Light - Reflection & Refraction

Reflection of Light

Reflection of light is the process of bouncing back light rays when it strikes the smooth and shiny reflecting
surface.
Laws of reflection of light
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected
ray, all lie in the same plane.
Properties of Image formed by Plane Mirror
Virtual, erect, and laterally inverted.
The size of the image is equal to that of the object, and the image appears as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it

Spherical Mirrors

A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards is called a convex mirror, while one curved inwards
is a concave mirror.

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Some important terms related to spherical mirrors

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Pole(P): It is the centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical
mirror and it lies on the surface of the mirror.
Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface
Centre of Curvature(C): The centre of the spherical surface of which the mirror is
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a part. It lies outside its reflecting surface and in concave mirror lies in front of it.
Radius of Curvature(R): It is the radius of spherical mirror of which the reflecting Concave Convex

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surface is a part of

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Mirror Mirror
Principal Axis: It is the line passing through the center of the mirror that is exactly perpendicular to the

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surface of the mirror.

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Focal length(f): It is the distance b/w pole and focus point of the mirror. R = 2f

ea Image formation by Spherical Mirrors

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Can form real or virtual images depending on the position of the object relative to the mirror.
It can be highly diminished, diminished, same size, enlarged, or highly enlarged.

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Following ray diagrams are formed when a ray of light passes through different points -
Ray parallel to Ray passing through Ray passing through Ray incident obliquely

tiv principle axis principle focus Center of Curvature to the principal axis

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r
Concave
Mirror

C Ray pass through the

principal focus
Ray emerges parallel to
principle axis
Ray is reflected back
along the same path
Ray is Reflected obliquely
making equal angles

Convex
Mirror

Ray appear to diverge Ray emerges parallel to Ray is reflected back Ray is Reflected obliquely
from the principal focus principle axis along the same path making equal angles
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 Image formation by Concave Mirror

Position of object Ray diagram Image formed at Properties of image

Real, Inverted, very

At Infinity Focus
small

Real, Inverted,
Between Infinity and C Between F and C
diminished

At C C
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Real, Inverted, same in

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size

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Between F and C

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Real, Inverted, very
large

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At F
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Real, Inverted, very
large

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Between F and P behind the mirror Virtual, Erect, enlarged

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C Uses of Concave Mirror
Torchlights, searchlights, and vehicle headlights: Concave mirrors are used in these lighting devices to
produce powerful parallel beams of light for illumination.
Shaving mirrors: Concave mirrors are utilized as shaving mirrors to provide a larger image of the face, aiding in
better visibility during grooming routines.
Dental applications: Dentists use concave mirrors to examine and magnify images of patients' teeth, allowing
for detailed inspection and treatment.
Solar furnaces: Large concave mirrors are employed in solar furnaces to concentrate sunlight, generating heat
energy for various industrial processes.

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 Image formation by Convex Mirror

Position of object Ray diagram Image formed at Properties of image

Virtual, erect, very

At Infinity Focus
small in size

Virtual, erect,
In front of mirror b/w P and F
diminished

Uses of Convex Mirror

enabling them to see the traffic behind for safe driving.

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Rear-view mirrors in vehicles: Convex mirrors are used vehicles to provide drivers with a wider field of view,

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Observation of distant objects: Convex mirrors are used in places like the Agra Fort, where visitors can
observe full-length images of distant objects such as the Taj Mahal.

ni Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors

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The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls on the
mirror from the left-hand side.

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All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.

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All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along x-axis) are taken as positive while those measured
to the left of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as negative.
Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are taken as positive.
Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along –y-axis) are taken as negative

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Mirror Formula Magnification

Distance of object Relative extent to which the image of an object is

from pole = u magnified
Distance of image m= Height (image)/ Height (object)
from pole = v m= h’/h = -v/u
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 Refraction of Light

Refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another, causing a change
in its speed and direction. e.g.-
The pencil appears displaced in water due to light refraction causing a shift in direction.
letters seem raised when viewed through a glass slab due to the same optical effect.

Refraction through a Glass Slab

When a ray of light enters the glass slab obliquely, it undergoes refraction at both the air-glass interface and
the glass-air interface.
The extent of bending of the light ray at these interfaces is equal and opposite, causing the emergent ray to be
parallel to the incident ray but slightly shifted sideways.
Laws of Refraction of Light (Snell’s Law)
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

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The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a
given colour and for the given pair of media.

