Name: Chimbuchi Orumba​

Experiment #: 9
Date: December 12th, 2024
Title: Inverting Amplifier (Simulation)
Aim: Using Multisim Live simulator to determine the effect of negative feedback on the gain and
bandwidth of an Operational Amplifier.

Apparatus:
Multisim Live Simulation, Computer (with Internet connection)

Variables:
Manipulating/ Independent:
-​ The frequency of the input signal (adjusted to various values: 100 Hz, 1,000 Hz, 10,000
Hz, etc.).
-​ The amplitude of the input signal

Responding/Dependent:
-​ The output voltage of the amplifier circuit (measured to observe changes as the
frequency increases).
-​ The voltage gain (Av).
​
Controlled:
-​ The resistance values (Rf = 10 kΩ, Rin = 1 kΩ).
-​ The AC input voltage magnitude (0.1 V).
-​ The circuit configuration (kept consistent throughout the simulation).

Diagram:

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SET-UP OF THE APPARATUS USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

Procedure:
1.​ The simulation was initiated using the provided Multisim link.
https://www.multisim.com/content/9DqSigwz3dkSMgdXN8t4jT/online-simulator/open/
2.​ The preloaded figure was deleted by selecting "CTRL + A" and then clicking the "x"
button.
3.​ The schematic interface was opened and the circuit was drawn by selecting and placing
components: uA741 (op-amp), three resistors, two Vdc sources, a Vsin source, and
ground connections.
4.​ Components were positioned and connected according to the circuit diagram.
5.​ Resistor values were set by double clicking each resistor: Rf = 10kΩ, Rin = 1kΩ, and Vdc
values were set to 12 V.
6.​ Vsin parameters were configured with AC magnitude = 0.1V, offset = 0V, amplitude =
0.1V, and frequency = 100Hz.
7.​ Vin and Vout labels were added to the input and output wires.
8.​ The simulation was run in "Transient" mode with an initial time setup of 10ms to 1s final
time.
9.​ The input and output waveforms were displayed, and measurements were recorded.
10.​ Frequency adjustments were made by increasing the powers of ten up to 1,000,000
(106) and the corresponding data was noted.
11.​A Gain vs. Log(frequency) graph was plotted, and the Gain-Bandwidth product and
maximum bandwidth were determined.

Results:

TABLE SHOWING INPUT/OUTPUT VOLTAGE, VOLTAGE GAIN, AND FREQUENCY

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

Input Output Voltage Gain Frequency Log of Log of

Voltage (Vin) Voltage (Vout) (Vout/Vin) (Av) (Hz) Frequency Voltage Gain

0.114 1.01 8.86 100 2 0.95

0.114 1.01 8.86 1,000 3 0.95

0.114 1.01 8.86 10,000 4 0.95

0.114 0.62 5.44 100,000 5 0.74

0.114 0.07 0.61 1,000,000 6 -0.21

Sample Calculations:
For Voltage Gain:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
●​ Voltage Gain Av is given by: Av = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Using the first row of data as an example:
●​ Vin = 0.114 V
●​ Vout = 1.01 V

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1.01
Av = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 0.114
≈ 8.86

For Logarithmic Values:

●​ Log of Frequency: Log(Frequency) = log10(Frequency)

●​ For Frequency = 100Hz: Log(Frequency) = log10(100) = 2

●​ Log of Voltage Gain: Log(Gain) = log10(Av)

●​ For Av = 8.86: Log(Gain) = log10 (8.86) ≈ 0.95

Data Analysis:

Gain Bandwidth Product:

The gain bandwidth product is a constant for an ideal amplifier and is calculated as:

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Gain Bandwidth = Gain x Bandwidth

Using the data where the gain begins to drop significantly:

●​ For Av = 5.44 at Frequency = 100,000 Hz:

Gain Bandwidth Product = 5.44 x 100,000 = 544,000 Hz

Maximum Bandwidth:
In the lab, the maximum bandwidth of the inverting amplifier is determined from the frequency at
which the amplifier gain starts to drop significantly (by -3 dB), also referred to as the cutoff
frequency or -3 dB point. Below is how to determine it:

●​ The gain of the amplifier is measured in decibels (dB):

​ ​ ​ ​ Gain(dB) = 20log10(Av)

A -3 dB drop corresponds to a reduction in gain to approximately 0.707 times the maximum

gain. From the lab data, the maximum gain occurs at low frequencies (e.g. 100 Hz) and remains
constant at 8.86.

