data in GIS.

Cell phones. Cell phones can generate Crowdsourcing. Websites can collect
approximate locations using your situation mappable data from anyone who can
relative to cell towers. Cell phones may access the site and enter information.
supplement these data by using wi-fi and Thousands of users from around the world
GPS signals. Smart phone applications are constructing the OpenStreetMap.org
allow you to use your phone to collect open source map of the world. In essence,
locations and attributes at those locations. the “crowd” is the data source.
Secondary Data Sources Tertiary Data Sources
Secondary data are derived from primary Secondary data can be assembled in
data: aggregations of traffic counts, turn; thus resulting in tertiary data. If
generalizations of vegetation types. maps made from primary data are
evidence, and maps made from
Scanned and digitized paper maps secondary data are like reports of
Federal government data, including evidence, maps made from tertiary data
census, economic, environmental data would be akin to indices of law cases.
Regional and local government data, including
detailed road, property, and zoning data Maps are often made from other maps.
For-profit data providers Map makers don’t think about all this
Public domain data providers, such assemblage as generalization, but it is.
as GeoCommons Each step away from the phenomena
Non-governmental organizations such as the makes the map less and less about the
UN and World Bank phenomena and more and more about
the data.
Data Organization
At a basic level, mappable data can be organized into two broad categories, as either
qualitative (differences in kind) or quantitative (differences in amount). Such data
distinctions guide analysis and map symbolization.

Qualitative Quantitative
Differences in kind. Also called Differences in amount: includes ordinal,
nominal data. interval, and ratio data.

House and business locations Estimated number of same-sex couples,

Rivers and lakes living together, in the U.S. (by county)
Electoral college wins, by state (Democrats Total number of Hispanics in a block-by-
or Republicans) block map of a town
Dominant race in a block-by-block map of a Number of loggerhead shrikes counted in a
town nature preserve
Location of different bird species seen in
a nature preserve Symbolization: shown with differences
in color value (dark red, red, light red),
Symbolization: shown with symbols, as such colors suggest more and less,
pictographs, or icons; or with differences like the data.
in color hue (red, green, blue), as such
colors are different in kind, like the data. Levels of quantification

Ordinal: order with no measurable

difference between values.
Low-, medium-, and high-risk zones

Interval: measurable difference

between values, but no absolute zero.
Temperature Fahrenheit (30° is not
half as warm as 60°)

Ratio: measurable difference

between values, with an
absolute zero value.
Total population in countries
Digital Data Organization
There are two basic ways that digital geographic data are organized and stored: vector or
raster. Vector data consist of points that can be connected into lines, or areas. Raster data
consist of a grid of cells, each with a particular value or values.

Vector Data Raster Data

Vector data consist of located points Raster data consist of a grid with values
(nodes), lines (a connected series of associated with each grid cell. Higher-
points), and areas (a closed, connected resolution raster files have smaller cells.
series of points, also called polygons). Remotely sensed imagery is raster: each
Attribute information can be appended to a cell contains a level of energy reflected or
point, line, or area and stored in a related radiated from the earth in the area covered
database. A line standing for a road by the cell. Raster data can have points
includes attributes such as name, width, (one cell), lines (a series of adjacent cells),
surface, etc. Design characteristics can be or areas (a closed series of adjacent cells).
appended to points, lines, and areas. Raster data can also include attributes.

Sources and use: GPS devices collect vector Sources and use: Common raster data
data; many public and private sources of include satellite and aerial imagery available
mappable data (USGS, Census TIGER, from public and private sources. Most GIS
KML/KMZ) provide data in vector format. software allows you to use raster and vector
Common GIS software uses vector format data together. GIS software, such as the
data. Graphic design software, such as open-source GRASS, works with raster data.
Illustrator or Corel Draw, also use vector data, Image editing software, such as Photoshop or
making the conversion of GIS output into the open-source GIMP, use raster data and
graphic design software relatively easy. can import raster GIS output.
Transforming Data
Raw data, whether primary or secondary, may need to be transformed in order to make a
map maker’s point. It may be more useful to use totals instead of individual instances; it
could make more sense to report phenomena as so many per unit area; an average
temperature might be more meaningful than a bunch of daily highs and lows; or if your
point has to do with change, rates might be helpful. There is always a motivation behind
data transformations; choose wisely for an effective map.

