GXEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING: FROM HARDWARE ESSENTIALS TO WEB DESIGN B.

Tech 2024, S2 EC

Module 3

Module 3

Computer System Software - Operating Systems, Basic commands in Linux / Windows,

Shell scripting (bash). Computer Communications – LAN, MAN, WAN, Client/Server
networks, Peer-to-Peer networks, Topologies. Basics of IP addresses, DHCP, NAT, Network
Security (Desktop & Perimeter), DNS, VPN, Routers, Client-Server, Internet, WWW, Web
servers.

★​ Computer System Software - Operating Systems, Basic commands in Linux / Windows, Shell
scripting (bash).

★​ Computer Communications – LAN, MAN, WAN, Client/Server networks, Peer-to-Peer networks,

Topologies

★​ Basics of IP addresses, DHCP, NAT, Network Security (Desktop & Perimeter), DNS, VPN,
Routers, Client-Server, Internet, WWW, Web servers.

Introduction to Computer System Software and Operating

Systems

Introduction to Computer System Software and Operating Systems

1. Introduction to System Software System software is a type of computer program designed

to manage hardware and provide a platform for running application software. It acts as an
intermediary between the computer hardware and the user applications, ensuring smooth and
efficient operation of the system.

System software is a collection of computer programs that manages the resources of a

computer and facilitates access to those resources. System software acts as an intermediary
between the users and the hardware,as shown in Figure 6.1.

System software presents the user with a set of services and resources across the interface
labeled A in Figure 6.1. These resources may actually exist, or they may be simulated by the
software to give the user the illusion that they exist. The set of services and resources created
by the software and seen by the user is called a virtual machine or a virtual environment.
The system software, not the user, interacts with the actual hardware (that is, the naked
machine) across the interface labeled B in Figure 6.1.
The system software has the following responsibilities, analogous to those of the automobile
dashboard:

●​ Hides the complex and unimportant (to the user) details of the internal structure of the
Von Neumann architecture
●​ Presents important information to the user in a way that is easy to understand
●​ Allows the user to access machine resources in a simple and efficient way
●​ Provides a secure and safe environment in which to operate

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For example, to add two numbers, it is much easier to use simple notation such as a = b + ¢
than to worry about
(1) loading ALU registers from memory cells b and ¢,
(2) activating the ALU,
(3) selecting the output of the addition circuit, and
(4) sending the result to memory cell a.

The programmer should not have to know about registers, addition circuits, and memory
addresses but instead should see a virtual machine that “understands” the mathematical
symbols + and =.

After the program has been written, it should automatically be loaded into memory without the
programmer having to specify where it should be placed or having to set the program counter.
Instead, he or she should be able to issue one simple command (or one set of mouse clicks) to
the virtual machine that says, “Run my program.” Finally, when the program is running and
generating results, the programmer should be able to instruct the virtual machine to send the
program’s output to the printer in Room 105, without reference to the details related to I/O
controllers, interrupt signals, and code sets.All the useful services just described are provided
by the system software available on any modern computer system.

Types of System Software:

1.​ Operating Systems (OS): The most essential software that manages computer
hardware and software resources.(Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android.)
2.​ Utility Programs: Software designed to help in system maintenance and optimization
(e.g., antivirus, disk cleanup tools).
3.​ Device Drivers: Programs that allow the operating system to communicate with
hardware components (e.g., printer drivers, graphics card drivers).
4.​ Firmware: Low-level software embedded in hardware components, providing essential
control functions.(Examples: BIOS, UEFI, Embedded System Firmware.)
5.​ Language Translators:Converts programming code into machine language.
Example:assemblers(masm), Compilers (GCC, Java Compiler), Interpreters (Python,
JavaScript).
6.​ Middleware:Acts as a bridge between applications and the OS. Examples: API Libraries,
Database Middleware.

2. What is an Operating System?

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An Operating System (OS) is the primary system software that manages all the hardware and
software on a computer. It provides an interface for users to interact with the machine and
facilitates the execution of programs.

An operating system may be defined as a collection of computer programs that integrate the
hardware resources of the computer and make those resources available to a user and the
user’s programs, in a way that allows the user access to the computer in a productive, timely,
and efficient manner.

In other words, the operating system acts as an intermediary between the user and the user’s
programs and the hardware of the computer. It makes the resources available to the user and
the user’s programs in a convenient way, on the one hand, and controls and manages the
hardware, on the other.