Sin i /Sin r = Constant

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Refractive index is a measure of how much light slows down when passing through a medium compared to its
speed in a vacuum i.e. extent of bending.
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light
in that medium.
N = speed of light (c)(air) / speed of light (v)(medium)

It is a dimensionless quantity that is related to the relative speed of propagation of light in different media,
with light traveling fastest in vacuum and slower in materials like glass, water, and diamond.
Increasing refractive index of some materials
Air < ice < water < alcohol < kerosene < fused quartz < turpentine oil < benzene < crown glass < canada
balsam < rock salt < carbon disulphide < dense flint glass < ruby < sapphire < diamond

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 Refraction by Spherical Lens

A lens is a transparent material bound by two surfaces, at least one of which is spherical.
Spherical lenses can have one or both surfaces that are spherical, with the other surface being either spherical
or plane.
The bending of light rays by spherical lenses is governed by the shape and curvature of the lens surfaces.
Convex lenses
Convex lensesare
arethicker
thickerat at
thethe
center and and
center thinner at the
thinner atedges, causingcausing
the edges, light rays to rays
light converge after passing
to converge after
through the lens.
passing through the lens.
Concave lenses are thinner at the center and thicker at the edges, causing light rays to diverge after passing
Concave lenses are thinner at the center and thicker at the edges, causing light rays to diverge after
through the lens.
passing through the lens.

Convex Lens Concave Lens

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Some important terms related to lens
Centre of curvature (C)- Centre of the sphere of which the lens is a part of
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Principal axis- Imaginary line passing via C.
Optical Centre (O)- Central point of a bifocal lens.

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Principal focus- Point on the principal axis, on which the rays converge, when parallel rays fall on the lens.

rn Image formation by Lenses

Ray passing through principle Ray passing through optical

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Ray parallel to principle axis
focus centre

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Concex lens

tiv Ray passes through the

principal focus
Ray emerge parallel to the
principal axis
Ray emerge without any
deviation.

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Concave lens

Ray passes through the

principal focus
Ray emerge parallel to the
principal axis
Ray emerge without any
deviation.

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 Image formed by Convex Lens
Position of object Ray diagram Image formed at Properties of image

Diminished, Real,
At Infinity Focus F₂
inverted, point-sized

Diminished, Real,
Beyond 2F₁ b/w F₂ - 2F₂
inverted

Same size, Real,

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At 2F₁ 2F₂

.
inverted

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Between F₁ and 2F₁

ni beyond 2F₂
Enlarged, Real,
inverted

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Le Infinitely large, Real,

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At focus F₁ infinity
inverted

tiv
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Between focus F₁ and on the same side of lens Enlarged, Virtual,

Cr O as the object erect

Image formed by Concave Lens

Position of object Ray diagram Image formed at Properties of image

diminished, virtual,
At infinity At focus F₁
erect

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 Diminished, Virtual,
Between infinity and O b/w O and F₁
erect

When dealing with lenses, sign conventions are used similar to spherical mirrors. Measurements are taken from the
lens's optical center. In the convention, a convex lens has a positive focal length while a concave lens has a negative
focal length. Properly apply signs to u, v, f, object height h, and image height h'.

Lens formula Magnification

Magnification is ratio of the height of the image and the
object distance→ u
height of the object.
image distance→ v
focal length→ f m= Height (image)/ Height (object)

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m= h’/h = v/u

Power of lens

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The power of a lens is determined by its ability to converge or diverge light rays and is defined as the reciprocal

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of its focal length. P= 1/f

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SI Unit are dioptre (D)

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Power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative

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 Activity

Activity 9.1

Take a large shining spoon. Try to view your face in its curved surface.
Do you get the image? Is it smaller or larger?
Move the spoon slowly away from your face. Observe the image. How does it change?
Reverse the spoon and repeat the Activity. How does the image look like now?
Compare the characteristics of the image on the two surfaces.

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Observation

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Inner side (Concave Mirror): Enlarged and erect behind the spoon

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Outer side (Convex Mirror): Virtual, diminished and erect

Activity 9.2

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Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its reflecting surface towards the Sun.
Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of paper held close to the mirror.
Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until you find on the paper sheet a bright, sharp spot of light.

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Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a few minutes. What do you observe? Why?

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Observation
Parallel beam of light coming from infinity (in this case – the sun) incident on concave mirror to form a real,
inverted and point-sized image.
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 Activity 9.5

Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.

Hold a pencil in the upright position in the other hand.
Observe the image of the pencil in the mirror. Is the image erect or inverted? Is it diminished or enlarged?
Move the pencil away from the mirror slowly. Does the image become smaller or larger?
Repeat this Activity carefully. State whether the image will move closer to or farther away from the focus as
the object is moved away from the mirror?

