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Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 2

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION​ 5
A. AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS​ 7
1. Flight Limitations​ 7
2. Maximum Structural Weights​ 19
3. Minimum Structural Weight​ 22
4. Environmental Envelope​ 22
5. Engine Limitations​ 23
B. OPERATING SPEEDS​ 25
1. Common Speeds​ 25
2. Takeoff Speeds​ 28
3. Landing Speeds​ 33
4. Cruise Speeds​ 35
C. TAKEOFF​ 36
1. Introduction​ 36
2. Ground limitations​ 37
3. Performance limitations​ 44
4. Factors of influence​ 67
5. Maximum Performance Takeoff Weight​ 74
6. Takeoff on Wet or Contaminated Runways​ 87
7. Reduced Takeoff Thrust​ 100
8. Specific Guidance for Engine Failure Procedure​ 105
9. Return To Land​ 111
D. IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE​ 114
1. Climb​ 114
2. Cruise​ 120
3. Descent/Holding​ 141
E. IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE​ 148
1. Engine Failure​ 148
2. Pressurization Failure​ 157
3. ETOPS Flight​ 161
4. Guidance to Route Studies​ 163
F. LANDING​ 168
1. Introduction​ 168
2. Landing limitations​ 168
3. Go-Around limitations​ 181
G. FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT​ 193
1. EASA – Fuel/ energy planning and management​ 193
2. FAA – Fuel/Energy Planning and Management​ 210

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 3

APPENDIX​ 219
APPENDIX 1: International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)​ 219
APPENDIX 2:Temperatures for Aircraft Operations​ 225
APPENDIX 3: Altimetry​ 227
APPENDIX 4: Speeds​ 239
APPENDIX 5: Flight Mechanics​ 243
APPENDIX 6: Aeronautical Information Publication​ 252
APPENDIX 7: Use of SNOWTAM in operations​ 253
APPENDIX 8 : Abbreviations and Symbols​ 257

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 4

INTRODUCTION

The safety of air transportation is a combined effort, regulated by the State on one
side, and used by the manufacturers, airlines and Air Traffic Controllers (ATC), on
the other. It is the responsibility of the State to supervise civil aviation, to ensure
that a high safety standard is maintained throughout the industry, and its primary
method to implement this is via the definition, and the management of written
regulations. The control process includes a fixed set of rules to ensure that all
aircraft respect a minimum level of performance that therefore results in the
definition of limitations.

The "State administration" generally includes the civil aviation authority that
corresponds to the aircraft's country of registration. In the United States for
example, this position is the responsibility of the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA). In France, it is the responsibility of the “Direction Générale de l’Aviation
Civile” (DGAC).

Every country has its own regulations, but the international characteristics of air
transportation takes into account that there are rules that must be followed
worldwide. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was therefore
created in 1948, to provide a supranational council, to assist in the definition of
the minimum recommended standards that must be complied with internationally.
The Chicago Convention was signed on December 7, 1944, and has become the
legal foundation for civil aviation worldwide.

In Europe, the regulations evolved over time, under different authorities: the Joint
Aviation Authorities (JAA) requirements are now the European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) regulatory measures. This document mentions the most updated
EASA Certification Specifications (CS), but the applicable certification regulation
can be different depending on the aircraft.

Although it is usual for each country to select the main airworthiness standards
defined together with aircraft manufacturers (USA, Europe, Canada, etc.), every
country has its own set of operational regulations. For example, some countries
(mainly European) selected EASA Air OPS (formerly JAR-OPS), while some
others follow the FAA FAR 121.

The "field of limitations" is therefore dependent on a combination of the following

two areas:
●​ Airworthiness: This involves the design of the aircraft (limitations,
performance data etc.), in relation to EASA CS 25 or FAA FAR 25.
●​ Operations: This involves the technical operating rules (takeoff and landing
limitations, fuel planning, etc.), in relation to EASA AIR OPS or FAA FAR
121.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 5​ INTRODUCTION

 There are airworthiness and operational regulations for all aircraft types. This
document is about Airbus aircraft, that is aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight
that exceeds 57 000 kg. Airbus performance documentation is clearly divided into
the two above-mentioned categories: Airworthiness and Operations.
●​ Airworthiness: The Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) is associated with the
airworthiness certificate and contains certified performance data in
compliance with EASA CS 25/FAA FAR 25.
●​ Operations: The Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM) can be seen as
the AOM (aircraft-related portion of the Operations Manual), that contains
all the necessary limitations, procedures and performance data for aircraft
operation.

The following table (Table 1) illustrates the regulatory basis for large aircraft:

ICAO EUROPE (EASA) USA (FAA)

Annex 8
Airworthiness to the Chicago CS 25 FAR part 25
Convention
Annex 6
Operating Rules to the Chicago AIR OPS FAR part 121
Convention
​

Table 1: Large Aircraft Regulatory Requirements

Most Airbus aircraft are primarily CS 25 (or a previous applicable standard)

certified. However, compliance with the operating rules remains under the
responsibility of the airline.

This document is about the Airbus civil aircraft performance. The aircraft
performance is the analysis of the payload capabilities of an aircraft (takeoff, in
flight and landing), depending on several conditions.
It takes into account three different characteristics of aircraft performance:
●​ The physical characteristics: This document provides reminders about
flight mechanics, aerodynamics, altimetry, influence of external parameters
on aircraft performance, flight optimization concepts…
●​ The regulatory characteristics: The description of the main EASA and FAA
certification and operating rules, that results in the establishment of
limitations. For a clear understanding, regulatory extracts are quoted to
help make a specific subject clear. In these cases, the text is written in
italics and in blue (certification) or green (operational) color, and the
exact references are clearly indicated to the reader.
●​ The operational aspect: The description of operational methods,
operational procedures and pilot’s actions.
●​ The ICAO guidelines: when applicable, the ICAO references are written in
italics and in orange (recommendations).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 6​ INTRODUCTION

A.​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS
1.​FLIGHT LIMITATIONS
1.1.​LOAD FACTORS
Aircraft are designed to be resistant to several flight loads that mainly come from
engines, wind gusts and maneuver cases. During the flight, load factors (nz), e.g.
maneuver and turbulence, may appear and increase loads on the aircraft. The
load factors have an impact on the maximum weights and maximum speeds.

CS 25.301 Subpart C FAR 25.301 Subpart C

CS 25.303 Subpart C FAR 25.303 Subpart C
CS 25.305 Subpart C FAR 25.305 Subpart C
CS 25.307 Subpart C FAR 25.307 Subpart C
CS 25.321 Subpart C FAR 25.321 Subpart C
CS 25.1531 Subpart G FAR 25.1531 Subpart G

CS/FAR 25.301 Loads

“(a) Strength requirements are specified in terms of limit loads (the maximum
loads to be expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied by
prescribed factors of safety). Unless otherwise provided, prescribed loads are limit
loads.”

CS/FAR 25.321 Flight Loads

“(a) Flight Load Factors represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force component
(acting normal to the assumed longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the weight of
the airplane. A positive load factor is one in which the aerodynamic force acts
upward with respect to the airplane.”

𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝑛𝑧 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Except when the lift force is equal to the weight (W) and nz=1 (for example, in
straight and level flight), the aircraft apparent weight (Wa) is different from its
actual weight (mg):

𝑊𝑎 = 𝑛𝑧. 𝑚. 𝑔 = 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡

In some cases, the load factor is more than 1 (bank turn, recovery, turbulence). In
other cases, it may be less than 1 (clear air turbulence). The aircraft structure is
designed to be resistant to load factors, as defined by the regulations. As a result,
load factor limits are defined, so that an aircraft can operate within these limits
without suffering permanent distortion of its structure. The extreme loads that can
cause rupture, are usually 1.5 times the load factor limit.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 7​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 CS / FAR 25.1531 Maneuvering flight load factors

“Load factor limitations, not exceeding the positive limit load factors determined
from the maneuvering diagram in section 25.333 (b) must be established.”

For all Airbus types, the load acceleration limits for flight maneuvering are
established as follows:

1.2.​MAXIMUM SPEEDS
1.2.1.​Maximum Airspeeds

CS 25.1501 Subpart G FAR 25.1501 Subpart G

“(a) Each operating limitation specified in sections 25.1503 to 25.1533 and other
limitations and information necessary for safe operation must be established.”

CS 25.1503 Subpart G FAR 25.1501 Subpart G

CS 25.1505 Subpart G FAR 25.1505 Subpart G
CS 25.1507 Subpart G FAR 25.1507 Subpart G
CS 25.1511 Subpart G FAR 25.1511 Subpart G
CS 25.1515 Subpart G FAR 25.1515 Subpart G
CS 25.1517 Subpart G FAR 25.1517 Subpart G

CS/FAR 25.1503 Airspeed Limitations: General

“When airspeed limitations are a function of weight, weight distribution, altitude, or

Mach number, the limitations corresponding to each critical combination of these
factors must be established.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 8​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

OPERATING SPEED VALUE
LIMIT DEFINITIONS EXAMPLES​
SPEED FOR THE A320-200

CS / FAR 25.1505 Subpart G

VMO/MMO
Maximum
VMO or MMO are the speeds that may not
Operating V = 350 kt (IAS)
be intentionally exceeded in any phase of MO
Limit MMO = M0.82
flight (climb, cruise, or descent).
Speeds
CS / FAR 25.1511 Subpart G CONF1 230 kt
VFE CONF1+F 215 kt
Flaps VFE must be established, so that it does CONF2 200 kt
Extended not exceed the design flap speed. CONF3 185 kt
Speeds CONFULL 177 kt

CS / FAR 25.1515 Subpart G

VLO: Landing Gear Operating Speed

VLO may not exceed the speed at which it
is safe to extend and to retract the landing
gear. If the extension speed is not the V
LO RET (landing gear
same as the retraction speed, the two operating: retraction)
speeds must be determined as VLO(EXT) 220 kt (IAS)
and VLO(RET), respectively.
VLO / VLE
VLO EXT (landing gear
Landing CS / FAR 25.1515 Subpart G operating: extension)
Gear
250 kt (IAS)
Speeds VLE: Landing Gear Extended Speed
VLE may not exceed the speed at which it V (landing gear
LE
is safe to fly with the landing gear secured extended)
in the fully extended position. 280 kt / M 0.67
Note: With the same considerations, Airbus
also published Landing Gear Operating Mach
(MLO) and Landing Gear Extended Mach
(MLE).

Table A-1 Maximum Operating Speeds

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 9​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

The maximum speeds are indicated by a red and black strip on the PFD scale
(Illustration A-1).