In serving as an intermediary between the users of computer services and the computer’s
resources, the operating system provides three basic types of services:
1)​ It accepts and processes commands and requests from the user and the user’s
programs and presents appropriate output results.
2)​ It manages, loads, and executes programs.
3)​ It manages the hardware resources of the computer, including the interfaces to
networks and other external parts of the system.

The relationship between the various components of a computer system is shown

schematically in Figure 15.1.

There are ten major blocks to be considered, not all of which will necessarily be found in any
particular operating system:

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1)​ ■ The command processor, application program interface, and user interface
2)​ ■ The file management system
3)​ ■ The input/output control system
4)​ ■ Process control management and interprocess communication
5)​ ■ Memory management
6)​ ■ Scheduling and dispatching
7)​ ■ Secondary storage management
8)​ ■ Network management, communication support, and communication interfaces
9)​ ■ System protection management and security
10)​■ Support for system administration

Some systems also provide a program known as a system manager, commonly known as a
monitor or supervisor, which handles competing requests or conflicts, and which acts as a
general controller and arbiter for the entire system. There are other system functions, such as
accounting and error handling, that are sometimes handled as separate blocks but frequently
appear within the blocks already listed.

In different types of operating systems, some of these components may be combined, or even
absent. An embedded system may not require a file system or memory manager if all its
programs are permanently resident in ROM, for example, but the listed components represent a
collection of the most general operating system requirements.

Figure 15.2 is a simplified diagram showing the relationships between the different
components of an operating system. The diagram focuses on the interactions among the most
user-visible services. Specific multitasking and bootstrapping components are not shown.
These are part of the core services, which also include process and thread management,
resource allocation, scheduling, memory management, security, and interprocess
communication.

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Key Functions of an Operating System:

1.​ Process Management: Handles the execution of multiple processes, ensuring efficient
CPU usage.
2.​ Memory Management: Allocates and manages the computer's RAM, ensuring
processes get the required memory.
3.​ File System Management: Manages the storage, retrieval, and organization of data in
files and directories.
4.​ Device Management: Controls hardware devices by using drivers, ensuring smooth
communication between the OS and peripherals.
5.​ User Interface: Provides a Graphical User Interface (GUI) or Command Line Interface
(CLI) for user interaction.
6.​ Security and Access Control: Protects data and resources from unauthorized access
through user authentication and permissions.

3. Types of Operating Systems:

1.​ Batch Operating System: Executes batches of jobs without user interaction.
2.​ Time-Sharing Operating System: Allows multiple users to access the system
simultaneously.
3.​ Distributed Operating System: Manages a group of networked computers, enabling
them to function as a single system.
4.​ Real-Time Operating System (RTOS): Processes data in real-time, commonly used in
embedded systems.
5.​ Mobile Operating System: Designed for mobile devices (e.g., Android, iOS).

4. Examples of Popular Operating Systems:

1.​ Microsoft Windows

2.​ macOS
3.​ Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora, Kali Linux)
4.​ Android
5.​ iOS

5. Importance of Operating Systems: Operating systems simplify computer usage by handling

complex hardware operations and providing a user-friendly interface. Without an OS, users
would need to manually control hardware resources and run programs, making computing
cumbersome.

6. Conclusion: System software, especially operating systems, plays a vital role in the
functioning of a computer. Understanding their purpose and operation is fundamental for
anyone learning about computers, as they form the backbone of modern technology.

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Types of Linux OS

(Kali Linux is supported on amd64 (x86_64/64-bit) platforms.)

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:

●​ Application software. The most frequently used software is application

software, which is a computer software package that performs a specific function
for a user or, in some cases, for another application. An application can be
self-contained, or it can be a group of programs that run the application for the
user. Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics software,
databases, database management programs, web browsers, word processors,
software development tools, image editors and communication platforms.
(Microsoft Teams, Zoom, and Google Meet;)

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●​ System software. These software programs are designed to run a computer's

application programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities
and functions of the hardware and software. In addition, it controls the operations
of the computer hardware and provides an environment or platform for all the
other types of software to work in. An operating system (OS) is the best example
of system software; it manages all the other computer programs. Other examples
of system software include firmware, computer language translators and system
utilities.
●​ Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered
a type of system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals
connected to a computer, helping them perform their specific tasks. Every device
that's connected to a computer needs at least one device driver to function.
Examples include software that comes with any nonstandard hardware, including
special game controllers, as well as the software that enables standard
hardware, such as USB storage devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.
●​ Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates between
application and system software or between two different kinds of application
software. For example, middleware lets Microsoft Windows talk to Excel and
Word. It's used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer
that has one kind of OS to an application in a computer with a different OS. It
also lets newer applications work with legacy ones.
●​ Programming software. Computer programmers use programming software to
write code. Programming software and programming languages, such as Java or
Python, let developers develop, write, test and debug other software programs.
Examples of programming software include assemblers, compilers, debuggers
and interpreters.