●​ Calculate 70.7% of the maximum gain:

​ ​ ​ ​ 0.707 x 8.86 ≈ 6.26

Looking at the table to find the frequency where the gain drops below 6.26 for the first time we
find out that the maximum bandwidth is approximately 100,000 Hz (100kHz).

From the Data:

●​ The gain at 104 Hz (10,000 Hz) is 8.86 (still at the maximum).
●​ At 105 Hz (100,000 Hz), the gain drops to 5.44 below 6.26.
●​ Therefore the maximum bandwidth is approximately 100,000 Hz (100 KHz).

Discussion:
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are highly versatile electronic components used in a wide
range of applications, including amplification, signal conditioning, and mathematical operations.
In this experiment, the focus was on studying the behavior of an inverting amplifier and
determining the effects of negative feedback on the amplifier's gain and bandwidth using the
Multisim simulator. Negative feedback occurs when a portion of the output signal is fed back to
the input of an op-amp in such a way that it opposes the original input signal. This technique
stabilizes the amplifier, reduces distortion, improves bandwidth, and ensures predictable
performance. In an inverting amplifier, negative feedback is achieved by connecting the output
back to the inverting input (-) through a feedback resistor (Rf) while the input signal is applied
through an input resistor (Rin).

An inverting amplifier is a configuration where the input signal is applied to the inverting input,
producing an output signal that is 180° out of phase with the input. The voltage gain (Av) of an
inverting amplifier is given by the formula: Av = -Rf/Rin. In this lab, Rf = 10kΩ and Rin = 1kΩ,
resulting in a theoretical gain of -10. However, the actual gain observed in the table was
approximately 8.86 at low frequencies, slightly below the ideal value due to non-idealities in the
op-amp model. The bandwidth of an amplifier refers to the range of frequencies over which it
maintains consistent gain. For practical op-amps, as the frequency increases, the gain begins to
drop due to internal limitations such as slew rate and bandwidth constraints. The point at which
the gain decreases by 3 dB (to 70.7% of its maximum value) is referred to as the cutoff
frequency, which marks the bandwidth. In this experiment, the gain remained constant at 8.86
up to 104 Hz, but it started to drop at higher frequencies. The cutoff frequency was
approximately 105 Hz (100 kHz), as seen in both table and graph.

The results of this experiment were similar to those of the practical experiment where a real
amplifier was used. The results in the table show the relationship between frequency and gain.
At low frequencies (100 Hz to 10 kHz), the gain remained constant at 8.86, which aligns with the
behavior of an ideal amplifier within its bandwidth. As the frequency increased to 100 kHz the
gain dropped to 5.44, and at 1 MHz it had decreased drastically to 0.61. This behavior is typical
of an op-amp, where gain decreases with increasing frequency due to the op-amp's finite
gain-bandwidth product. The graph of log(frequency) vs. log(gain visually confirms these
observations. Initially, the graph is flat, indicating constant gain at low frequencies. After 104 Hz,
the curve starts to slope downward, showing the roll-off in gain as the frequency increases. This
characteristic is a hallmark of op-amp frequency response, transitioning from the flat passband
to the roll-off region.

Precautions:
1.​ It was ensured that the circuit was replicated in the simulation exactly as it would be
constructed in a practical experiment.
2.​ It was ensured that a consistent internet connection was maintained throughout the
process.
3.​ It was ensured that all component values were meticulously verified before running the
simulation.

Possible Sources of error:

1.​ The simulation likely modeled an ideal op-amp, which doesn't perfectly represent the
real-world op-amp behavior, causing some variance between practical and simulation
outcomes.
 2.​ The voltage values fluctuated each time the cursor was adjusted, making it challenging
to obtain an exact reading.
3.​ There was a potential for mistakes if incorrect values were entered during the setup.

Conclusion:
It can be concluded that this experiment aimed to investigate the effect of negative feedback on
the gain and bandwidth of an inverting amplifier using an operational amplifier. The results
showed that the amplifier had a stable gain of approximately 8.86 for low frequencies up to 10
kHz. The gain decreased significantly beyond 100 kHz, identifying the amplifier’s bandwidth as
approximately 100 kHz. This behavior confirmed the expected trade-off between gain and
bandwidth, demonstrating how negative feedback stabilizes gain while extending the amplifier’s
usable frequency range.