Illustration A-1: Maximum Speed on the PFD

1.2.2.​Maximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBE

Brakes require a minimum stopover time to cool and recover full efficiency after
each use.

When the takeoff is rejected, brakes and the aerodynamic drag must absorb and
eliminate the aircraft’s kinetic energy. When rejected at V1, this energy
corresponds to:
1 2
(
2
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 · 𝑉1 )

CS 25.109 Subpart B FAR 25.109 Subpart B

“(i) A flight test demonstration of the maximum brake kinetic energy

accelerate-stop distance must be conducted with no more than 10% of the
allowable brake wear range remaining on each of the aeroplane wheel brakes.”

Brakes have a maximum energy absorbent capacity, known as the maximum

brake energy. For certification purposes, this capacity must be demonstrated with
worn brakes (only post-amendment FAR 25-42). As a result, the speed at which a
full stop can be achieved, for a specific takeoff weight, is limited to a maximum
value (VMBE).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 10​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 1.2.3.​Maximum Tire Speed: VTIRE

The tire manufacturer specifies the maximum ground speed, in order to limit the
centrifugal forces and the heat generation that may damage the tire structure.

Note: For example, for A321XLR aircraft, VTIRE = 235 mph published as 204 knots
(ground speed) in Airbus documentation.

1.3.​MINIMUM SPEEDS
1.3.1.​Minimum Control Speed on the Ground: VMCG

CS 25.149 Subpart B FAR 25.149 Subpart B

“(e) VMCG, the minimum control speed on the ground, is the calibrated airspeed
during the take-off run, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the
primary aerodynamic controls alone (without the use of nose-wheel steering) to
enable the take-off to be safely continued using normal piloting skill.
In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the path of the aeroplane accelerating
with all engines operating is along the centreline of the runway, its path from the
point at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which
recovery to a direction parallel to the centreline is completed, may not deviate
more than 30 ft laterally from the centreline at any point.”

Illustration A-2: VMCG

“VMCG must be established with:

●​ The aeroplane in each take-off configuration or, at the option of the
applicant, in the most critical take-off configuration;
●​ Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engines;
●​ The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
●​ The aeroplane trimmed for take-off; and
●​ The most unfavourable weight in the range of take-off weights.”

Note: For some aircraft models, the VMCG may be increased for operations on
narrow runways.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 11​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

1.3.2.​Minimum Control Speed in the Air: VMCA

CS 25.149 Subpart B FAR 25.149 Subpart B

“(b) VMC[A] is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that
engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not
more than 5 degrees.

(c)VMC[A] may not exceed 1.13 VSR with

●​ Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines;
●​ The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
●​ The aeroplane trimmed for take-off;
●​ The maximum sea-level take-off weight
●​ The aeroplane in the most critical take-off configuration existing along the
flight path after the aeroplane becomes airborne, except with the landing
gear retracted; and
●​ The aeroplane airborne and the ground effect negligible

(d) The rudder forces required to maintain control at VMC may not exceed 667 N
(150 lbf) nor may it be necessary to reduce power or thrust of the operative
engines. During recovery, the aeroplane may not assume any dangerous attitude
or require exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or strength to prevent a heading
change of more than 20°.”

Note: Refer to the Takeoff section for “critical engine” definition.

1.3.3.​Minimum Control Speed during Approach and Landing: VMCL

Illustration A-3: VMCA

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 12​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 CS 25.149 Subpart B FAR 25.149 Subpart B

“(f) VMCL, the minimum control speed during approach and landing with all engines
operating, is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that
engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not
more than 5º. VMCL must be established with:
●​ The aeroplane in the most critical configuration (or, at the option of the
applicant, each configuration) for approach and landing with all engines
operating;
●​ The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
●​ The aeroplane trimmed for approach with all engines operating;
●​ The most unfavourable weight, or, at the option of the applicant, as a
function of weight.
●​ Go-around thrust setting on the operating engine(s)

(g) For aeroplanes with three or more engines, VMCL-2, the minimum control speed
during approach and landing with one critical engine inoperative, is the calibrated
airspeed at which, when a second critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it
is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with both engines still inoperative,
and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5°. VMCL-2 must
be established with [the same conditions as VMCL, except that]:
●​ The aeroplane trimmed for approach with one critical engine inoperative
●​ The thrust on the operating engine(s) necessary to maintain an approach
path angle of 3° when one critical engine is inoperative.
●​ The thrust on the operating engine(s) rapidly changed, immediately after
the second critical engine is made inoperative, from the [previous] thrust to:
- the minimum thrust [and then to]
- the go-around thrust setting​

(h) In demonstrations of VMCL and VMCL-2, lateral control must be sufficient to roll
the aeroplane from an initial condition of steady straight flight, through an angle of
20 degrees in the direction necessary to initiate a turn away from the inoperative
engine(s) in not more than 5 seconds.”

Illustration A-4: VMCL and VMCL-2

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 13​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

1.3.4.​Minimum Unstick Speed: VMU

CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

“(d) VMU is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane can safely lift
off the ground, and continue the take-off…”
​
VMU is the max between 2 speeds:
●​ The VLOF with the maximum pitch angle ("...safely lift off the ground").
●​ The minimum speed ensuring a safe fly away from ground effects ("...and
continue the take-off").

During the flight test demonstration, at a low speed (80-100 kt), the pilot pulls the
control stick to the limit of the aerodynamic capacity of the control surfaces. The
aircraft achieves a slow rotation to an angle-of-attack at which the maximum lift
coefficient is reached. For aircraft with geometric limitations, the aircraft achieves
a slow rotation until the tail touches/comes into contact with the runway (the tail is
protected by a device).

After, the pitch is maintained until liftoff.

​

Illustration A-5: VMU Demonstration (Geometrically-limited Aircraft)

In the case of One Engine Inoperative (OEI), the VMU (N-1) must ensure safe lateral
control in order that the wing does not come into contact with the ground.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 14​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 Illustration A-6: VMU Risk of Wing in Contact with the Ground

Two Minimum Unstick Speeds (VMU) must be determined:

●​ With all engines operatives: VMU (N)
●​ With one engine inoperative: VMU (N-1)

Note: VMU (N) is validated by flight test, VMU (N-1) is simulated by using a total thrust
on both engines equivalent to OEI thrust.
Thrust generates some lift (see the result of the thrust on the vertical axis on
illustration A-7).
With all engines operating, the lift generated by the thrust is greater than the lift
with OEI.
This means that the lift generated by the wings must be higher, in the case of one
engine failure. This increased lift can only be reached through a speed increase.
This means that, usually, VMU (N) will be below VMU (N-1).

Illustration A-7: Engine Failure Effect on VMU

1.3.5.​Stall Speed

The stall speed definition changed since the A320 certification.

The stall speed can be explained as follows: when the angle-of-attack increases,
the following events happen:
●​ Increase of the airflow speed over the wing (V in illustration A-8), and
decrease of the airflow speed below the wing
●​ Decrease of the pressure over the wing
●​ Increase of the lift coefficient (CL) and drag coefficient (CD).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 15​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 Illustration A-8:Low Angle of Attack - No Airflow Separation

The lift coefficient increases with the angle-of-attack. In level flight, the increase of
the lift coefficient results in a decrease of the aircraft speed. The lift must balance
the aircraft weight, that can be considered as constant at a specific time.

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 ↗ ⇒ 𝐶𝐿 ↗
1 2
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2
ρ 𝑆 (𝑇𝐴𝑆) 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

ρ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡​ 𝑆 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡​ 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐶𝐿 ↗ ⇒ 𝑇𝐴𝑆 ↘

The speed cannot decrease beyond a minimum value. Above a certain

angle-of-attack, the airflow starts to separate from the wing (Illustration A-9).

Illustration A-9: High Angle of Attack - Airflow Separation

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 16​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

Illustration A-10 demonstrates that the lift coefficient increases up to a maximum
lift coefficient (CLmax), and suddenly decreases, when the angle-of-attack is
increased above a specific value. This is a stall.

Illustration A-10: CL versus Angle of Attack

There are two types of stall speed:

●​ VS1g corresponds to the maximum lift coefficient (i.e. just before the lift
starts to decrease). At this moment, the load factor is still equal to one.
●​ VS corresponds to the conventional aerodynamic stall (i.e. when the lift
suddenly collapses). At this moment, the load factor is always less than
one.

CS 25.103 Subpart B FAR 25.103 Subpart B

CS 25.103 Stall speed

“(a) The reference stall speed VSR is a calibrated airspeed defined by the
applicant. VSR may not be less than a 1-g stall speed. VSR is expressed as:

𝑉𝐶𝐿𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝑉𝑆𝑅 ≥
𝑛𝑧𝑤

Where:
VCLMAX = [speed of maximum lift coefficient, i.e. VS1g]
nzw = Load factor normal to the flight path at VCLMAX

(b) VCLMAX is determined with:

●​ Engines idling, or if that resultant thrust causes an appreciable decrease in
stall speed, not more than zero thrust at the stall speed;
●​ The aeroplane, in other respects (such as flaps, landing gear and ice
accretions) in the condition existing in the test or performance standard in
which VSR is being used;

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 17​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 ●​ The weight used when VSR is being used as a factor to determine
compliance with a required performance standard;
●​ The centre of gravity position that results in the highest value of reference
stall speed;
●​ The aeroplane trimmed for straight flight at a speed selected by the
applicant, but not less than 1.13VSR and not greater than 1.3VSR.”

Change 15 of JAR 25 of October 2000, established the idea of reference stall

speed VSR that is the same as Vs1g. The previous version of the JAR 25 provided a
direct relationship between VS and VS1g, in order to ensure a consistency between
aircraft models certified at Vs and those certified at VS1g.

The 1-g stall speed, as the basis for compliance, was added to the Federal
Aviation Requirements-25 (FAR-25), on November 26, 2002.

For the certification of the A320, the relationship between Vs and Vs1g was
demonstrated as:

𝑉𝑆 = 0. 94 𝑉𝑆1𝑔

Based on this demonstration, the minimum V2 (refer to the Takeoff section for the
definition of V2) was defined:
●​ For all Airbus aircraft models certified at VS1g, V2 ≥ 1.13 VS1g
●​ For Airbus aircraft models certified at VS (A300/A310), V2 ≥ 1.2 VS.

Note: In Airbus operational documentation, in addition to this brochure, VSR

is referred to as VS1g.