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Familiarization of basic Linux Commands- ls, mkdir, rmdir , rm,

cat, cp, mv , chmod

No: Command Usage Description

The ls command in Linux is one of the most

frequently used commands. It is used to list
1. ls - list files
the contents of a directory. It shows files,
directories, and symbolic links.

The mkdir command in Linux is used to

create directories. It is one of the
2. mkdir - make directory
fundamental commands for managing the file
system.

rmdir is a standard Linux command used to

remove empty directories.
3. rmdir - Removing Directories The rmdir command is used to remove empty
directories. If a directory contains files or
sub directories, rmdir will fail.

The rm command removes the specified

files or directories.
- remove files and By default, rm does not remove directories;
4. rm directories you need to use specific options to remove
directories or their contents.
(Option : -r or -R)

The cat command in Linux is a fundamental

tool used to concatenate and display file
-​ to concatenate
contents. It is frequently utilized to read,
5. cat and display file
create, and combine files, making it a
contents.
versatile and essential command in Linux and
Unix-like systems.

The cp command in Linux is used to copy

6. cp - copy command files and directories from one location to
another.

The mv command in Linux is used to move or

rename files and directories. It is a versatile
7. mv - move command
command for organizing and renaming files
and directories in the filesystem.

The chmod command in Linux is used to

change the permissions of files or
8. chmod - change mode
directories. Permissions control who can
read, write, or execute a file or directory.

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1)​ ls - list files

The ls command in Linux is one of the most frequently used commands. It is used to list
the contents of a directory. It shows files, directories, and symbolic links. Here’s a detailed
explanation of the command, including its syntax, common options, and examples.

Syntax

ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...

OPTION: Flags to modify the behavior of the command.

FILE: The directory or file(s) whose contents you want to list. If omitted, ls lists the
contents of the current directory.

Default Behavior

●​ Without any options, ls lists the contents of the current directory in a simple format.
●​ It does not show hidden files (files starting with a dot .) by default.

Common Options

Option Description
-l Displays contents in a detailed (long) format, including file permissions,
size, and more.
-a Lists all files, including hidden files (starting with .).
-h Shows file sizes in a human-readable format (e.g., 1K, 5M, 3G).
-R Lists contents of directories recursively.
-t Sorts files by modification time (newest first).
-r Reverses the order of the listing.
-S Sorts files by size (largest first).
--colo Adds colors to distinguish file types (e.g., directories in blue, files in white).
r
-d Lists directories themselves, not their contents.
-i Displays the inode number of each file.
--help Displays a help message with usage information.

Understanding the -l Option Output

When you use the ls -l command, it provides detailed information about each file/directory.
For example:

ls -l

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Sample Output:
-rw-r--r-- 1 user group 1234 Nov 30 14:00 file.txt
drwxr-xr-x 2 user group 4096 Nov 30 14:00 mydir

Explanation:

1.​ File Permissions (-rw-r--r--):

○​ The first character: File type (- for files, d for directories, l for symbolic links).
○​ Next nine characters: Permissions for the owner, group, and others (r for
read, w for write, x for execute).
2.​ Number of Links (1): Number of hard links to the file or directory.
3.​ Owner (user): The username of the file's owner.
4.​ Group (group): The group that owns the file.
5.​ Size (1234): File size in bytes.
6.​ Last Modified (Nov 30 14:00): Date and time of the last modification.
7.​ Name (file.txt): Name of the file or directory.

Examples
1. List Files in Current Directory
ls
2. List All Files, Including Hidden Files
ls-a
3. Detailed(long) Listing
ls -l
4.Human-Readable File Sizes
ls -lh
5.Sort by File Size
ls -lS
6.Recursive Listing
ls-R
7.Combine Multiple Options
ls -lah
This will list all files (including hidden ones) in a detailed format with human-readable sizes.