Total Numbers Densities

The total number of some phenomenon The number of some phenomenon per unit
associated with a point, line, or area. area. Divide the number of people in a
country by the square area of the country.
Amount of pesticide in a well
Pounds of road kill collected in a county Doctors per square km in a country
Adult bookstores per square mile in U.S. cities
Symbolization: Variation in point size
or line width. Represent whole numbers in Symbolization: Variation in color
areas with a scaled symbol for each area. lightness and darkness in the areas.

Averages Rates
Add all values together and divide by the The number of some phenomenon per
number of values in the data set. Can be unit time. May be associated with points,
associated with points, lines, and areas. lines, or areas.

Average monthly rainfall at a weather station Cars per hour along a road
Average age of murder victims in U.S. cities Murders per day in major cities

Symbolization: Variation in point size or Symbolization: Variation in point size or

line width. Variation in color lightness line width. Variation in color lightness or
and darkness in areas. darkness in areas.
Data Accuracy
There are many types of accuracy associated with data and maps. One approach to
accuracy is to ask a series of questions about your data.

Ways to Think about Data Accuracy

Are the facts accurate? Are things where they should be?

An Israeli tourism ad on The National Imagery

the London Underground and Mapping Agency put
included a map showing the Chinese Embassy in
the occupied West Bank, the wrong location on a
the Gaza Strip, and the map of Belgrade,
Golan Heights as parts of Yugoslavia. In 1999 a
Israel. They’re not. NATO jet accidentally
bombed the Embassy,
killing 3 and injuring 20.

Does detail vary across the data set? When were the data collected?

Wisconsin sand and U.S. Census data are

gravel data combine collected every 10 years;
detailed data from some thus a map made in
counties (east side of 2009 using 2000 U.S.
map) with crude data Census data is using 9
from other counties year-old data.
(west side of map).

What are the assumptions behind the data? Are the data from a trustworthy source?

106
Avg.
IQ
59

People with a high intelligence quotient tend to Just who says Sara Quick is untrustworthy?
believe IQ is a valid way to assess human From the website Bad Neighbor Map, with
intelligence. Always consider the assumptions its crowd-sourced data.
that shape the creation of mappable data.
Digital Data
Widespread use of geographic information systems and the development of extensive
databases of digital GIS data require an understanding of metadata and copyright.

Metadata Copyright
Metadata are data about data. Copyright is a form of protection provided
Dependable digital geographic data by the laws of a country to the creators of
include such detailed information as original works. Intended to reasonably
compensate them for their efforts, it was
Identification information: general description originally of limited duration and included
of the data exceptions such as the fair use doctrine.
Quality information: which defines the data The exceptions have been weakened over
quality standards time, making current copyright laws more
Spatial data organization information: how burdensome. Copyrights include:
spatial information in the data is represented
Spatial reference information: coordinate and Reproduction of copies of the original
projection information copyrighted work
Entity and attribute information: map data and Preparation of derivative works based on
associated attributes the original copyrighted work
Distribution information: data creator, Distribution/sale/transfer of ownership of the
distributor, and use policy original copyrighted work
Metadata reference information: metadata
creator
Citation information: how to cite information
when used
Temporal information: when data were
collected, updated
Contact information: how to contact data
creator
Copyleft Public Domain
Copyleft refers to an array of licensing Creative works and content neither
options encouraging reuse, reproduction, owned nor controlled by anyone are said
distribution of, and modifications to to be in the public domain. Public
creative works within certain parameters. domain works may be used by anyone
Copyleft counters the restrictions and for any purpose without restriction.
prohibitions of copyright in that only “some”
rather than “all” rights are reserved by the .
creator of a work. Copyleft strategies are
integral to the philosophy behind open-
source software and collectively created,
crowdsourced data (such as Wikipedia).