Influence of CG in Vs1g
Based on CS 25.103, the worst CG for takeoff and landing calculations is a
forward CG. As a result, a forward CG will result in a higher VS1g.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 18​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

2.​MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

CS 25.25 Subpart B FAR 25.25 Subpart B

CS 25.473 Subpart C FAR 25.473 Subpart C
Air OPS Annex 1 AC 120-27C

2.1.​AIRCRAFT WEIGHT DEFINITIONS

●​ Manufacturer’s Empty Weight (MEW): The weight of the structure, power

plant, furnishings, systems and other items of equipment that are
considered an integral part of the aircraft. It is a “dry” weight, and it only
includes the fluids contained in closed systems (e.g. hydraulic fluid).​

●​ Operational Empty Weight (OEW): The MEW plus the Operator’s items,
(i.e. flight and cabin crew and their baggage, unusable fuel, engine oil,
emergency equipment, toilet chemicals and fluids, galley structure, catering
equipment, seats, documents, etc.).​

●​ Dry Operating Weight (DOW): The total weight of an aircraft ready for a
specific type of operation without all usable fuel and traffic load. The OEW
plus items that are specific to the type of flight (i.e. catering, newspapers,
pantry equipment, etc.).​

●​ Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW): The weight obtained by the addition of the total
traffic load (payload, in which are included cargo loads, passengers and
passenger bags), and the DOW.​

●​ Landing Weight (LW): The weight at landing, at the destination airport. It

is equal to the ZFW plus the fuel reserves.​

●​ Takeoff Weight (TOW): The weight at takeoff at the departure airport. It is

equal to the LW at landing plus the trip fuel (fuel required for the trip), or to
the ZFW plus the takeoff fuel (fuel required at the brake release point that
includes reserves).

TOW = DOW + traffic load + fuel reserves + trip fuel

LW = DOW + traffic load + fuel reserves

ZFW = DOW + traffic load

Illustration A-11 illustrates the different aircraft weights, as defined in the

regulations.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 19​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 Illustration A-11: Aircraft Weights

2.2.​MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL TAKEOFF WEIGHT (MTOW)

The TOW must never exceed the MTOW. The MTOW is determined during a
landing impact with a vertical speed that is equal to -1.83 m/s (-360 ft/min), in
accordance with the following:
●​ In-flight structure resistance criteria,
●​ Resistance of the landing gear,
●​ Structure criteria.

Note: Depending on the context, MTOW means either:

●​ The maximum weight limited by performance,
●​ The maximum weight limited by structure,
●​ The minimum between both limitations above.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 20​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

2.3.​MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL LANDING WEIGHT (MLW)
The LW is limited, with the assumption of a landing impact with a vertical speed
equal to -3.05 m/s (-600 ft/min). The limit is the MLW. The landing weight must
comply with the following:

Note: Depending on the context, MLW means either:

●​ The maximum weight limited by performance,
●​ The maximum weight limited by structure,
●​ The minimum between both limitations above.

2.4.​MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (MZFW)

Bending moments applied to the wing root, are at a maximum when the quantity
of fuel in the wings is at a minimum (see Illustration A-12). During flight, the
quantity of fuel in the wings, mWF, decreases as fuel is burned. As a result, it is
necessary to limit the weight when there is no fuel in the tanks. This limited weight
is the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW).

Illustration A-12: Wing Bending Relief Due to Fuel Weight

Therefore, the limitation is defined by:

​

The takeoff fuel is the sum of the trip fuel and the fuel reserves. As a result:

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 21​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 2.5.​MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT (MTW)
The MTW is limited by the stress on the shock absorbers, and possible bending
of the landing gear, during turns on the ground.
However, the MTW is usually not a limitation factor, and is defined based on the
MTOW, so that:

​
​

3.​MINIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHT

CS 25.25 Subpart B FAR 25.25 Subpart B

“(b) Minimum weight. The minimum weight (the lowest weight at which
compliance with each applicable requirement of this CS-25 is shown) must be
established so that it is not less than –
(1) The lowest weight selected by the applicant;
(2) The design minimum weight (the lowest weight at which compliance with
each structural loading condition of this CS-25 is shown); or
(3) The lowest weight at which compliance with each applicable flight
requirement is shown.”

Usually, the gusts and turbulence loads are part of the criteria considered to
determine the minimum structural weight.

4.​ENVIRONMENTAL ENVELOPE

CS 25.1527 Subpart G FAR 25.1527 Subpart G

“The extremes of the ambient air temperature and operating altitude for which
operation is allowed, as limited by flight, structural, powerplant, functional, or
equipment characteristics, must be established.”

The result of this determination is the environmental envelope, and it includes the
pressure altitude and the temperature limits. It is inside the environmental
envelope that the aircraft performance is established and the aircraft systems
achieve the certification requirements.

The AFM sets minimum and maximum Pressure Altitudes (MIN Zp and MAX Zp)
and Temperatures (TMIN and TMAX).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 22​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

 Illustration A-13: Example of an A320 Environmental Envelope

5.​ENGINE LIMITATIONS
5.1.​THRUST SETTING AND EGT LIMITATIONS
CS 25.1521 Subpart G FAR 25.1521 Subpart G
CS-E 490 and E 800 FAR 33.87 and 33.88

The main cause of engine thrust limitations is the Exhaust Gas Temperature
(EGT) limit.
​
The maximum thrust available for takeoff is the Takeoff/Go-Around (TOGA) thrust.
It is certified for a maximum time of:
●​ 10 minutes, in the case of One Engine Inoperative (OEI) at takeoff, or
●​ 5 minutes with All Engines Operative (AEO).

The Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) is the maximum thrust that can be used
without limitation in flight. It must be selected in the case of engine failure, when
TOGA thrust is no longer permitted due to time limitation.

The Climb (CL) thrust is the maximum thrust available during the climb phase to
the initial cruise flight level and to higher flight levels.

Note: The Takeoff/Go-Around (TOGA) thrust is the maximum thrust available for a
Go-Around. The time limits are the same as for takeoff.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 23​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

5.2.​TAKEOFF THRUST LIMITATIONS
Illustration A-14 illustrates the influence that the pressure altitude and outside air
temperature have on the maximum takeoff thrust, for a specific engine type.

At a specific pressure altitude, the Takeoff/Go-Around (TOGA) thrust remains

constant (equal to the flat rated thrust), until the temperature reaches the flat rated
temperature or reference temperature (Tref). Above this reference temperature, the
engine thrust is limited by the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT). The result is that
the available thrust decreases as the temperature increases.

On the other hand, at a specific temperature, any increase in the pressure altitude
decreases the available takeoff thrust.

Illustration A-14: Engine Thrust VS. Pressure Altitude and Temperature

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 24​ AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

B.​ OPERATING SPEEDS
1.​COMMON SPEEDS
1.1.​ LOWEST SELECTABLE SPEED: VLS

CS 25.125 Subpart B FAR 25.125 Subpart B

As a general rule, during in-flight phases, pilots should not select a speed below
VLS (Lowest Selectable Speed). The VLS definition depends on the flight phase.
VLS is at least 1.23 VS1g in clean and landing configurations.

𝑉𝐿𝑆 ≥ 1. 23 𝑉𝑆1𝑔

For A300/A310, the VLS is defined as

𝑉𝐿𝑆 = 1. 3 𝑉𝑆

Refer to the chapter Stall Speed.

The VLS rule also applies for the landing phase. During landing, pilots must
maintain a stabilized approach with a calibrated airspeed of no less than VLS down
to a height of 50 ft above the destination airport.

1.2.​ MINIMUM FLAPS SPEED: F

F speed is indicated by an “F” on the PFD speed scale (Illustration B-1).

Illustration B-1: F Speed on PFD

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 25​ OPERATING SPEEDS

F speed is not the same for takeoff and approach.

At takeoff: F speed is the minimum speed at which the flaps may be safely
retracted to flaps lever position 1 during initial climb. F speed is designed to
provide some margin compared to the VLS of the configuration that corresponds to
flaps lever position 1.

During approach: F speed is the recommended speed to select CONF 3 when the
aircraft is in CONF 2, or the recommended speed to select CONF FULL when the
aircraft is in CONF 3.

1.3.​ MINIMUM SLATS SPEED: S

S Speed is indicated by an “S” on the PFD speed scale (Illustration B-2).

Illustration B-2: S Speed on the PFD

S speed is not the same for takeoff and approach.

At takeoff: S speed is the minimum speed at which the slats and flaps may be
retracted to CONF clean. S speed is designed to provide some margin compared
to the VLS of the CONF clean.

During approach: S speed is the recommended speed to select CONF 2 when the
aircraft is in CONF 1.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 26​ OPERATING SPEEDS

1.4.​ GREEN DOT SPEED: GDS

The green dot speed is indicated by a green dot on the PFD scale (Illustration
B-3).

Illustration B-3: GDS on the PFD

The value of GDS displayed on the PFD can be different between AEO and OEI.

The GDS is a good compromise in order to enable the pilots to follow a speed
very near to the best lift to drag ratio speed.
It is also used with OEI:
●​ To perform drift down since it results in the highest ceiling.
●​ As a target speed at the end of the segment at final takeoff, since it
provides the best climb gradient at low speed.

1.5.​ SPEED REFERENCE SYSTEM : SRS

The Speed Reference System (SRS) mode is a managed vertical mode. This
mode is used during takeoff and during go-around.

SRS mode controls the speed via the elevators in order to control the aircraft
along a vertical path.

For example, when the aircraft is on ground at takeoff, V2 is the speed target.
When the aircraft is airborne, V2 + 10 kt becomes the speed target.
In case of engine failure, the SRS mode obtains and maintains the existing speed
at the time of the engine failure or V2, depending on which is higher. However, the
speed target is limited by V2 +15 kt.

The SRS guidance law includes:

●​ A limit for pitch altitude guidance, in order to not exceed a maximum pitch
attitude.
●​ A vertical speed protection to ensure a minimum climb rate.
In any case, SRS will provide guidance to a speed equal or above VLS.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 27​ OPERATING SPEEDS

2.​TAKEOFF SPEEDS
2.1.​ENGINE FAILURE SPEED: VEF
CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

“(a) V1 must be established in relation to VEF as follows:

(1) VEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. VEF
must be selected by the applicant, but may not be less than VMCG.”

2.2.​DECISION SPEED: V1
CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff, and
still be able to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.

If the crew is aware of a failure before V1, the crew will safely abort the takeoff.
If the crew is aware of a failure after V1, the crew must complete the takeoff. From
the point where the aircraft reaches V1, the aircraft is sure to reach the takeoff
limited height: and the aircraft may be too fast to brake safely before the end of
the stopway.

