SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES UNIT 1

UNIT 1CONTENT
Induction Machines: Concept of constant torque and constant power controls, SEIG,
DFIG: Operating Principle, Equivalent Circuit, Characteristics, Applications, Linear
Induction Motors. Construction, principle of operation, Linear force, and applications.
Two Phase AC Servomotors: Construction, torque-speed characteristics, performance
and applications.
CONCEPT OF CONSTANT TORQUE AND CONSTANT
POWER CONTROLS
In an induction motor, "constant torque control" means maintaining a
consistent output torque across a range of speeds, typically at
lower speeds, while "constant power control" refers to keeping the
output power constant as the speed increases, achieved by
allowing the torque to decrease proportionally with speed, usually
at higher speeds; both are primarily managed by adjusting the
voltage and frequency supplied to the motor using a variable
frequency drive (VFD).
CONSTANT TORQUE REGION:
Below the "base speed" of the motor, where the V/f (voltage to frequency) ratio is
kept constant, ensuring the magnetic flux remains relatively stable and thus producing
a consistent torque regardless of speed.
Applications: conveyors, crushers, pumps operating at low speeds.
CONSTANT POWER REGION:
Above the base speed, where the V/f ratio is gradually reduced, causing the torque
to decrease inversely proportional to speed, while maintaining a constant power
output.
Applications: fans, centrifugal pumps operating at high speeds where power demand
remains relatively constant despite increasing speed.

Selecting the appropriate control mode (constant torque or constant power)

depends on the load characteristics, whether it requires consistent torque at
varying speeds or constant power at increasing speeds.
INDUCTION GENERATOR
A three-phase induction motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
When the same machine starts converting mechanical energy in to electrical energy, it
is called as an induction generator.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