Tips

●​ Use ls --color or configure your terminal to enable colored output for better
visualization.
●​ Combine options for more tailored outputs, like ls -ltr to list files sorted by time
in reverse order.
●​ To explore all available options, use: man ls

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Summary

The ls command is an essential tool for navigating and managing files in Linux. With its
wide range of options, it offers flexibility and customization for displaying directory
contents. It is highly recommended to practice using different combinations of options to
get familiar with its usage.

mkdir - make directory

The mkdir command in Linux is used to create directories. It is one of the fundamental
commands for managing the file system. Here's a detailed explanation of the mkdir
command, including its syntax, options, and examples.

Syntax

mkdir [OPTION]... DIRECTORY...

OPTION: Flags to modify the behavior of the command.

DIRECTORY: Name(s) of the directory (or directories) to be created. Multiple directories can
be specified at once.

Basic Functionality

Without any options, mkdir creates a new directory with the specified name in the current
working directory.

●​ The command will fail if:

1.​ The directory already exists (without the -p option).
2.​ The user lacks the necessary permissions to create directories in the
specified location.

Common Options
Option Description
-p Creates parent directories as needed. Prevents errors if the directory already exists.

-v Displays a message for each directory created (verbose mode).

-m Sets permissions for the new directory in octal mode (e.g., mkdir -m 755).
--help Displays help information about the command.

Details of Common Options

1. -p (Create Parent Directories)

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●​ If you try to create a nested directory (e.g., parent/child) without -p, it will fail if
parent does not exist.
●​ Using -p, mkdir will create all necessary parent directories.

mkdir -p parent/child

2. -v (Verbose Mode)

●​ Prints a confirmation message for every directory created.

mkdir -v mydir
# Output: mkdir: created directory 'mydir'

3. -m (Set Permissions)

●​ Specifies permissions for the new directory at creation time.

●​ Permissions are provided in octal format (e.g., 755 for read/write/execute for the
owner, and read/execute for group and others).

mkdir -m 700 mec

Examples

1. Create a Single Directory

mkdir mydir

2. Create Multiple Directories

mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3

3. Create Nested Directories

mkdir -p projects/python/scripts

4. Set Specific Permissions

mkdir -m 755 shared_folder

5. Verbose Output

mkdir -v newdir

6. Handle Existing Directories Gracefully

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mkdir -p existing_dir

If existing_dir already exists, no error is thrown.

7.Use sudo to create directories in restricted locations:

sudo mkdir /restricted_dir

8.Combine Options:

●​ Use mkdir -pv to create nested directories with confirmation messages.

mkdir -pv projects/java/src

9.Check Directory Creation:

●​ Use ls to verify the new directory:

ls -ld newdir

10.Set Default Permissions:

●​ If the -m option is not used, the directory permissions are determined by the user’s
umask.

Summary

The mkdir command is a simple yet powerful tool for directory management. By using
options like -p for nested directories or -m for permissions, it provides flexibility to suit
various needs. Practicing with this command helps you manage directories efficiently in the
Linux file system.

rmdir - Removing Directories

rmdir: A standard Linux command used to remove empty directories.
The rmdir command is used to remove empty directories. If a directory contains files or
sub directories, rmdir will fail.

Syntax

rmdir [OPTION]... DIRECTORY...

DIRECTORY: Name of the empty directory to remove.

OPTION: Optional flags to modify the behavior of the command.

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-p:Removes the specified directory and any parent directories if they are empty.

rm -r Command

If you need to remove non-empty directories or directories containing files, you use the rm
command with the -r (recursive) option.

-r: Recursively removes directories and their contents.

-f: Forces deletion without prompting for confirmation.

Examples

1.Remove an Empty Directory

rmdir emptydir

2.Remove Multiple Directories

rmdir dir1 dir2

3.Remove Parent Directories

rmdir -p parent/child

4.Remove a Non-Empty Directory

rm -r dir

5.Force Deletion Without Confirmation

rm -rf dir

6.Remove Multiple Directories

rm -r dir1 dir2

Safety Tips for Recursive Deletion

●​ Be Cautious: Using rm -rf can irreversibly delete important files.

●​ Double-Check Path: Always verify the directory path before running the command.
●​ Dry Run: Use ls or tree to preview the contents before deletion

​ ​ tree dir

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Summary

●​ Use rmdir for safely removing empty directories.

●​ Use rm -r for removing directories and their contents.
●​ Always exercise caution with recursive deletion commands like rm -rf.

rm - remove files and directories

Syntax
​ rm [OPTION]... FILE...
OPTION: Flags that modify the behavior of the rm command.
FILE: Name(s) of the file(s) or directory(s) to be removed.

Basic Functionality

●​ The rm command removes the specified files or directories.