“CS/FAR 25.107
(a)(2) V1, in terms of calibrated airspeed, is selected by the applicant; however, V1
may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the critical engine inoperative
during the time interval between the instant at which the critical engine is failed,
and the instant at which the pilot recognises and reacts to the engine failure, as
indicated by the pilot's initiation of the first action (e.g. applying brakes, reducing
thrust, deploying speed brakes) to stop the aeroplane during accelerate-stop
tests.”

The time that is considered between the critical engine failure at VEF, and the pilot
detection of the failure at V1, is at least 1 second. Therefore:

𝑉𝑀𝐶𝐺 ≤ 𝑉𝐸𝐹 < 𝑉1 ≤ 𝑉𝑀𝐵𝐸

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 28​ OPERATING SPEEDS

 Illustration B-4: Decision Speed

This speed is entered by the crew in the FMS cockpit interface, e.g. Multipurpose
Control and Display Unit (MCDU) for A320, during flight preparation. The speed is
indicated by a “1” on the speed scale of the Primary Flight Display (PFD) during
takeoff acceleration (see Illustration B-5). The V2 Speed (see chapter Takeoff
Climb Speed: V2) is indicated by a triangle in purple.

Illustration B-5: Information Provided by the PFD

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 29​ OPERATING SPEEDS

2.3.​ROTATION SPEED: VR
CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

VR is the speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate rate of
approximately 3 ° per second.​

“(e)(1) VR may not be less than:

●​ V1,
●​ 105% of VMCA
●​ The speed that allows reaching V2 before reaching a height of 35 ft above
the take-off surface, or
●​ A speed that, if the aeroplane is rotated at its maximum practicable rate,
will result in a [satisfactory] VLOF”.

VR is entered in the FMS cockpit interface by the crew during the flight
preparation.
𝑉𝑅 ≥ 1. 05 𝑉𝑀𝐶𝐴

2.4.​LIFT OFF SPEED: VLOF

CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

FAR AC 25 7D

“(f) VLOF is the calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.”

The lift off speed is the speed at which the aircraft lifts off the ground, i.e. when
the lift force exceeds the aircraft weight.

“(e)(i) VR may not be less than -

(iv) A speed, that if the aeroplane is rotated at its maximum practical rate will
result in a VLOF of not less than:
●​ 110% of VMU in the all-engines-operating condition, and 105% of VMU
determined at the thrust-to-weight ratio corresponding to the
one-engine-inoperative condition; or
●​ If the VMU attitude is limited by the geometry of the aeroplane (ie. tail
contact with the runway), 108% of VMU in the all-engines-operating
condition and 104% of VMU determined at the thrust-to-weight ratio
corresponding to the one-engine-operating condition.”

An aircraft is said to be geometry limited, when at its maximum pitch angle (the
tail of the aircraft touches the ground while the main landing gear is still on
ground). Therefore, the maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) is not reached, and the
VMU speeds are limited by the aircraft's maximum pitch angle on the ground.
The regulations consider the specific case of aircraft for which the minimum
possible VMU speeds are limited by the elevator efficiency at a high angle of
attack, or that are limited by tail contact with the runway (referred to as geometry
limited aircraft).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 30​ OPERATING SPEEDS

 In these conditions, the margins can be reduced as follows:

EASA AMC 25.107 FAR AC 25-7D

“For aeroplanes that are geometry limited (ie. the minimum possible VMU speeds
are limited by tail contact with the runway), CS 25.107 (e)(i)(iv) allows the VMU to
VLOF speed margins to be reduced to 108% and 104 % for the all-engines
operating and one-engine-inoperative conditions, respectively.”

Airbus aircraft, as most commercial airplanes, are usually geometry limited.

For aircraft certified before the A380, certification rules are different between JAR
or EASA CS and FAR, as summarized in Table B-1:

JAR, EASA CS or
FAR before A380
FAR from A380

Geometric VLOF ≥ 1.04 VMU (N-1) VLOF ≥ 1.05 VMU (N-1)

Limitation VLOF ≥ 1.08 VMU (N) VLOF ≥ 1.08 VMU (N)

Aerodynamic VLOF ≥ 1.05 VMU (N-1)

Limitation VLOF ≥ 1.10 VMU (N)

Table B-1: VLOF Limitation

And the upper limit is:

𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 ≤ 𝑉𝑇𝐼𝑅𝐸

VLOF depends on the aircraft configuration, the angle of attack and the takeoff
weight.

2.5.​ TAKEOFF CLIMB SPEED: V2

V2 is the minimum climb speed that must be reached before a height of 35 ft

above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.

CS 25.107 Subpart B FAR 25.107 Subpart B

“(b) V2min, in terms of calibrated airspeed, may not be less than:

(1) 1.13 VSR [...] for turbo-jet powered aeroplanes
[...]
(3) 1.10 times VMC”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 31​ OPERATING SPEEDS

 Illustration B-6: Definition of V2min

“(c) V2, in terms of calibrated airspeed, must be selected by the applicant to

provide at least the gradient of climb required by CS/FAR 25.121(b) but may not
be less than:
●​ V2min; and
●​ VR plus the speed increment attained before reaching a height of 35 ft
above the take-off surface.
[...]”

This speed must be entered by the crew during flight preparation, and is indicated
by a magenta triangle on the speed scale (see Illustration B-5).

𝑉2 ≥ 1. 1 𝑉𝑀𝐶𝐴 ​ 𝑉2 ≥ 1. 13 𝑉𝑆1𝑔
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (Airbus aircraft except A300/A310)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 𝑉2 ≥ 1. 2 𝑉𝑆 (For A300/A310)

2.6.​TAKEOFF SPEED SUMMARY

Illustration B-7 illustrates the relationships and the regulatory margins between
the certified speeds (VS1G, VMCG, VMCA, VMU, VMBE, VTIRE), and the takeoff operating
speeds (V1, VR, VLOF, V2) for Airbus aircraft.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 32​ OPERATING SPEEDS

 Illustration B-7: Takeoff Speed Summary and Limitations Related to V1,VR,VLOF and V2

3.​LANDING SPEEDS
3.1.​FINAL APPROACH SPEED: VAPP

VAPP is the aircraft speed during landing, 50 ft above the runway surface. The
flaps/slats are in landing configuration, and the landing gears are extended.

VAPP is limited by VLS:

𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃 ≥ 𝑉𝐿𝑆

It is normal to keep a margin on VLS to define VAPP. For Airbus aircraft, in normal
operations, the VAPP is defined by:c

𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝐿𝑆 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Wind correction is limited to a minimum of 51 kt, and a maximum of 15 kt. VAPP is

displayed on the Approach page of the FMS cockpit interface.

The FMGS and managed speed is used to define the VAPP TARGET. It provides better
speed guidance in approach with windy conditions, since it uses:

𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝐴𝑅𝐺𝐸𝑇 = 𝐺𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

𝐺𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃 − 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑
Current headwind is measured by ADIRS, and the tower wind is entered on the
FMS cockpit interface.

1
When the auto-thrust is used or to compensate for ice accretion on the wings

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 33​ OPERATING SPEEDS

3.2.​REFERENCE SPEED: VREF

In case of failure in flight, emergency or abnormal configuration, performance

computations are based on a reference configuration and on a reference speed,
VREF. VREF means the landing approach speed is steady at the 50 ft point for a
defined landing configuration. For Airbus aircraft, this configuration is CONF
FULL.

That results in:

𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 𝑉𝐿𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐹 𝐹𝑈𝐿𝐿

In case of a system failure that affects landing performance, Airbus operational

documentation (FCOM) indicates the correction to be applied to VREF to take into
account the failure:

𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 + ∆𝑉𝐼𝑁𝑂𝑃

Another speed increment can be added to VAPP to account for wind when required.

3.3.​GO-AROUND SPEED: VAC AND VGA

For A220 aircraft, the VAC is displayed on the PFD scale, VGA is indicated by a
magenta arrow.

Illustration B-8: VAC on the A220 PFD

The VAC is the approach climb speed of the aircraft also referred to as V2GA​ or
V2 GO-AROUND. That is the target climb speed to be achieved during a go-around with
one engine inoperative
For A220 aircraft, the VGA is the aircraft climb speed for all engines go-around.

For other Airbus aircraft, VGA is the climb speed for go-around, regardless of the
number of engines that are operative.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 34​ OPERATING SPEEDS

4.​CRUISE SPEEDS
There are two ways to operate the aircraft in cruise:
●​ By the direct selection of the speed by the crew: Selected speed.
●​ By the use of optimum speed computed by the FMS, based on the Cost
Index (CI): Managed speed (refer to the chapter Cruise at Minimum Cost).

4.1.​MANAGED SPEED

A Flight Guidance (FG) mode is MANAGED when the FG manages the aircraft
along the FMS F-PLN (e.g. NAV mode). A speed target is MANAGED when the
speed value is computed by the FMS (e.g. ECON).

Illustration B-9: Managed Speed

4.2.​SELECTED SPEED

A Flight Guidance (FG) mode and its associated target are SELECTED when the
FG manages the aircraft to a target selected by the pilot on the AFS CP (e.g.
HDG). A speed target is SELECTED when directly selected by the pilot on the
AFS CP. The speed target is used by the AP/FD and by the A/THR as a target.

Illustration B-10: Selected Speed

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 35​ OPERATING SPEEDS

C.​ TAKEOFF
1.​INTRODUCTION
The takeoff is the flight phase that starts from brake release and ends at the
beginning of climb, at 1 500 ft.
During the takeoff phase, the pilot must achieve the sufficient speed and
angle-of-attack conditions to balance the lift and weight forces of the aircraft.

At the end of the ground acceleration phase, the pilot pulls back on the sidestick
to start the rotation. During this phase, the acceleration is maintained and the
angle-of-attack is increased, in order to increase the lift. The ground reaction
forces gradually decrease until liftoff.

Illustration C-1: Takeoff Profile

The performance determination must take into account the possibility of an

engine failure during the ground acceleration phase. For CS/FAR certified aircraft,
the failure of the most critical engine must be considered.

CS Definitions FAR Definitions

“'Critical Engine' means the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the
performance or handling qualities of an aircraft.”

On a jet aircraft with four engines, the critical engine is the outer engine. On
Airbus jet aircraft with two engines, there is no critical engine.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 36​ TAKEOFF

2.​GROUND LIMITATIONS
2.1.​TAKEOFF LENGTHS

2.1.1.​Runway
Air OPS Annex 1 Definitions FAR 1.1 General Definitions

Runway: “A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the

landing and take-off of aircraft.”