When 3-phase AC supply in given to the stator winding of a 3-phase wound induction
machine, a revolving field is produced in the stator core which rotates at synchronous
speed. Current is induced in the rotor conductors and torque develops by the
interaction of rotor and stator fields. Rotor starts rotating at a speed less then
synchronous speed.
Now, if the rotor is accelerated to the synchronous speed by means of a prime mover,
the slip will become zero and hence the torque will be zero. The rotor current will
become zero. The machine will just float on the bus-bars. At this stage, the machine is
neither receiving any power nor delivering any power to the mains.
CONTD.
If the rotor is further accelerated and the rotor speed is increased more than the
synchronous speed, the slip will become negative. The rotor conductors will generate
current in opposite direction since they are cutting stator magnetic field due to
relative speed between the rotor conductors and the stator revolving field.
This generated rotor current produces a rotating magnetic field in the rotor which
applies thrust on to the stator field in opposite direction. Consequently, an emf is
generated in the stator winding which is larger than the applied voltage and acts in
opposite direction. This pushes the current to flow out of the machine, thus the machine
starts working as an induction generator.
CONTD.
In order to develop rotating magnetic field, it requires magnetizing current and
draws reactive power from the mains. At the same instant, it supplies active power to
the mains as shown in Fig., proportional to the slip above the synchronous speed. It
shows that an induction generator cannot work in isolation because it continuously
requires reactive power from the supply mains.
The problem can be solved by connecting a capacitor bank to supply reactive power
equivalent to the reactive power which was earlier supplied by the mains
ISOLATED INDUCTION GENERATOR
Isolated induction generator is also called a self-excited induction generator. It is
called self-excited because in isolation when the rotor of induction generator is
rotated at an enough speed, a small voltage is generated across the stator terminals
due to residual magnetism.
This small voltage produces current to pass through the capacitor bank connected
across the stator terminals. The capacitor bank provides the further reactive power
for magnetization.
ISOLATED INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTD.
If the bank of delta connected capacitors is operated in parallel with induction
generator then the reactive power requirement of induction generator is met by
capacitors. This arrangement is shown in Fig.
ISOLATED INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTD.
In case of self excited induction generators, the bank of delta connected capacitors
supply the necessary magnetizing current for exciting the generator. With the load
put on the generator, the operating frequency of the stator changes. It depends on
rotor speed and is affected by the load. The voltage is primarily decided by the
capacitor's capacitive reactance at that operating frequency. The equivalent circuit
on per phase basis is as shown in the Fig. on next page.
ISOLATED INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTD.
VOLTAGE BUILDUP IN ISOLATED INDUCTION
GENERATOR…CONTD.
An induction machine can also work as a generator without any external supply
system. It's called an isolated induction generator. To provide the necessary excitation
in the machine, a delta connected capacitor bank is connected across the terminals of
it (see the figure).
The presence of residual magnetic flux is necessary to provide the initial excitation in
the machine. If there is no residual magnetic flux, then, initially, the machine has to run
as an induction motor to create residual magnetic flux.
To start the machine action as a generator, at no load, the machine is made to run
slightly above the synchronous speed with the help of a prime mover. Consequently, a
small EMF is induced in the stator at a frequency proportional to the rotor speed.
VOLTAGE BUILDUP IN ISOLATED INDUCTION
GENERATOR…CONTD.
The induced voltage appears across the delta connected 3-phase capacitor bank
giving rise to a leading current drawn by the capacitor bank. This leading current is
equivalent to the lagging current supplied back to the generator. A magnetic flux is
set up by this current which assists the initial residual flux causing an increase in the
net flux of the machine.
The increase in the net flux causes a net increase in the generated voltage. This
increase in the induced voltage causes further increase in the terminal voltage. This
voltage build-up by the induction generator continues up to a point where the
magnetization characteristic of the machine and the voltage-current (V-IC)
characteristic of the capacitor bank intersect each other (see the characteristic figure
as shown on next page)
VOLTAGE BUILDUP IN ISOLATED INDUCTION
GENERATOR…CONTD.
VOLTAGE BUILDUP IN ISOLATED INDUCTION
GENERATOR…CONTD.
At the point of intersection of the magnetization characteristics of the machine and
the voltage-current characteristics of the capacitor bank, the reactive power (kVAR)
demanded by the generator is equal to the reactive power supplied by the capacitor
bank.
The operating frequency of the induction generator depends upon the rotor speed
and is affected by the load. The voltage of the induction generator is mainly
governed by the capacitive reactance of the capacitor bank at the operating
frequency.
The induction generator suffers from a very serious disadvantage that is, for a load
of lagging power factor, the voltage of an induction generator collapses very
rapidly.
ISOLATED INDUCTION GENERATOR PHASOR
DIAGRAM
KEY POINTS OF ISOLATED OR SELF EXCITED
INDUCTION GENERATOR
Advantages
1. Induction generators do not require commutator and brush arrangement as it is needed for synchronous generators and hence these are more
rugged.
2. These are more simple and robust in construction and operation (mechanically and electrically) than other generators.
3. Lower cost & maintenance compared to synchronous generators.
4. Effective for small & medium power applications (typically up to a few hundred kW).
Disadvantages
1. Poor Voltage and Frequency Regulation: The output voltage and frequency depend on load and rotor speed. Any change in load causes
2. SEIGs rely on residual magnetism in the rotor for initial excitation. If the residual magnetism is lost (e.g., due to long storage or demagnetization),
the generator will fail to self-excite unless re-magnetized externally.
3. Poor Performance Under Variable Loads: load fluctuations result in voltage and frequency variation.
4. SEIGs do not allow independent control over voltage and frequency since both depend on the capacitor size, speed, and load conditions.
5. SEIGs need capacitor banks to supply reactive power for self-excitation. Choosing the correct capacitor size is critical for proper operation and
efficiency. Improper capacitor selection may lead to over-voltage or under-voltage issues.
6. SEIGs generally have lower efficiency and power factor compared to synchronous generators, especially under varying load conditions.
APPLICATIONS
Self-Excited Induction Generators (SEIGs) are commonly used in off-grid and standalone
power generation applications, where a reliable and cost-effective energy source is required.
Applications:
1. Used in small-scale wind turbines, particularly in remote locations, as they are rugged and
require less maintenance compared to synchronous generators.
2. Small Hydro Power Plants: SEIGs are used in micro-hydro and pico-hydro power plants for
rural electrification.
3. EIGs are ideal for providing electricity to remote villages, farms, and isolated communities
where grid power is unavailable.
4. Used as backup Power for Agricultural Equipment. SEIGs are also employed to run water
pumps, threshers, and grinders in off-grid locations.
CONCEPT AND EXAMPLES OF CONSTANT TORQUE LOAD,
CONSTANT POWER LOAD AND VARIABLE TORQUE LOAD
TYPES OF LOADS:

Type 1 – CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS

Constant torque loads require the same amount of torque at low speeds as at high
speeds. Torque remains constant throughout the speed range, and the horsepower
increases and decreases in direct proportion to the speed. Constant torque loads
include most positive displacement and reciprocating pumps and compressors as well
as traction drives and conveyors. With constant torque loads, the torque is not a
function of speed. As speed is changed, the load torque will remain fairly constant
and the horsepower will change linearly with the speed.
For example, if the speed increases by 50%, then the power required to drive the
operation will increase 50% while the torque remains constant.
Type 2 – CONSTANT POWER LOADS
Constant horsepower loads require high torque at low speeds and low torque at high
speeds, which means constant horsepower at any speed. Constant horsepower loads
include grinders, winding machines and lathes. For constant horsepower loads, the
torque loading is a function of speed up to 100% operating speed. As the speed of
the operation is decreased, the torque increases so that the horsepower required
remains essentially constant.
Type 3 – VARIABLE TORQUE LOADS
Variable torque loads require much lower torque at low speeds than at high speeds.
The torque required varies as the square of the speed and the horsepower required
varies as the cube of the speed. Variable torque loads include most centrifugal and
axial pumps, fans and blowers and many mixers and agitators.
As the speed is decreased, the torque will decrease by the square of the speed
decrease and the horsepower required decreases by the cube of the speed
decrease.
As an example, when the speed of a variable torque load is reduced by 50% or one
half, the torque required to drive the load is reduced to one-quarter or 25%. The
horsepower is reduced to the speed cubed, which is 1/8, or 12.5% of that required
to drive the load at full speed.