●​ By default, rm does not remove directories; you need to use specific options to
remove directories or their contents.
●​ Deleted files and directories cannot be recovered directly through the command.

Common Options
Option Description
-f Force deletion without prompting or showing error messages for
non-existent files.
-i Prompts for confirmation before each file or directory is removed.
-I Prompts once before removing more than three files or recursively
deleting.
-r or -R Removes directories and their contents recursively.
-d Removes empty directories.
--preserve-r Prevents recursive deletion of the root directory / (default
oot behavior).
--help Displays help information about the command.

Examples

1. Remove a Single File

rm file.txt

2. Remove Multiple Files

rm file1.txt file2.txt

3.Remove Empty Directories

rm -d emptydir

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4. Remove a Directory and Its Contents

rm -r dir

5.Force Deletion Without Confirmation

rm -f file.txt

6.Combine Recursive and Force Options

rm -rf dir

7. Interactive Deletion
rm -i file1.txt

8.Prompt for Large or Recursive Deletions

rm -I *

Summary

The rm command is a versatile tool for file and directory management. With options like -r
for recursive deletion, -f for forced deletion, and -i for interactive mode, it offers flexibility
for various scenarios. However, its power comes with responsibility — always double-check
paths and options before executing potentially destructive commands.

cat command
The cat command in Linux is a fundamental tool used to concatenate and display file
contents. It is frequently utilized to read, create, and combine files, making it a versatile and
essential command in Linux and Unix-like systems.

Syntax
cat [OPTION]... [FILE]...

OPTION: Flags that modify the behavior of the cat command.

FILE: Name(s) of the file(s) to be read or processed.

Common Use Cases

1.​ Displaying the contents of a file.

2.​ Creating a new file.
3.​ Appending content to a file.
4.​ Combining multiple files into one.

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Common Options

Option Description
-n Numbers all lines in the output.
-b Numbers only non-empty lines in the output.
-s Suppresses repeated empty lines in the output.
-T Displays tab characters as ^I.
-v Shows non-printable characters (except for tabs and line endings).
-A Combines -vET to show all non-printable characters, end-of-lines, and
tabs.
-e Equivalent to -vE; shows non-printable characters and end-of-line markers.
-E Displays $ at the end of each line.

Examples

1. Display the Contents of a File

cat file.txt

2.Display Multiple Files

cat file1.txt file2.txt

3.Number All Lines

cat -n file.txt

4. Number Only Non-Empty Lines

cat -b file.txt

5.Show End-of-Line Markers

cat -E file.txt

6.Create a File

You can use cat to create a file and input text directly from the terminal.Type the content,
and press CTRL+D to save and exit:

cat > newfile.txt

7.Append to a File
cat >> existingfile.txt

8.Concatenate Files
cat file1.txt file2.txt > combined.txt

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9.Show Non-Printable Characters

cat -v file.txt

10.Concatenate and View with Line Numbers

cat -n file1.txt file2.txt

11.Combine and Redirect Output

cat file1.txt file2.txt > mergedfile.txt

Tips and Best Practices

1.​ Avoid Overwriting by Mistake

○​ Be cautious when using > as it overwrites the target file.
○​ Use >> to append instead of overwriting.
2.​ Verify Commands
○​ Double-check file paths and options to prevent data loss, especially when
overwriting or appending.
3.​ Combine with Other Commands
○​ Pipe the output of cat to other utilities like grep, less, or wc

​ ​ ​ cat file.txt | grep "pattern"

Summary

The cat command is an indispensable utility in Linux for managing and viewing files. Its
simplicity and flexibility make it a favorite for both basic and advanced text operations.
With options like -n, -b, and -s, it provides detailed control over file output and
manipulation. Always use it carefully, especially when overwriting or appending data.

cp - copy command
The cp command in Linux is used to copy files and directories from one location to
another. It is one of the fundamental file management commands and supports a variety of
options to handle permissions, symbolic links, and directory structures effectively.

Syntax
cp [OPTION]... SOURCE... DESTINATION

OPTION: Flags that modify the behavior of the cp command.

SOURCE: The file(s) or directory(s) to copy.
DESTINATION: The target location where the file(s) or directory(s) should be copied.

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Common Use Cases

1.​ Copying a single file to a new location.

2.​ Copying multiple files to a directory.
3.​ Copying directories, including their contents, recursively.