2.1.2.​Stopway
Air OPS Annex 1 Definitions FAR 1.1 General Definitions

“The runway may be extended by an area called the stopway. The stopway is an
area beyond the takeoff runway:
●​ no less wide than the runway and centered upon the extended centerline
of the runway,
●​ able to support the airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing
structural damage to the airplane, and
●​ designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane
during an aborted takeoff.”

Illustration C-2: Definition of Stopway

2.1.3.​Clearway
Air OPS Annex 1 Definitions FAR 1.1 General Definitions

“The runway may be extended by an area called the clearway. The clearway is an
area beyond the runway, which should have the following characteristics:
●​ Be centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, and
under the control of the airport authorities.
●​ Be expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the
runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%.
●​ Have a minimum width not less than 152 m (500 feet) wide.
●​ Have no protruding objects or terrain. Threshold lights may protrude above
the plane, if their height above the end of the runway is 0.66 m (26 in) or
less, and if they are located on each side of the runway.
●​ In addition, clearway cannot exceed half the runway length (computation
limitation).”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 37​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-3: Definition of Clearway

2.2.​PUBLISHED TAKEOFF DISTANCES

The takeoff distances defined in this section are published by the national aviation
authorities in the Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP).
Refer to Appendix 6.

2.2.1.​Takeoff Run Available (TORA)

Air OPS Annex 1 FAR 121.189

“TakeOff Run Available (TORA): The length of runway which is declared

available by the appropriate authority and suitable for the ground run of an
aeroplane taking off.”

TORA is either equal to the runway length, or to the distance from the runway
entry point (taxiway intersection) to the end of the runway (Illustration C-4).

Illustration C-4: Definition of TORA

For airport authorities, the TORA is the part of the takeoff surface that is free from
obstacles. It has a surface where the aircraft can maneuver under all normal
operating conditions.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 38​ TAKEOFF

2.2.2.​Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)

Air OPS Annex 1 FAR 121.189

“Takeoff Distance Available (TODA): The length of the takeoff run available plus
the length of the clearway available.”

As displayed in Illustration C-5, the Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)

corresponds to the Takeoff Run Available (TORA) plus the Clearway, if any.

Illustration C-5: Definition of TODA

2.2.3.​Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

Air OPS Annex 1 FAR 121.189

“Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the takeoff run

available plus the length of the stopway, if such stopway is declared available by
the appropriate Authority and is capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane
under the prevailing operating conditions.”

Illustration C-6: Definition of ASDA

Note: In some cases, the ASDA can be shorter than the TORA, as described in
FAA AC 150/5300-13B Appendix H. This happens when the ASDA is reduced to
include the Runway End Safety Area (RESA).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 39​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-7: ASDA shorter than TORA

2.3.​DEPARTURE SECTOR

2.3.1.​Takeoff Funnel

The takeoff funnel is the area around the takeoff flight path. Obstacles identified
inside the area must be considered. The limits of this area, also referred to as the
departure sector, will be different depending on if they are published in the Air
OPS or the FAA regulations. These differences will be described separately in the
following sections.

2.3.2.​Takeoff Funnel Air OPS Definition​

Air OPS Subpart C
CAT.POL.A210

“The net takeoff flight path shall be determined in such a way that the aeroplane
clears all obstacles by a vertical distance of at least 35 ft or by a horizontal
distance of at least 90 m plus 0.125 x D, where D is the horizontal distance the
aeroplane has travelled from the end of the take-off distance available (TODA) or
the end of the take-off distance if a turn is scheduled before the end of the TODA.
For aeroplanes with a wingspan of less than 60 m, a horizontal obstacle
clearance of half the aeroplane wingspan plus 60 m, plus 0.125 x D may be
used.”

The semi-width at the start of the departure sector is 90 m, or smaller for aircraft
with a wingspan of less than 60 m (e.g. A300/A310 or A320 Family).

CAT.POL.A.210
“(b)(6) For cases where the intended flight path does not require track changes of
more than 15°, the operator does need not to consider those obstacles which
have a lateral distance greater than:
●​ 300 m, if the pilot is able to maintain the required navigational accuracy
through the obstacle accountability area; or
●​ 600 m, for flights under all other conditions.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 40​ TAKEOFF

CAT.POL.A.A210
“(b)(7) For cases where the intended flight path does require track changes of
more than 15°, the operator does need not to consider those obstacles which
have a lateral distance greater than:
●​ 600 m, if the pilot is able to maintain the required navigational accuracy
through the obstacle accountability area; or
●​ 900 m, for flights under all other conditions.”

AMC1 CAT.POL.A.A210

The required navigational accuracy is defined in AMC1 CAT.POL.A.A210. It can

either be obtained via navigation aids, or via external references, in the case of
Visual Course guidance.

The following Illustration C-8 and Illustration C-9 display the Air OPS departure
sectors:

Illustration C-8: Air OPS Departure Sector (Track Change ≤ 15 º)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 41​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-9: Air OPS Departure Sector (Track Change > 15 º)

Note: The ICAO recommendations for the departure sector (refer to Appendix 6)
are the same as the ones provided by the Air OPS definitions.

2.3.3.​Takeoff Funnel FAA Definition

FAA - AC 120-91A

“14.(a) Straight-Out Departures. During straight-out departures or when the

intended track or airplane heading is within 15 degrees of the extended runway
centerline heading, the following criteria apply:
(1) The width of the OAA is 0.0625D feet on each side of the intended track
(where D is the distance along the intended flightpath from the end of the
runway in feet), except when limited by the following minimum and
maximum widths.
(2) The minimum width of the OAA is 200 feet on each side of the intended
track within the airport boundaries, and 300 feet on each side of the
intended track outside the airport boundaries.
(3) The maximum width of the OAA is 2,000 feet on each side of the intended
track.

14.(b) Turning Departures. During departures involving turns of the intended track
or when the airplane heading is more than 15 degrees from the extended runway
centerline heading, the following criteria apply:
(1) The initial straight segment, if any, has the same width as a straight-out
departure.
(2) The width of the OAA at the beginning of the turning segment is the
greater of:
(a) 300 feet on each side of the intended track.
(b) The width of the OAA at the end of the initial straight segment, if there
is one.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 42​ TAKEOFF

 (c) The width of the end of the immediately preceding segment, if there is
one, analyzed by the Flight Track Analysis Method.
(3) Thereafter in straight or turning segments, the width of the OAA increases
by 0.125D feet on each side of the intended track (where “D” is the
distance along the intended flightpath from the beginning of the first turning
segment in feet), except when limited by the maximum width in
subparagraph (4) below:
(4) The maximum width of the OAA is 3,000 feet on each side of the intended
track.”

Illustration C-10: FAA Departure Sector (Track Change ≤ 15 º)

Illustration C-11: FAA Departure Sector (Track Change > 15 º)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 43​ TAKEOFF

3.​PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS
This paragraph contains limitations related to takeoff certification. For the
definition of limiting and operating speeds, refer to the chapter Aircraft Limitations.

3.1.​TAKEOFF DISTANCES
3.1.1.​Takeoff Distance (TOD)
CS 25.113 Subpart B FAR 25.113 Subpart B

For specific operational conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure altitude, weight,

etc.):
a) The takeoff distance on a dry runway is the higher of the following values:​

●​ TODN-1 dry = The distance covered from the brake release to a point at
which the aircraft is at 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is based on the
assumption that there is a failure of the critical engine at VEF, and that it is
detected at V1.

Illustration C-12: TODN-1 dry

●​ 1.15 TODN dry = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a
point at which the aircraft is at 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is
based on the assumption that all engines are operating.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 44​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-13: TODN dry

𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑁−1 𝑑𝑟𝑦, 1. 15 𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑁 𝑑𝑟𝑦}

b) The takeoff distance on a wet runway is the higher of the following values:

●​ TODdry = Takeoff distance on a dry runway (see above)

●​ TODN-1 wet = Distance covered from brake release to a point at which the
aircraft is at 15 ft above the takeoff surface, to ensure that the V2 speed is
achieved before the aircraft is 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is
based on the assumption that there is a failure of the critical engine at VEF
and that it is detected at V1.

Illustration C-14: TODwet

𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦, 𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑁−1 𝑤𝑒𝑡}

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 45​ TAKEOFF

 Air OPS CAT.POL.A.205 FAR 121.189 (c)(2) Subpart I

“Air OPS CAT.POL.A.205

(b)(2) The Takeoff distance shall not exceed the takeoff distance available
(TODA), with a clearway distance not exceeding half of the takeoff run available
(TORA).”

𝑇𝑂𝐷 ≤ 𝑇𝑂𝐷𝐴

3.1.2.​Takeoff Run (TOR)

3.1.2.1.​ Runway with Clearway

CS 25.113 Subpart B FAR 25.113 Subpart B

a) The takeoff run on a dry runway is the higher of the following values
(Illustration C-15):​

●​ TORN-1 dry = The distance covered from brake release to a point of equal
distance between the point at which VLOF is reached, and the point at which
the aircraft is 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is based on the
assumption that there is a failure of the critical engine at VEF, and that it is
detected at V1.

Illustration C-15: TORN-1 dry

●​ 1.15 TORN dry = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a
point of equal distance between the point at which VLOF is reached and the
point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is based
on the assumption that all engines are operating.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 46​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-16: TORN dry

𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑁−1 𝑑𝑟𝑦, 1. 15 𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑁 𝑑𝑟𝑦}

b) The takeoff run on a wet runway is the higher of the following values:

●​ TORN-1 wet = The distance covered from the brake release to a point at
which the aircraft is at 15ft above the takeoff surface, to ensure that the V2
speed will be achieved before the aircraft is 35 ft above the takeoff surface.
This is based on the assumption that there is a failure of the critical engine
at VEF, and that it is detected at V1. TORN-1 wet is equal to TODN-1 wet.​

●​ 1.15 TORN wet = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a
point of equal distance between the point at which VLOF is reached, and the
point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the takeoff surface. This is based
on the assumption that all engines are operating.

𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑁−1 𝑤𝑒𝑡, 1. 15 𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑡}

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.205 FAR 121.189 (c)(3) Subpart I

“Air OPS CAT.POL.A.205

(b)(3) The takeoff run shall not exceed the takeoff run available (TORA).”

𝑇𝑂𝑅 ≤ 𝑇𝑂𝑅𝐴

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 47​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-17: TORN-1 dry and TORN-1 wet

3.1.2.2.​ Runway without Clearway

On runways without a clearway, the takeoff run is equal to the takeoff distance,
regardless of the takeoff surface (dry or wet).