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Observation
virtual, diminished, and the erect image is formed.
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Observe the image of a distant object, say a distant tree, in a plane mirror.
Could you see a full-length image?

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Try with plane mirrors of different sizes. Did you see the entire object in the image?
Repeat this Activity with a concave mirror. Did the mirror show full length image of the object?

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Now try using a convex mirror. Did you succeed? Explain your observations with reason.

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Observation
Plane Mirror: No full length image
Concave Mirror: Full length image for certain positions
Convex Lens: Full-length image for any position

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 Activity 9.7

Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water.

With your eye to a side above water, try to pick up the coin in one go. Did you succeed in picking up the coin?
Repeat the Activity. Why did you not succeed in doing it in one go?
Ask your friends to do this. Compare your experience with theirs.

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Observation
The coin in the beaker is seen in another position

in Activity 9.8

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Place a large shallow bowl on a Table and put a coin in it.
Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop when the coin just disappears from your sight.

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Ask a friend to pour water gently into the bowl without disturbing the coin.
Keep looking for the coin from your position. Does the coin becomes visible again from your position? How could
this happen?

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Observation
Coin disappear after moving away the bowl
After adding water the coin reappear from the same position

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 Activity 9.9

Draw a thick straight line in ink, over a sheet of white paper placed on a Table.
Place a glass slab over the line in such a way that one of its edges makes an angle with the line.
Look at the portion of the line under the slab from the sides. What do you observe? Does the line under the
glass slab appear to be bent at the edges?
Next, place the glass slab such that it is normal to the line. What do you observe now? Does the part of the line
under the glass slab appear bent?
Look at the line from the top of the glass slab. Does the part of the line, beneath the slab, appear to be raised?
Why does this happen?
Observation
line under slab appear to be bent
part of the line under the glass slab does not appear bent & line beneath the slab appears to be raised

Activity 9.10

Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using drawing pins.

Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle.
Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the outline as ABCD.
Take four identical pins. n Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line joining the pins is inclined to
the edge AB.

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Look for the images of the pins E and F through the opposite edge. Fix two other pins, say G and H, such that

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these pins and the images of E and F lie on a straight line.
Remove the pins and the slab. n Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce the line up to AB. Let
EF meet AB at O. Similarly, join the positions of tip of the pins G and H and produce it up to the edge CD. Let
HG meet CD at O′.

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Join O and O′. Also produce EF up to P, as shown by a dotted line in Fig.

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Observation

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The light ray that enters from a rarer medium to a denser medium bends toward the normal and enters from a

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denser to rarer medium bends away from the normal.

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Activity 9.11

Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards the Sun. Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet of paper.
Obtain a sharp bright image of the Sun.
Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a while. Keep observing the paper. What happened? Why?
Observation
A sharp point on the paper.

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 Human Eye and World
The Human Eye

The human eye is a remarkable sense organ that allows us to perceive the colorful world around us.
Various parts of human eye are:

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Retina: light-sensitive layers of nerve tissue at the back of the eye that receive images and sends them as
electric signals through the optic nerve and has rods and cons which are light-sensitive cells, that get activated

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and generate electric signals

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Cornea: transparent part of the eye that covers the front portion of the eye
Eye Lens: a clear, curved structure at the front of the eye behind the pupil and it forms an inverted, real

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image of the object on the retina.

its size

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Iris: opaque contractile diaphragm forming the colored portion of the eye containing pupil in centre and controls

Pupil: black hole seen at the centre of the iris of the eye which permits light towards retina

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Ciliary muscles: circular muscle that relaxes or tightens to enable the lens to change shape for focusing
Optic Nerve: nerve that carries messages from the retina to the brain.

Power of Accommodation

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Eye's ability to adjust the curvature of the lens to focus on objects at different distances.

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This adjustment is facilitated by the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens.

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Far point
Expanded eye lens
Focal length increases and power decreases
Near point
Contracted eye lens
Focal length decreases and power increases

Defects of Vision

Myopia: Myopia, or near-sightedness, causes difficulty seeing distant objects clearly. The far point is closer
than infinity, leading to clear vision only up to a few meters.
Cause: The image of distant objects forms in front of the retina due to excessive lens curvature or
elongated eyeball.
Correction involves using a concave lens to bring the image back onto the retina, restoring clear vision.
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 Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia, or far-sightedness, causes difficulty in seeing nearby objects clearly due to
light rays focusing behind the retina.
Cause: the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or the eyeball has become too small.
Correction: This can be corrected with convex lenses to provide additional focusing power for forming
images on the retina.