Common Options
Option Description
-a Archive mode: Preserves file attributes (e.g., ownership,
permissions, timestamps). Equivalent to -dR
--preserve=all.
-f Force overwriting existing files without prompting.
-i Interactive mode: Prompts before overwriting files.
-n No clobber: Prevents overwriting existing files.
-r or -R Recursive: Copies directories and their contents recursively.
-v Verbose: Displays detailed information about the copying
process.
-u Updates files only if the source file is newer than the destination
file or if the destination file does not exist.
--preserve Specifies which attributes to preserve (e.g., mode, ownership,
timestamps).
--no-preserve Specifies attributes not to preserve.

--backup Creates a backup of files that are about to be overwritten.

--help Displays help information about the command.
Examples
1. Copy a Single File
cp file1.txt /home/user/documents/

2. Copy and Rename a File

cp file1.txt file2.txt

3.Copy Multiple Files

cp file1.txt file2.txt /home/user/documents/

4. Copy Directories Recursively

cp -r /home/user/source_dir /home/user/backup_dir

5. Copy with Overwrite Confirmation

cp -i file1.txt /home/user/documents/

6. Preserve File Attributes

cp -a file1.txt /home/user/documents/

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7. Verbose Mode
cp -v file1.txt file2.txt /home/user/documents/
Displays the files being copied:

8. Copy Files Only if Updated

cp -u file1.txt /home/user/documents/

9. Backup Before Overwriting

cp --backup file1.txt /home/user/documents/

Tips and Best Practices

1.​ Use -i for Safe Copying

○​ Always use -i when working with critical files to avoid accidental overwrites.
2.​ Preserve Attributes with -a
○​ When creating backups or migrating files, use -a to maintain file metadata.
3.​ Verify Files with ls
○​ After copying, list the contents of the destination directory to confirm the
operation:
4.​ Use -u to Save Time
●​ When copying large directories, -u ensures only updated files are copied, saving
time and resources.

Summary

The cp command is a versatile and powerful tool for copying files and directories in Linux.
With options like -r for recursive copying, -a for preserving attributes, and -i for
interactive mode, it provides flexibility and control over the copying process. Always
double-check source and destination paths to prevent accidental overwrites or data loss.

mv - move command
he mv command in Linux is used to move or rename files and directories. It is a versatile
command for organizing and renaming files and directories in the filesystem.

Syntax
mv [OPTIONS] SOURCE DESTINATION

SOURCE: The file(s) or directory(s) you want to move or rename.

DESTINATION: The target location or new name for the file or directory.

Common Options

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Option Description
-i Interactive: Prompts for confirmation before overwriting existing files.
-f Force: Moves files without prompting, even if overwriting.
-n No-clobber: Prevents overwriting existing files.
-u Updates: Only moves files if the source is newer than the destination or
missing.
-v Verbose: Displays the details of the move process.

Usage

1. Move a File

mv file1.txt /home/user/documents/
2. Rename a File
mv file1.txt renamed_file.txt

3.Move Multiple Files

mv file1.txt file2.txt /home/user/documents/

4.Move a Directory
mv /source_directory /destination_directory/

5.Interactive Mode
mv -i file1.txt /home/user/documents/

6. No Overwrite
mv -n file1.txt /home/user/documents/

7. Verbose Mode
mv -v file1.txt /home/user/documents/

8.Conditional Move (Update Mode)

mv -u file1.txt /home/user/documents/

Differences Between mv and cp

Aspect mv cp
Operation Moves the file (removes it from the source). Copies the file (source remains intact).

Permissions Requires write permissions at both locations. Requires read permissions at source and
write at destination.

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Summary
The mv command is a straightforward yet powerful utility for file and directory
management. Its ability to rename and move files or directories, coupled with options for
interactive mode, verbose output, and safe handling, makes it essential for organizing and
maintaining a Linux filesystem. Always use caution when moving files, especially across
different directories, to avoid unintended data loss.

chmod- change mode

The chmod command in Linux is used to change the permissions of files or directories.
Permissions control who can read, write, or execute a file or directory.

Syntax

chmod [OPTIONS] MODE FILE/DIRECTORY

●​ MODE: Specifies the new permissions, either symbolically (letters) or numerically

(octal).
●​ FILE/DIRECTORY: The target file or directory to which permissions are applied.

File Permissions in Linux

Each file or directory has three types of permissions for three categories of users:

Permission Types
Permission Symbol Description
Read r Allows reading the file or listing the directory.
Write w Allows modifying the file or creating/deleting files in a
directory.
Execute x Allows executing a file or accessing a directory.

User Categories
User Symb Description
ol
Owner u The file's creator or owner.
Group g Users in the file's group.
Others o All other users.
All a Represents u, g, and o combined.