3.1.2.3.​ Clearway Influence on a Wet Runway

On a wet runway, the takeoff run with one Engine-Out (EO) is always equal to the
takeoff distance with one EO (i.e. from brake release to 15 ft). Therefore, a
clearway does not provide any performance advantages on a wet runway,
because the TOR is always more restrictive (TORA less than TODA).

3.1.2.4.​ Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)

CS 25.109 Subpart B FAR 25.109 Subpart B

a) The Accelerate Stop Distance on a dry runway is the higher of the following
values:
●​ ASDN-1 dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:
○​ Accelerate from a fixed start to VEF with all engines at TOGA.
○​ Accelerate from VEF to V12 under the assumption that the critical engine
fails at VEF and that the pilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff at
V1.
○​ Come to a full stop3;4 (all engines at idle), under the assumption that no
deceleration means to retard the aircraft were applied before V1.
○​ Add a distance margin equal to 2 seconds, at constant5 V1 speed.​

2
Delay between VEF and V1 ≥ 1 second.
3
ASD must be established with the “wheel brakes at the fully worn limit of their allowable wear
range”
[CS/FAR 25.101].
4
ASD must not be determined with reverse thrust on a dry runway.
5
Pre-amendment 42 does not consider the distance margin of 2 seconds at V1 (applicable to the
A300, A300-600 and A310).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 48​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-18: ASDN-1 dry

Illustration C-19: Example of Accelerate - Stop Time Sequence

●​ ASDN dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:

○​ Accelerate from a fixed start to VEF with all engines at TOGA.
○​ Come to a full stop (all engines at idle), under the assumption that no
deceleration means to retard the aircraft were applied before V1.
○​ Add a distance margin equal to 2 seconds, at constant V1 speed.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 49​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-20: ASDN dry

𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑁−1 𝑑𝑟𝑦, 𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑁 𝑑𝑟𝑦}

The ASD with All Engines Operative (AEO) is considered to take into account
some situations that should result in a decision to reject the takeoff without engine
failure.
The ASDN was included in the Amendment 42. Therefore, there is no ASDN for
A300, A300-600 and A310 aircraft.
​
b) The ASD on a wet runway is the higher of the following values:

●​ ASDdry ​
●​ ASDN-1 wet = same definition as ASDN-1 dry, except the runway is wet6
●​ ASDN wet = same definition as ASDN dry, except the runway is wet

​
𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑓 {𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦, 𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑁−1 𝑤𝑒𝑡, 𝐴𝑆𝐷𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑡}

Air OPS 1.490 Subpart G FAR 121.189 (c)(1) Subpart I

“CAR-OPS 1.490
(b)(1) The accelerate-stop distance shall not exceed the accelerate-stop distance
available.”

𝐴𝑆𝐷 ≤ 𝐴𝑆𝐷𝐴

6
ASD determination on a wet runway may include the use of the reverse thrust provided that it is
safe and reliable [CS/FAR 25-109 (e)(f)].

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 50​ TAKEOFF

3.2.​TAKEOFF TRAJECTORY
The takeoff trajectory needs to comply with the following requirements:
●​ Operations with OEI, in compliance with airworthiness regulations
(CS/FAR25) and operational regulations (AIR-OPS/FAR-121)
●​ Operations with AEO, in compliance with air traffic management and noise
procedures published by the airport.

3.2.1.​One Engine Inoperative - Takeoff Flight Path

3.2.1.1.​ Definitions
CS 25.111 Subpart B FAR 25.111 Subpart B
CS 25.115 Subpart B FAR 25.115 Subpart B

“CS/FAR 25.111
(a) The takeoff path extends from a standing start to a point at which the
aeroplane is at a height:
●​ Of 1500 ft above the takeoff surface, or
●​ At which the transition from the takeoff to the en-route configuration7 is
completed and the final takeoff speed8 is reached,
whichever point is higher”.

“CS/FAR 25.115 (a)

The takeoff flight path must be considered to begin 11 m (35 ft) above the take-off
surface at the end of the takeoff distance.”

The takeoff flight path starts at the end of the TOD.

For aircraft limited by TODN-1, the regulatory definitions for the takeoff path and
takeoff flight path consider that the aircraft accelerates on the ground to VEF. At
this point, the critical engine becomes inoperative, and remains inoperative for the
rest of the takeoff. In addition, the V2 speed must be reached before the aircraft is
35 ft above the takeoff surface. The aircraft must continue at a speed of not less
than V2, until at least 400 ft above the takeoff surface are reached.

3.2.1.2.​ Takeoff Segments and Climb Requirements

CS 25.121 Subpart B FAR 25.121 Subpart B

Regulation defines the takeoff flight path by a number of segments.

Each segment is characterized by a specific change in:
●​ Configuration
●​ Thrust
●​ Speed.
The flight path performance computations must be based on the assumption of
the aircraft out of ground effect. The aircraft is considered to be out of the ground
effect when it reaches a height equal to its wing span.
7
En route configuration: clean configuration, Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) setting.
8
Final takeoff speed: speed above 1.25 Vs, chosen equal to Green Dot speed (best climb
gradient speed).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 51​ TAKEOFF

The configuration, weight and thrust of the aircraft must correspond to the most
critical condition in the segment.

Illustration C-21: Takeoff Flight Path (example for TOD=TODN-1)

After an engine failure at VEF, regardless of the operational conditions, the aircraft
must satisfy minimum climb gradients, as required by CS/FAR 25.121.

The following table (Table C-1) summarizes the different requirements and the
aircraft status during the four takeoff segments:
●​ The minimum required climb gradient with OEI
●​ The flaps / slats configuration
●​ The engine rating
●​ The speed reference
●​ The landing gear configuration.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 52​ TAKEOFF

 FIRST SEGMENT SECOND SEGMENT THIRD FINAL SEGMENT
SEGMENT
Minimum
Climb Twin 0.0 % 2.4 % - 1.2 %
Gradient
(N-1) Quad 0.5 % 3.0 % - 1.7 %
Engines

Start When VLOF reached Landing gear Acceleration En route

fully retracted height configuration
reached achieved
(min 400 ft)

Slats/Flaps Takeoff Takeoff Slats/Flaps Clean

Configuration retraction

TOGA/FLEX​ TOGA/FLEX​ TOGA/FLEX​

Engine Rating MCT
/DERATE /DERATE /DERATE

Speed VLOF V2 Acceleration Green Dot

Reference from V2 to
Green Dot

Landing Gear Retraction Retracted Retracted Retracted

Weight Weight at the Weight when Weight at Weight at

Reference start of the the landing the start of the end of
landing gear gear is fully the the
retraction. retracted acceleration acceleration
Note: for Airbus segment segment
aircraft, Weight
at brake release
is considered.

Ground Effect Without Without Without Without

Table C-1: Takeoff Segment Characteristics

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 53​ TAKEOFF

 3.2.1.3.​ Minimum and Maximum Acceleration Heights
Minimum Acceleration Height

CS 25.111 Subpart B FAR 25.111 Subpart B

“(c)(2) The aeroplane must reach V2 before it is 35 ft above the takeoff surface
and must continue at a speed not less than V2 until it is 400 ft above the take-off
surface.

(c)(3) At each point along the takeoff flight path, starting at the point at which the
aeroplane reaches 400 ft above the takeoff surface, the available gradient of
climb may not be less than:
●​ 1.2 % for two-engined aeroplanes
●​ 1.7 % for four-engined aeroplanes”

This means that, below 400 ft, constant speed must be maintained, with a
minimum speed of V2.
Above 400 ft, the aircraft must achieve a minimum climb gradient or an equivalent
acceleration capability, in level flight. Therefore, the regulatory acceleration height
is fixed to a minimum 400 ft above the takeoff surface.

However, during the acceleration segment, obstacle clearance must be ensured

at any moment. Therefore, the operational acceleration height must at least be
equal to 400 ft.

Maximum Acceleration Height

The Maximum Takeoff Thrust (TOGA) is certified for use for a maximum of 10
minutes, in the case of an engine failure at takeoff, and for a maximum of 5
minutes with AEO.
The Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT), that has no time limitation, can only be
selected when the en route configuration is achieved (i.e. when the aircraft is in
clean configuration at Green Dot speed).
As a result, the enroute configuration (end of the third segment) must be achieved
within a maximum of 10 minutes after takeoff. This is in order to enable the
determination of a maximum acceleration height.

3.2.1.4.​ Gross and Net Takeoff Flight Paths - Obstacle Clearance

The runway surroundings usually have obstacles that must be considered in the
takeoff computation, to check for obstacle clearance.
A vertical margin must be considered between the aircraft and each obstacle in
the takeoff flight path. This margin, based on a climb gradient reduction, results in
the definitions of the Gross Takeoff Flight Path and the Net Takeoff Flight Path.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 54​ TAKEOFF

 CS 25.115 Subpart B FAR 25.115 Subpart B

Gross Flight Path = The true flight path that the aircraft flies, i.e.:
“(a) The take-off flight path must be considered to begin 11 m (35 ft) above the
take-off surface at the end of the takeoff distance [to the end of the takeoff path]”

Net Flight Path = Gross takeoff flight path minus a mandatory reduction.
“(b) The net take-off flight path data must be determined so that they represent
the actual [Gross] takeoff flight paths [...] reduced at each point by a gradient
equal to:
●​ 0.8 % for two-engined aeroplanes;
●​ 1.0 % for four-engined aeroplanes.”

Net Gradient = Gross Gradient - Gradient Penalty

Gradient
Penalty
Aircraft with Two Engines 0.8 %
Aircraft with Four Engines 1.0 %
Table C-2: Values of Gradient Penalties

The gradient penalty between the Net and the Gross Flight Path must be
considered during the first, second, and final takeoff segments (Illustration C-22).

Illustration C-22: Takeoff Gross and Net Flight Path (example for TOD=TODN-1)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 55​ TAKEOFF

 Air OPS Subpart C​ FAR 121.189 (d)(2) Subpart I
CAT.POL.A.210

“(a) The net take-off flight path shall be determined in such a way that the
aeroplane clears all obstacles by a vertical distance of at least 35 ft.”

For example, the minimum climb gradient that is required during the second
segment must be 2.4 % for an aircraft with two engines. But, as per regulation,
the net flight path must clear any obstacle by at least 35 ft (Illustration C-22). This
may sometimes require the second segment gradient to be more than 2.4 % and,
as a result, the MTOW may need to be reduced accordingly. This is an example
of obstacle limitation.
Obstacles below the third segment determine the minimum acceleration height.
This height must be between 400 ft and the maximum acceleration height (10 min
at TOGA). The minimum acceleration height ensures a vertical clearance of 35 ft
(or 50 ft) between the net flight path and the obstacle.