Presbyopia: The eye's accommodation power decreases with age, causing Presbyopia where near vision weakens
Cause: It arises due to weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens

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Correction: Use of suitable convex lenses can correct this defect

Cause: Usually due to aging, as a clear lens in the eye becomes opaque and foggy
Correction: This defect can be corrected by surgically removing this opaque membrane.

2.
Cataract: A cataract is the clouding of the crystalline lens of the eye which often affects the clarity of vision.

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Some people suffers from both myopia and hypermetropia causing difficulty in focusing on both nearby and far

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away objects. It can be corrected by using appropriate bifocal lenses.

Refraction of Light Through a Prism

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Prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to each other.
The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.
Refraction of light through a prism involves the bending of light as it passes through the prism due to the

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change in medium.
When light enters the prism, it bends towards the normal, and upon exiting, it bends away from the normal.
The angle at which the emergent ray deviates from the incident ray is called the angle of deviation.

C PE – Incident ray ∠i – Angle of incidence

EF – Refracted ray ∠r – Angle of refraction
FS – Emergent ray ∠e – Angle of emergence
∠A – Angle of the prism ∠D – Angle of deviation

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 Dispersion of White Light through a Prism

Dispersion of light through a prism involves the splitting of white light into its component colors due to the
different colors of light bending through varying angles as they pass through the prism.
The white light splits into band of seven of colors which are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
(VIBGYOR)
This dispersion results in the formation of a spectrum of colors, with red light bending the least and violet
light bending the most.
The distinct colors in the spectrum are a result of each color emerging along different paths after passing
through the prism.

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Isaac Newton used a glass prism to split sunlight into a spectrum of colors. By placing a second prism in an inverted

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position, he combined the colors to create white light, leading to the discovery that sunlight consists of seven
colors.

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ea RAINBOW

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A rainbow is a natural spectrum caused by sunlight dispersion through water droplets in the atmosphere, forming
opposite the sun. Water droplets act as prisms, refracting, dispersing, reflecting, and refracting light to create

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different colors visible to the observer.

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Atmospheric Refraction

Atmospheric refraction causes flickering of objects seen through turbulent hot air
The hotter, less dense air near the heat source has a slightly lower refractive index
than the cooler air above it. As the physical conditions of the air are not constant,
the apparent position of objects viewed through this hot air fluctuates, demonstrating
the localized effect of atmospheric refraction

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Twinkling of stars
The twinkling of a star is caused by atmospheric refraction of starlight as it
enters the Earth's atmosphere, bending the light towards the normal.
This creates a slight shift in the star's apparent position, especially near the horizon.
The fluctuation in the star's brightness is due to the changing conditions of the Earth's
atmosphere, causing the starlight entering the eye to flicker, resulting in the twinkling effect.
Why don’t the planets twinkle?
The planets appear as extended sources due to their proximity to Earth.
Viewing planets as collections of many point-sized light sources eliminates
twinkling effects by averaging out variations in light entering the eye.
Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset
The Sun is visible about 2 minutes before sunrise and after sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
The time difference between actual and apparent sunset is also about 2 minutes.
The flattening of the Sun's disc at sunrise and sunset is due to the same phenomenon.

Scattering of Light

The interplay of light with objects creates natural phenomena like the blue sky, deep sea water color, and
sunrise/sunset.

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Light scattering by colloidal particles makes the path visible in colloidal solutions with larger particles compared
to true solutions where particle size is comparatively smaller
Tyndall Effect

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The Earth's atmosphere contains various particles like smoke, water droplets, dust, and air molecules.
When light hits these particles, it scatters, making the beam's path visible.

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This scattering effect, known as the Tyndall effect, is seen in smoke-filled rooms or misty forests.
The color of scattered light depends on particle size, with fine particles scattering blue light and larger ones
scattering longer wavelengths, potentially appearing white.
Blue color of sky

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Air molecules and fine particles in the atmosphere scatter blue light more effectively than red due to their

v
smaller size.

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Without this scattering, the sky would appear dark. At high altitudes, where scattering is minimal, the sky

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appears dark to observers.

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 Activity

Activity 10.1

Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using drawing pins.

Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of the prism using a
pencil. Draw a straight line PE inclined to one of the refracting surfaces, say AB, of the prism.
Fix two pins, say at points P and Q, on the line PE as shown in Fig. 10.4.
Look for the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face AC.
Fix two more pins, at points R and S, such that the pins at R and S and the images of the pins at P and Q lie on
the same straight line. n Remove the pins and the glass prism.
The line PE meets the boundary of the prism at point E. Similarly, join and produce the points R and S. Let these
lines meet the boundary of the prism at E and F, respectively. Join E and F.
Draw perpendiculars to the refracting surfaces AB and AC of the prism at points E and F, respectively. Mark
the angle of incidence (∠i), the angle of refraction (∠r) and the angle of emergence (∠e) as shown in Fig

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Observation

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At first refracting surface, the angle of refraction(∠r ) is smaller than the angle of incidence but at the

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second refracting surface, the angle of emergence (∠e) is larger than the angle of incidence.

Activity 10.2

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Take a thick sheet of cardboard and make a small hole or narrow slit in its middle.
Allow sunlight to fall on the narrow slit. This gives a narrow beam of white light.
Now, take a glass prism and allow the light from the slit to fall on one of its faces as shown in Fig.

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Turn the prism slowly until the light that comes out of it appears on a nearby screen. n What do you observe?
Why does this happen?

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Observation
On turning the glass prism slowly we got a seven colours band on screen.
This band of seven colours of light is called ‘spectrum’.
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 Electricity
Electric Current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, typically carried by moving electrons.
It is the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A).

The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).
Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell or battery in a circuit.
In an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of
electrons, which are negative charges.
Ammeter is used to measure the electric current in circuit which is always connected in series.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric potential is the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a point in an
electric field. The unit of electric potential is the volt (V).
Potential difference, also known as voltage, is the difference in electric potential
between two points in a circuit. It is measured in volts and is responsible for

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the flow of electric current in a circuit.
V = W/Q
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SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V)
One volt is the potential difference between two points when 1 joule of

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work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other
Voltmeter is used to measure the electric potential in circuit which is

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always connected in parallel.

ar Circuit Diagram

Conventional symbols used to represent some of the most commonly used electrical components are

Components

Le Symbols Components Symbols

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An electric cell
A battery or a combination
of cells

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Plug key or switch
A wire joint

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Wires crossing without
Electric bulb
joining

Variable resistance or
A resistor of resistance R
rheostat

Ammeter Voltmeter

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 Ohm’s Law

The potential difference (V) across a wire in a circuit is directly proportional to the current
if the temperature is constant, known as Ohm's Law.
⇒
The resistance (R) of a metallic wire at a specific temperature inhibits charge flow. Measured in ohms (Ω),
resistance is a conductor property. SI unit of resistance is Ω

The current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance, demonstrated by the halving of
current when resistance is doubled. To adjust current without altering the voltage source, a variable resistance
component like a rheostat is used in electric circuits.

Note -
The flow of electrons in an electric circuit forms an electric current.
Resistance from atoms in a conductor slows electron motion.

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Components with low resistance are good conductors, while those with moderate resistance are resistors.

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High resistance impedes current flow, found in poor conductors.
Insulators have the highest resistance, restricting electron flow significantly.

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Resistance of the conductor depends
Factors affecting Resistance

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on its length
on its area of cross-section
on the nature of its material.
or

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Electrical resistivity (ρ): measure of opposition to the flow of electric current. SI unit is Ωm.
resistivity of Metals/Alloys: 108 to 10

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resistivity of Insulators: 107 to 103
Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.

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The resistivity of alloys is higher than that of individual metals. Alloys are used in electrical heating devices as
they resist oxidation at high temperatures.

C
Tungsten is preferred for electric bulb filaments
Copper and aluminum are commonly used in electrical transmission lines.

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 System of Resistors

Series Combination Parallel Combination

In a series combination of resistors, the current In a parallel combination of resistors, the voltage
remains constant throughout the circuit, ensuring an remains constant throughout the circuit and electric
equal current flow through each resistor and current across each resistor varies.
potential across each resistor varies.

The equivalent resistance is equal to,

.
The equivalent resistance is equal to,

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It is impractical to connect an electric bulb and heater in series due to different required currents.
In a series circuit, if one component fails, the whole circuit stops working.

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Parallel circuits divide current, reducing total resistance. This setup is beneficial when gadgets have varying
resistance and current needs.

ar Heating Effect of Electric Current

The chemical reaction in a cell generates current by moving electrons. Source energy maintains the current,

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converting some energy into useful work and dissipating the rest as heat.
In purely resistive electric circuits, all source energy is converted to heat, utilized in devices like electric
heaters and irons.
Heat produced is governed by Joule’s law of heating. The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is

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directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance

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directly proportional to resistance for a given current

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directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.