Displaying Current Permissions

You can view permissions using the ls -l command:
ls -l file.txt

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output:
-rw-r--r-- 1 user group 1234 date file.txt
Here:

●​ -rw-r--r-- represents the permissions:

○​ r: Read
○​ w: Write
○​ x: Execute
●​ The breakdown is:
○​ Owner: rw- (read, write)
○​ Group: r-- (read)
○​ Others: r-- (read)

Setting Permissions

1. Using Symbolic Mode

Symbolic mode modifies permissions by adding (+), removing (-), or setting explicitly (=)
for specific categories.

Example 1: Grant Execute Permission to Owner

chmod u+x file.txt

Example 2: Remove Write Permission for Group

chmod g-w file.txt

Example 3: Set Read-Only Permission for All

chmod a=r file.txt

2. Using Numeric (Octal) Mode

Numeric mode uses a three-digit octal number to set permissions. Each digit represents
the permissions for owner, group, and others:

Permission Octal Value

--- 0
--x 1
-w- 2
-wx 3
r-- 4
r-x 5
rw- 6
rwx 7

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Example 1: Set rwx for Owner, r-- for Group, and --- for Others
chmod 740 file.txt

Example 2: Make a File Executable by Everyone

chmod 777 script.sh

Options
Option Description
-R Recursive: Changes permissions for files and
subdirectories.
--verbose Displays a message for each file processed.
--help Displays help for the command.

Examples

1. Change Permissions for Multiple Files

chmod 644 file1.txt file2.txt

2. Apply Permissions Recursively

chmod -R 755 /var/www/

3. Combine Permissions Symbolically

chmod u+x,g-w,o+r file.txt

4. Make a Directory Accessible to Everyone

chmod 777 /shared_directory/

Best Practices

1.​ Avoid Over-Permissive Settings​

Avoid using 777 unless necessary, as it grants all users unrestricted access.
2.​ Use Recursive Option Cautiously​
When using -R, double-check the target directory to prevent unintended permission
changes.
3.​ Combine Symbolic and Numeric Modes​
Use symbolic mode for flexibility and numeric mode for precision.

Summary
The chmod command is a fundamental tool for managing file and directory security in
Linux. By understanding symbolic and numeric modes and their appropriate use cases, you
can control access effectively and maintain system security.

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Familiarization of Basic Windows Command:

Basic Windows Commands for Beginners:

Windows Command Prompt (CMD) is a powerful tool that allows users to interact with the
operating system directly. Learning basic commands can enhance troubleshooting skills and
improve productivity.

Essential Windows commands with simple explanations and examples.

1. Opening Command Prompt

●​ Command: cmd
●​ Explanation: Opens the Command Prompt.
●​ Example:
1.​ Press Windows + R.
2.​ Type cmd and press Enter.

2. Displaying Current Directory

●​ Command: cd
●​ Explanation: Displays or changes the current directory.
●​ Example:​
cd Documents​
Changes to the Documents directory.

3. Viewing Files and Folders

●​ Command: dir
●​ Explanation: Lists files and directories in the current directory.
●​ Example:​
dir​
Shows all files and folders in the current location.

4. Creating a New Folder

●​ Command: mkdir
●​ Explanation: Creates a new directory.
●​ Example:​
mkdir NewFolder​
Creates a folder named NewFolder.

5. Deleting a Folder

●​ Command: rmdir
●​ Explanation: Removes a directory (must be empty).
●​ Example:​
rmdir OldFolder​
Deletes the OldFolder directory.

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6. Deleting Files

●​ Command: del
●​ Explanation: Deletes files.
●​ Example:​
del file.txt​
Deletes the file named file.txt.

7. Renaming Files or Folders

●​ Command: rename
●​ Explanation: Renames a file or folder.
●​ Example:​
rename oldfile.txt newfile.txt​
Renames oldfile.txt to newfile.txt.

8. Copying Files

●​ Command: copy
●​ Explanation: Copies files from one location to another.
●​ Example:​
copy file.txt D:\Backup​
Copies file.txt to the Backup folder in drive D.

9. Moving Files

●​ Command: move
●​ Explanation: Moves files to a new location.
●​ Example:​
move file.txt D:\Documents​
Moves file.txt to the Documents folder in drive D.

10. Clearing the Screen

●​ Command: cls
●​ Explanation: Clears the Command Prompt screen.
●​ Example:​
cls​
Clears the current screen

11. Viewing Network Information

●​ Command: ipconfig
●​ Explanation: Displays IP address and network details.
●​ Example:​
ipconfig​
Shows network configuration and IP address.