3.2.1.5.​ Management of the Extended Final Segment

As described in the Definitions of this chapter, the CS/FAR 25.111 defines the end
of the takeoff flight path at the higher of 1500 ft, or when the enroute configuration
is achieved. The en route configuration needs to be achieved a maximum of 10
min after takeoff, due to the limitations of the use of TOGA. This results in a
maximum acceleration height, as defined in the chapter Minimum and Maximum
Acceleration Heights.
Therefore, for Airbus aircraft, the certified net flight path ends at the net height,
achieved after 10 min. Any additional obstacles, after the end of the Net Takeoff
Flight Path that is certified, should be checked with the Net en route Flight Path
that is certified.

There is a difference between the obstacle clearance requirements for takeoff and
en route. As explained in the chapter Takeoff Funnel Air OPS Definition, the Net
Flight Path needs to clear obstacles, by either a lateral margin of at least 600 m,
or by a vertical margin of at least 35 ft (refer to Air OPS Subpart C -
CAT.POL.A.210).
For en route, the net flight path needs to clear obstacles by either a lateral margin
of at least 5 nm, or by a vertical margin of at least 1 000 ft (refer to Air OPS
CAT.POL.A.215), as described in the chapter Vertical Clearance.

For some airports, not all obstacles are cleared at the end of the Net Takeoff
Flight Path. The use of the en route margins may have a high impact on the
MTOW, because more obstacles need to be considered (due to the larger lateral
margin) with a higher vertical margin. One option is to consider the extension of
the Net Takeoff Flight Path beyond the CS25 definition.
The regulation does not define how to manage this difference between obstacle
clearance during takeoff and en route.
Some documentation provides guidance on this subject.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 56​ TAKEOFF

For example the FAA Advisory Circular 120-91A explains that, for the purpose of
the analysis of obstacle clearance, the takeoff flight path ends at one of the
following:
●​ The Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) or the Minimum En Route Altitude
(MEA), for a route to the expected destination, or
●​ A point where the requirements for en route obstacle clearance can be
satisfied, or
●​ A point from which an approach may be initiated to the departure airport or
to the departure alternate. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Operators can consider several methods for the gross/net flight path margin and
the definition of minimum obstacle clearance, for the extended final segment.
These can be checked with their local authorities:

1.​ A conservative method is to consider that far away obstacles are below the
third segment, and that the net flight path clears the obstacles by at least
35 ft.

Illustration C-23: Method 1 for Obstacles Clearance

If this option has too many limitations for MTOW, one of the following
options can be considered.

2.​ Apply a gradient reduction to the gross flight path for the final segment.

Illustration C-24: Method 2 for Obstacles Clearance

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 57​ TAKEOFF

 This results in the deviation between gross and net flight path as the
aircraft climbs. For far away obstacles, the difference between the gross
and net paths may be very large (Illustration C-24). The method, 3, below
permits to avoid this.

Apply a gradient reduction to the gross flight path for the final segment,
until the difference between the gross and the net flight path reaches a
defined maximum value. As soon as the altitude difference between gross
and net is equal to the defined maximum value, the net flight path
becomes parallel to the gross, separated by the maximum value.
Therefore, when the gross and the net flight paths are parallel, the
minimum obstacle clearance between the gross flight path and the
obstacle is at least the maximum value (Illustration C-25).​

Illustration C-25: Method 3 for Obstacles Clearance

3.​ Build the net flight path depending on the true altitude of the aircraft and
the related Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude (MOCA) that is required.
(Illustration C-26) When the net flight path diverges from the gross flight
path, the difference between the gross and the net flight path is limited,
based on a specific table [true altitude; MOCA]. Refer to ICAO PANS-OPS
Vol II (Doc 8168) for an example.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 58​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-26: Method 4 for Obstacles Clearance

The use of these methods may help to increase the MTOW, when it is limited by a
far away obstacle clearance. Since the methods described above are not defined
by regulation, their use must be approved by local authorities.

3.2.1.6.​ Turn Limitations

Some airports define departure procedures that require a turn to avoid limiting
obstacles. Regulation defines specific criteria applicable to turns for consideration
in the net takeoff flight path computation.

The turn criteria is different depending on the regulation. The following

paragraphs consider EASA and FAA regulation separately.

Air OPS Subpart C​

CAT.POL.A.210

“(b)(2) Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point at which the net take-off
flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the wingspan but not less than
50 ft above the elevation of the end of the TORA.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 59​ TAKEOFF

 Minimum Height above
AIRCRAFT TYPE WINGSPAN End of TORA
to Start a Track Change =
Max {Half of Wingspan, 50 ft}

38.7 m
A220 64 ft
(127 ft)

44.84 m
A300-B2/B4/600 74 ft
(147 ft 1 in)

43.90 m
A310-200/300 72 ft
(144 ft 1 in)

34.10 m
A318/A319/A320/A321 56 ft
(111 ft 10 in)

60.30 m
A330-200/300 99 ft
(197 ft 10 in)

64.00 m
A330-800/900 105 ft
(210 ft)

60.30 m
A340-200/300 99 ft
(197 ft 10 in)

63.50 m
A340-500/600 104 ft
(208 ft 2 in)

64.75 m
A350-900/1000 106 ft
(212 ft 5 in)

79.75 m
A380-800 131 ft
(261 ft 8 in)

Table C-3: Minimum Height to Initiate a Track Change

“(b)(2) Thereafter, up to a height of 400 ft it is assumed that the aeroplane is

banked by no more than 15°. Above 400 ft height bank angles greater than 15°,
but not more than 25° may be scheduled.

(c)(3) Operations that apply increased bank angles of not more than 20° between
200 ft and 400 ft, or not more than 30° above 400 ft, shall be carried out in
accordance with CAT.POL.A.240.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 60​ TAKEOFF

 Air OPS Subpart C​
CAT.POL.A.240

“(a) Operations with increased bank angles require prior approval by the
competent authority.”

Maximum Bank Angle during a Turn (Air OPS)

Standard Procedure Specific Approval

Below 200 ft 15 ° 15 °

Between 200 ft and 15 ° 20 °

400 ft

Above 400 ft 25 ° 30 °
Table C-4: Maximum Bank Angle During a Turn

Note: Depending on the conditions, with an engine failure, the autopilot may limit
the bank angle to 15 °.

The obstacle clearance margins, during a turn, are different, depending on if they
are provided by Air OPS or FAR. The FAR regulation does not consider any
additional vertical margin during a turn, because the bank angle is limited to 15 º.
The following rule is then applicable to EASA Air Ops only.

Air OPS Subpart C​

CAT.POL.A.210

“(b) (3) Any part of the net take-off flight path in which the aeroplane is banked by
more than 15° shall clear all obstacles [...] by a vertical distance of at least 50 ft.”

Obstacle Clearance
Margin
Bank Angle ≤ 15 ° 35 ft
Bank Angle > 15 ° 50 ft
Table C-5: Minimum Vertical Clearance Margin

FAR 121.189 Subpart I

“(f) For the purpose of this section, it is assumed that the airplane is not banked
before reaching a height of 50 ft, […] and thereafter that the maximum bank is not
more than 15 degrees9.”
FAA - AC 120-91A

9
The FAA rule is similar to the ICAO annex 6 recommendations.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 61​ TAKEOFF

“17.(b) Bank Angle. Sections 121.189, 135.379, and 135.398 assume that the
airplane is not banked before reaching a height of 50 feet, and that thereafter, the
maximum bank is not more than 15 degrees. Obstacle clearance at certain
airports can be enhanced by the use of bank angles greater than 15 degrees. The
following bank angles and heights may be used with OpSpec authorization (in
accordance with § 121.173(f)). Any bank angles greater than the values shown in
Table C-6 below require additional, specific FAA authorization.”

Maximum Bank Angles

Height Above Departure End of Runway (ft) Maximum Bank Angle

h > 400 25 °

400 > h > 100 20 °

100 > h > 50* 15 °

* Or ½ of wingspan, the highest of both.

Table C-6: Maximum Bank Angles

3.2.2.​All Engines Operative - Takeoff Flight Path

As described in the chapter One Engine Inoperative - Takeoff Flight path, for an
OEI takeoff, the net flight path must ensure an obstacle clearance of at least 35 ft
(refer to CAT.POL.A210 and FAR 121.189 (d)(2) Subpart I).

For the AEO operations, the certification and Air OPS regulations do not define
requirements on the vertical and the lateral flight paths. By design, and as per the
recommendations of the PANS-OPS (ICAO DOC 8168), operators must ensure
that the gross AEO takeoff flight path will not cross the protection surface,
published on the Standard Instrument Departure (SID) chart. As a result,
operators must check for compliance with the operational constraints.

3.2.2.1.​ Flight Path

On Airbus aircraft, the typical trajectory with AEO procedure is described as

follows:
●​ The aircraft maintains the takeoff thrust at a speed near to V2+10 kt, until
the thrust reduction altitude is reached.
●​ The aircraft still maintains a speed equal to V2+10 kt with the climb thrust.
●​ The aircraft reaches the acceleration altitude.
●​ At the acceleration altitude, the aircraft retracts the flaps and the slats until
the configuration is clean, and then accelerates to 250 kt.
●​ The aircraft climbs to 10 000 ft at a constant speed of 250 kt.

In the case of a specific takeoff procedure, for example the NADP2, the different
takeoff segments will not be the same as those defined for a typical trajectory.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 62​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-27: Typical Takeoff Vertical Flight with AEO

On the illustration C-27, the protection surface is displayed in green and the AEO
gross takeoff flight is displayed in red.

3.2.2.2.​ Published Procedure

The ICAO PANS-OPS Vol II (Doc 8168) provides standards and
recommendations for the people that create procedures, so that they can write
the departure instrument procedures. The operators comply with the published
procedures. SID procedures are published as part of the AIP, refer to Appendix 6.

ICAO PANS-OPS Vol II (Doc 8168)

Due to the recommendations and the standards described in the PANS-OPS, by

design, a takeoff procedure with AEO must ensure that no obstacle enters a
protection surface of 2.5 %. An additional margin of 0.8 % is applied. For this
reason, when no climb gradient is published, operators must consider a surface
of 3.3 % as a minimum protection surface .

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 63​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-28: AEO Protection Surface

The minimum protection surface starts at 5 m above the departure end of the
runway, and continues until the target altitude.

When the protection surface requires a higher gradient than the standard climb
gradient of 3.3 %, this gradient and the target altitude are published on the chart.