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Application of Heating effect
Electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater are some of the familiar
devices based on Joule’s heating.
Electric heating in bulbs uses tungsten filaments with high melting points to emit light while retaining heat.
Filaments are thermally isolated for efficiency, and bulbs are filled with inert gases like nitrogen and argon to
extend filament life. The majority of power consumed by the filament is released as heat, with a small portion
emitted as light.

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 Electric Power

The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit is termed as electric power

2
P = I R =V
2
R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W).
In practice, the larger unit 'kilowatt' (kW) is used instead of the small 'watt' (W), with 1 kW equal to 1000 W.
Electric energy is measured in watt hour (Wh), where 1 Wh is the energy consumed when using 1 W for 1 hour.
The commercial unit is kilowatt hour (kWh), also known as 'unit'.

1 kW h = 1000 watt × 3600 second

= 3.6 × 106 watt second
= 3.6 × 106 joule (J)

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 Activity 11.3

Complete an electric circuit consisting of a cell, an ammeter, a nichrome wire of length l [say, marked (1)] and a
plug key, as shown in Fig.
Now, plug the key. Note the current in the ammeter. Replace the nichrome wire by another nichrome wire of
same thickness but twice the length, that is 2l [marked (2) in the Fig].
Note the ammeter reading. n Now replace the wire by a thicker nichrome wire, of the same length l [marked
(3)]. A thicker wire has a larger cross-sectional area. Again note down the current through the circuit.
Instead of taking a nichrome wire, connect a copper wire [marked (4) in Fig.] in the circuit. Let the wire be of
the same length and same area of cross-section as that of the first nichrome wire [marked (1)]. Note the value
of the current.
Notice the difference in the current in all cases.
Does the current depend on the length of the conductor? Does the current depend on the area of cross-section
of the wire used?

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2
Observation

ng
When the length of the wire is doubled, the ammeter reading decreases to half of its previous value and when

ni
the nichrome wire is replaced with another nichrome wire of a larger cross-section area but of the same length ,
ammeter reading increases.

r
A change in ammeter reading is observed when a wire of different material of the same length and the same
area of cross-section is used

ea Activity 11.4

Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect them with a battery, an ammeter and a plug key, as

L
shown in Fig. You may use the resistors of values like 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω etc., and a battery of 6 V for performing
this Activity.

e
Plug the key. Note the ammeter reading.

v
Change the position of ammeter to anywhere in between the resistors. Note the ammeter reading each time.

i
Do you find any change in the value of current through the ammeter?

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Observation
For all three resistors in series combination, the value of current remains the same and value of the current in
the ammeter is the same, independent of its position in the electric circuit

22
 Activity 11.5

In Activity 11.4, insert a voltmeter across the ends X and Y of the series combination of three resistors, as
shown in Fig.
Plug the key in the circuit and note the voltmeter reading. It gives the potential difference across the series
combination of resistors. Let it be V.
Now measure the potential difference across the two terminals of the battery. Compare the two values.
Take out the plug key and disconnect the voltmeter. Now insert the voltmeter across the ends X and P of the
first resistor, as shown in Fig.
Plug the key and measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V₁ . n Similarly, measure
the potential difference across the other two resistors, separately. Let these values be V₂ and V₃ , respectively.
n Deduce a relationship between V, V₁, V₂ and V₃.

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2
Observation

ng
The potential difference of the combination is equal to the potential difference across two terminals of the
battery

ni Activity 11.6

ar
Make a parallel combination, XY, of three resistors having resistances R₁, R₂ and R₃ , respectively. Connect it
with a battery, a plug key and an ammeter, as shown in Fig.

Le
Also connect a voltmeter in parallel with the combination of resistors.
Plug the key and note the ammeter reading. Let the current be I. Also take the voltmeter reading. It gives the
potential difference V, across the combination. The potential difference across each resistor is also V. This can
be checked by connecting the voltmeter across each individual resistor

e
Take out the plug from the key. Remove the ammeter and voltmeter from the circuit. Insert the ammeter in

v
series with the resistor R₁ , as shown in Fig. Note the ammeter reading, I₁ .

i
Similarly, measure the currents through R₂ and R₃ . Let these be I₂ and I₃ , respectively. What is the

t
relationship between I, I₁, I₂ and I₃ ?