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12. Checking Connectivity (Ping)

●​ Command: ping
●​ Explanation: Tests connectivity to a website or IP address.
●​ Example:​
ping google.com​
Checks if Google is reachable.

13. Shutting Down the Computer

●​ Command: shutdown
●​ Explanation: Shuts down or restarts the computer.
●​ Example:​
shutdown /s /t 60​
Shuts down the computer in 60 seconds.

14. Exiting Command Prompt

●​ Command: exit
●​ Explanation: Closes the Command Prompt.
●​ Example:​
exit​
Exits the terminal.

To close or exit the Windows command line window, also called command or cmd mode or
DOS mode, type exit and press Enter .

★​ notepad ec - To create a text file in cmd

Learning basic Windows commands helps students gain confidence in navigating and
managing files efficiently. These commands form the foundation for more advanced
system management tasks.

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Computer Communications
LAN , WAN and MAN
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN connects devices within a limited area, like an office building, school, or campus.
The goal of a LAN is to share resources (e.g., files, printers, software) among devices in
close proximity.

Technical Details:
●​ Hardware: LANs commonly use Ethernet cables, switches, and routers. Wireless
LANs (Wi-Fi) use access points (APs).
●​ Topology: Common topologies (arrangements of devices) in LANs include star, bus,
and ring.
●​ Protocols: LANs use standard protocols such as Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) or Wi-Fi
(IEEE 802.11).
●​ Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It
was first standardized in the 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard.

Example: Imagine an office building where all employees' computers are connected to a
central server. They can share files, access applications, and use a common printer. This
setup is efficient because it limits data flow to a small area, optimizing speed and reducing
data transfer costs.

Advantages:
●​ High Data Transfer Speeds: Up to 10 Gbps or more in some cases.
●​ Low Cost: Less costly to set up and maintain compared to MANs and WANs.
●​ Security: Easier to control access and secure devices within a small area.
Limitations:
●​ Limited Range: Only suitable for small geographic areas.
●​ Scaling: Expanding a LAN to cover larger areas can be challenging and requires
careful design.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN connects multiple LANs within a specific geographic area, like a city or large
campus. MANs are typically used by organizations that need to share resources across
multiple buildings or locations within a city.

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Technical Details:
●​ Hardware: MANs often use fiber-optic cables or microwave links to maintain higher
speeds across distances.
●​ Protocols: MANs may use protocols like Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
●​ Transmission Media: Fiber optics and microwave systems are popular due to their
efficiency in medium-range distances.

Example: Consider a university with multiple campuses across a city. A MAN can connect
each campus’s LAN to enable seamless data exchange, centralized resource access, and
secure communications between campuses.

Advantages:
●​ Extended Range: Covers a large area (up to a city or town) while still maintaining
moderate speeds.
●​ Efficient Resource Sharing: Allows organizations to share data and applications
efficiently across multiple sites.
●​ Cost-Effective for City Networks: MANs are more affordable than WANs for city-level
networking.

Limitations:
●​ Moderate Cost: More expensive than LANs because of the larger geographic area
and the need for specialized hardware.
●​ Complex Management: Requires advanced network management due to multiple
locations and devices.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN spans large distances, connecting LANs and MANs across countries or continents.
WANs allow organizations to operate globally, providing a way to communicate and share
data over long distances.

Technical Details:
●​ Hardware: WANs utilize a combination of leased lines, satellites, fiber optics, and
cellular networks.

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●​ Protocols: WANs rely on protocols such as MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching),

Frame Relay, and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
●​ Internet Integration: The internet itself is a vast WAN, relying on various
technologies to interconnect LANs and MANs worldwide.

Example: Large corporations like Amazon or Google have offices worldwide that need to
communicate and share data constantly. A WAN allows these offices to operate as part of
the same network, despite being in different countries.
Advantages:
●​ Global Reach: Enables global operations and remote work by connecting locations
across vast distances.
●​ Redundancy: WANs often include redundant paths to ensure reliability.
●​ Flexibility: Supports various types of data, including voice, video, and text.

Limitations:
●​ High Cost: Setting up and maintaining a WAN is expensive due to the infrastructure
required.
●​ Lower Speed: Data speeds are generally lower than LANs and MANs because of
the extensive distances and multiple network hops involved.
●​ Security Concerns: Managing security across such a large network is complex,
with more exposure to potential threats.

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