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Cr

Observation
The total current I is equal to the sum of the current through each branch of the combination, I= I₁ +I₂ +I₃ The
potential difference across each resistor is same.
23
 Magnetic Effect of Current
Magnetic Field

When a compass needle is near a bar magnet, it gets deflected. The needle acts as a small bar magnet, with one
end pointing north (north pole) and the other south (south pole). Like poles repel, while unlike poles attract.
The region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts is
the magnetic field. Its characteristics are:
The magnetic field has direction and magnitude.
Field lines emerge from the north pole and merge at the south pole.
Inside a magnet, field lines run from the south pole to the north pole in closed curves.
The strength of the field is indicated by the closeness of the lines, with stronger fields where lines are
crowded.
Field lines do not cross to prevent confusion in compass needle direction.

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2
ng Magnetic Field due to a current carrying conductor

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1. Straight Conductor

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When a current flows through a conductor, it generates a magnetic field around it.
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire decreases as the distance from the wire increases, with
the field lines forming concentric circles around the wire.

ea
The magnetic field lines also increases with increase in electric current in the conductor
Right Hand Thumb rule: The pattern of this magnetic field is determined by the right-hand thumb rule, where
the direction of the magnetic field lines can be determined by the direction of the current flow.

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Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current. Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of

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the field lines of the magnetic field

ti
ea
Cr 2. Circular Loop

The magnetic field lines around the loop form concentric circles that become larger as you
move away from the wire.
At the center of the loop, the magnetic field lines appear as straight lines.
The magnetic field produced by a circular loop is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the loop, with each turn contributing to the overall
magnetic field strength.
The magnetic field produced by a circular coil with n turns is n times stronger than that
of a single turn due to the cumulative effect of the current in each turn adding up.
24
 Magnetic Effect of Current
3. Solenoid

A solenoid is a coil of insulated copper wire that, when carrying current, creates a magnetic field resembling
that of a bar magnet.
One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other end behaves as a south pole.
Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field lines are in the form of parallel straight lines, indicating that the
magnetic field is uniform at all points inside the solenoid.
This uniform magnetic field inside a solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece of magnetic material, such as soft
iron, when placed inside the coil, creating an electromagnet.

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2
g
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

n
i
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor.
The direction of this force depends on the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field.

conductor

rn
Changing the direction of magnetic field reverses the direction of force acting on the current carrying

The force is strongest when the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

According to this

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Fleming's left-hand rule: Using this rule the direction of force can be determined.

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the thumb points in the direction of motion or force, the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field, and the second finger points in the direction of the current,

e
and all three are perpendicular to each other.

v
This force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field is the basis for various devices such as electric

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motors, generators, loudspeakers, microphones, and measuring instruments that utilize the interaction between

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current-carrying conductors and magnetic fields.

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Cr
Magnetism in Medicine

An electric current in the body generates a magnetic field.

Weak ion currents in nerve cells create magnetic fields when sending signals to
muscles.
The body's magnetic fields are utilized in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) for.
medical diagnosis, particularly in imaging the heart and brain.
25
 Domestic Electric Circuits

In domestic electric circuits, electric power is supplied through a main supply, which can be supported by
overhead electric poles or underground cables.
The main supply consists of a
live wire (positive) with red insulation cover and
neutral wire (negative) with black insulation cover
earth wire with green insulation which is connected to a metal plate deep in the earth (a safety measure, for
an appliance with metallic body - protecting user from shock).
In many countries the potential difference between the live and neutral wires is typically 220 V.
At the meter-board in a house, these wires pass through an electricity meter via a main fuse.
Appliances in a domestic circuit are connected across the live and neutral wires, with each appliance having a
separate switch to control the flow of current through it.
15A current to higher power appliances such as - geysers, cooler
5A current to lower power appliances such as - bulbs, fan
To ensure that each appliance receives the same potential difference, they are connected in parallel to each
other.
Electric fuses are essential components of domestic circuits, serving to protect the circuit from overcurrent
situations by breaking the circuit when necessary.

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ive
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26
 Activity

Activity 12.1

Take a straight thick copper wire and place it between the points X and Y in an electric circuit, as shown in Fig.
The wire XY is kept perpendicular to the plane of paper.
Horizontally place a small compass near to this copper wire. See the position of its needle.
Pass the current through the circuit by inserting the key into the plug. Observe the change in the position of
the compass needle.

Observation
.0
There is deflection in the compass needle when an electric current is passed in the circuit.

2
g
Activity 12.2

in
Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using some adhesive material.
Place a bar magnet in the centre of it.

n
Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly around the bar magnet. A salt-sprinkler may be used for this purpose.
Now tap the board gently. What do you observe?

ar
Le
Observation

ive
Iron filings get arranged in a pattern around bar magnet as magnet exerts its influence in region surrounding it

at Activity 12.6

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Take a rectangular cardboard having two holes. Insert a circular coil having large number of turns through them,

r
normal to the plane of the cardboard.
Connect the ends of the coil in series with a battery, a key and a rheostat, as shown in Fig.

C
Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the cardboard.
Plug the key. Tap the cardboard gently a few times. Note the pattern of iron filings that emerges on cardboard.

Observation
Iron filings arrange themselves in concentric circles around the coil.
27
 Activity 12.3

Take a small compass and a bar magnet. n Place the magnet on a sheet of white paper fixed on a drawing board,
using some adhesive material.
Mark the boundary of the magnet. Place the compass near the north pole of the magnet. How does it behave?
The south pole of the needle points towards the north pole of the magnet. The north pole of the compass is
directed away from the north pole of the magnet. Mark the position of two ends of the needle.
Now move the needle to a new position such that its south pole occupies the position previously occupied by its
north pole.
In this way, proceed step by step till you reach the south pole of the magnet as shown in Fig.
Join the points marked on the paper by a smooth curve. This curve represents a field line.
Repeat the above procedure and draw as many lines as you can. You will get a pattern shown in Fig

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Observation

2
When the compass is placed near the north pole of the magnet, its north pole aligns itself with the south pole of
the bar magnet

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The direction of the compass needle remains towards the south pole of the magnet.

n
ni Activity 12.4

Take a long straight copper wire, two or three cells of 1.5 V each, and a plug key. Connect all of them in series as

ar
shown in Fig. (a).
Place the straight wire parallel to and over a compass needle.
Plug the key in the circuit. Observe the direction of deflection of the north pole of the needle. If the current

east.

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flows from north to south, as shown in Fig. (a), the north pole of the compass needle would move towards the

Replace the cell connections in the circuit as shown in Fig. (b). This would result in the change of the direction of

e
current through the copper wire, that is, from south to north.
Observe the change in the direction of deflection of the needle. You will see that now the needle moves in

iv
opposite direction, that is, towards the west [Fig. (b)]. It means that the direction of magnetic field produced
by the electric current is also reversed.

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Observation
If the current flows from north to south, as shown in figure (a), the north pole of the compass needle would
move towards the east.
If the current flows from south to north, as shown in figure (b), the north pole of the compass needle would
move towards the west
28
 Activity 12.5

Take a battery (12 V), a variable resistance (or a rheostat), an ammeter (0–5 A), a plug key, connecting wires and
a long straight thick copper wire.
Insert the thick wire through the centre, normal to the plane of a rectangular cardboard. Take care that the
cardboard is fixed and does not slide up or down
Connect the copper wire vertically between the points X and Y, as shown in Fig. (a), in series with the battery, a
plug and key.
Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly on the cardboard. (You may use a salt sprinkler for this purpose.)
Keep the variable of the rheostat at a fixed position and note the current through the ammeter.
Close the key so that a current flows through the wire. Ensure that the copper wire placed between the points X
and Y remains vertically straight.
Gently tap the cardboard a few times. Observe the pattern of the iron filings. You would find that the iron
filings align themselves showing a pattern of concentric circles around the copper wire
What do these concentric circles represent? They represent the magnetic field lines.
How can the direction of the magnetic field be found? Place a compass at a point (say P) over a circle. Observe
the direction of the needle. The direction of the north pole of the compass needle would give the direction of
the field lines produced by the electric current through the straight wire at point P. Show the direction by an
arrow.

0
Does the direction of magnetic field lines get reversed if the direction of current through the straight copper
wire is reversed? Check it.

2.
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ni
ar
Observation

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Magnetic field is produced around a current carrying conductor and its direction of the magnetic field gets

ive
reversed when the direction of the current is reversed & if current is increased the deflection also increases.

Activity 12.7

at
Take a small aluminium rod AB (of about 5 cm). Using two connecting
wires suspend it horizontally from a stand, as shown in Fig.
Place a strong horse-shoe magnet in such a way that the rod lies b/n

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the two poles with the magnetic field directed upwards. For this put
the north pole of the magnet vertically below and south pole vertically
above the aluminium rod

C
Connect the aluminium rod in series with a battery, a key and a
rheostat. n Now pass a current through the aluminium rod from
end B to end A.
What do you observe? It is observed that the rod is displaced
towards the left. You will notice that the rod gets displaced.
Reverse the direction of current flowing through the rod and
observe the direction of its displacement. It is now towards the
right. Why does the rod get displaced?

Observation
An aluminium rod placed in a magnetic field gets displaced upward(right) when current is passed from end A to
end B and downward(left)when current is passed from end B to end A.
29