Illustration C-29: Example of a Climb Gradient Published on a Chart

On the chart, for the SID CPT 3F, an all engine climb gradient of 5 % up to
6 000 ft is required.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 64​ TAKEOFF

This published constraint means that the protection surface is as follows:

Illustration C-30: Protection Surface for a Published Climb Gradient of 5% up to 6 000 ft

3.2.2.3.​ Check for the All Engine Climb Gradient

As described in the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) Handbook, operators

must provide the pilots with the all engine climb gradient, and publish it in the
Operating Manual.

Operators can consider several options, in order to check the all engine climb
gradient:

1.​ The first approach is to compute the gross trajectory of the aircraft with
AEO, and to ensure that the AEO gross trajectory always remains above
the protection surface.
This method is precise, and may consider the cases where the protection
surface is divided into several connected constraints (for example, 5.6 %
until 2 500 ft and then 4.2 % until 6 000 ft).

Illustration C-31: Example of Obstacle Protection Surface

This method could be long and difficult to apply for operators with a large
network.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 65​ TAKEOFF

The other alternative methods are to check an All Engine Climb Gradient (AECG)
between the end of TOD and the target altitude, published on the SID charts.
2.​ A conservative method is to compute the AECG at the end of the first
acceleration phase (i.e. the end of the third segment). This computation
must be valid for a range of temperatures and takeoff weights and consider
the most penalizing conditions:
a.​ The minimum V2 speed.
b.​ The takeoff configuration with maximum slats/flaps extension.

Illustration C-32: Typical Takeoff Flight Path and Associated all engine climb gradient

On a typical AEO takeoff vertical trajectory, during the acceleration

segment, the aircraft accelerates to 250 kt. As a result, the aircraft has a
lower energy to climb and the AECG is also lower.

3.​ If operations are limited with method 2, it is necessary to compute the

AECG with the conditions of the day. Some Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)
providers include this functionality in the takeoff computation.

Note that with methods 2 & 3, it is not possible to take into account the different
changes on the lateral track of the aircraft. This means that only the wind on the
runway axis can be considered.

For the AEO operations, the thrust reduction altitude and the acceleration altitude
are defining parameters:
●​ When the published AECG is too limiting, the best way to enhance the
performance is to optimize the thrust reduction altitude and the
acceleration altitude.
●​ When the takeoff is not limited by the published AECG, a reduction in fuel
consumption and noise emission may be possible by:
○​ The optimization of the thrust reduction altitude, and/or,
○​ The optimization of the acceleration altitude.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 66​ TAKEOFF

 Please refer to the “Getting to Grips with Fuel Economy & Emission Reduction”
and to the “Getting to Grips with Noise”, available on Airbusworld.

4.​FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
There are two types of factors of influence:
●​ Parameters that are external: temperature, pressure, runway conditions,
runway slope, wind, alignment, air bleed and moisture.
●​ Parameters that can be selected: flaps setting, V1 and V2.

4.1.​EXTERNAL PARAMETERS
The determination of the TOW limited by performance must be based on the
external conditions of the day that are subject to frequent variation.

CS 25.105 Subpart B FAR 25.105 Subpart B

CS 25.237 Subpart B FAR 25.237 Subpart B
Air OPS Subpart C​ FAR 121.189 (e) Subpart I
CAT.POL.A.205

“Air OPS Subpart C

CAT.POL.A.205
(c) When showing compliance with CAT.POL.A.205 (b), [requirements when
determining the maximum permitted takeoff mass], the following shall be taken
into account:
(1)​The pressure altitude at the aerodrome;
(2)​The ambient temperature at the aerodrome;
(3)​The runway surface condition and the type of runway surface;
(4)​The runway slope in the direction of the takeoff;
(5)​Not more than 50% of the reported headwind component or not less than
150% of the reported tailwind component; and
(6)​The loss, if any, of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to
takeoff.”

4.1.1.​Temperature and Pressure Altitude

Temperature (T) and Pressure Altitude (Zp) have an influence on aerodynamic

performance and engine performance.

Effect on Aerodynamics:

At takeoff, Lift (L) must be higher than Weight (W):

1 2
2
ρ𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 > 𝑚𝑔

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 67​ TAKEOFF

As air density ρ decreases when T or Zp increases, the same lift can be obtained
by an increase in the velocity (V).
As a result, the takeoff distances increase and the gradients decrease with
increasing T and Zp.

Effect on Engines:

When the Zp or T increases, the available takeoff thrust is reduced, as described

in the chapter Engine Limitations.
As a result, the takeoff distances increase and the gradients decrease with T and
Zp.

4.1.2.​Runway Condition

Refer to the chapter Takeoff on Wet or Contaminated Runways.

4.1.3.​Runway Slope

A slope is usually defined as a percentage, with a plus sign before (when it is

upward), or a minus sign before (when it is downward).

Airbus aircraft are certified for takeoff on runways with slopes between -2 % and
+2 %. However, these values can be extended to higher limits for operations on
specific runways that require certification of an AFM supplement, justified by
analysis and flight testing.

An upward slope degrades the aircraft acceleration capability and, as a result, it

increases the takeoff distance. On the other hand, the required distance to stop is
reduced in the case of a rejected takeoff. For this reason, depending on the
takeoff limitation, an upward slope may increase or decrease the MTOW.

4.1.4.​Wind

Air OPS Subpart C​ FAR 121.189 (e) Subpart I

CAT.POL.A.205

The wind component along the runway axis is a factor that has an important
influence on takeoff performance. The wind affects the true airspeed. The takeoff
distances are reduced, in the case of headwind, and increased, in the case of
tailwind.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 68​ TAKEOFF

The MTOW calculated before takeoff, must be determined based on 50 % of the
current headwind component, or 150 % of the current tailwind component. This
criteria is taken into account by the Airbus performance software, so that an
Operator only needs to consider the current wind component for the
determination of the MTOW.

CS 25.237 Subpart B FAR 25.237 Subpart B

”(a)(1) A 90° cross component of wind velocity, demonstrated to be safe for

take-off and landing, must be established for dry runways and must be at least 37
km/h (20 kt) or 0.2 VSR010, whichever is greater, except that it need not exceed 46
km/h (25 kt).”

The regulation requires the demonstration of a crosswind capability of up to at

least 25 kt, but Airbus demonstrates maximum crosswind values above 25 kt.

On some aircraft, takeoff with high crosswind, or with tailwind, requires specific
takeoff procedures that can affect the performance of the aircraft, due to the
progressive application of the takeoff thrust. This is taken into account by the
Airbus performance software.

In addition, the maximum recommended crosswind values are published for

different runway states, considering handling quality criteria.

4.1.5.​Alignment

Aircraft usually enter the takeoff runway from an intersecting taxiway. The aircraft
must be turned in a way that the aircraft nose points toward the runway, in the
direction for takeoff. The FAA regulations do not clearly require that the aircraft
operators take into account the runway distance used to align the aircraft on the
runway for takeoff. However, the EASA regulations require a lineup distance
allowance to be considered.

Air OPS Subpart C​

CAT.POL.A.205

Lineup corrections should be made, when the takeoff performance is computed, if

runway access does not permit to position the aircraft at the threshold.
The Takeoff Distance/Takeoff Run (TOD/TOR) adjustment is based on the initial
distance from the beginning of the runway to the main landing gear. This is
because the screen height is measured from the main landing gear, as indicated
by distance "A", in Illustration C-33. The Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)
adjustment is based on the initial distance between the beginning of the runway
and the nose landing gear, as indicated by distance "B", in Illustration C-33.

10
VSR0 is the reference stall speed in clean configuration.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 69​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-33: Lineup Corrections

Runways with a displaced takeoff threshold, or large turning aprons, should not
need additional adjustment. An adjustment is usually required for a 90 ° taxiway
entry to the runway, and for a 180 ° turnaround on the runway.

Illustration C-34: Example of 90° Taxiway Entry

The values of the distance corrections for the minimum lineup are available in the
Airbus manuals (Aircraft Performance Data manuals), by aircraft model.

4.1.6.​Air Bleed

When the air bleeds (i.e. air conditioning and anti-ice) are activated (set to ON),
the takeoff distances increase and the gradients decrease, due to engine thrust
reduction.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 70​ TAKEOFF

 4.1.7.​Moisture

CS 25.101 §b FAR 25.101 §b

Performance must take into account the following variation of moisture:

Illustration C-35: Variation of Moisture with Temperature

The influence of moisture is taken into account in the Airbus performance

software.

4.2.​SELECTED PARAMETERS

4.2.1.​Flap Setting

The deployment of flaps results in an increase in both lift and drag.

The increase in lift results in a reduction in the takeoff distances.
The increase in drag results in a reduction in the takeoff climb gradient.

Illustration C-36: Effect of Flap in Lift and Drag

Takeoff flaps can be selected from several available takeoff configurations. For
example, CONF 1+F, CONF 2 or CONF 3.

Each configuration is associated with a set of certified performance data, and it is,
therefore, always possible to determine a MTOW for each takeoff configuration.
As a result, the optimum configuration is the one that provides the highest MTOW.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 71​ TAKEOFF

As a general rule, CONF 1+F provides better performance on long runways
(better climb gradients), while CONF 3 provides better performance on short
runways (shorter takeoff distances). Sometimes, other parameters, like obstacles,
can limit the performance. In this case, a compromise between climb and runway
performance is required, and this makes intermediate configurations optimal for
takeoff.

Illustration C-37: Effect of the Flap in the Takeoff Distance and in the Gradient

4.2.2.​Decision Speed: V1

For a specific takeoff weight, any increase in V1 results in a reduction of both

TODN-1 and TORN-1. The all engines acceleration phase is longer with a higher V1
speed. As a result, in the case of an engine failure at VEF, the same V2 speed can
be achieved at 35 ft in a shorter distance.

The TODN and TORN are independent of V1, because there is no engine failure
and, therefore, no impact on the acceleration phase and on the necessary
distance to reach 35 ft.

For a specific takeoff weight, any increase in V1 results in an increase in both the
ASDN-1 and ASDN. With a higher V1 speed:
●​ The acceleration distance from brake release to V1 is longer
●​ The deceleration distance from V1 to the complete stop is longer
●​ The distance at constant V1 speed is longer.
​
As a result, the illustration C-38 with the takeoff/accelerate stop distances as a
function of V1 can be defined. This illustration clearly demonstrates that a
minimum distance is achieved at a specific V1 speed. This speed is the “balanced
V1”, and the corresponding distance is the “balanced field”.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 72​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-38: Influence of V1 on Accelerate Go/Accelerate Stop Distances

4.2.3.​Speed at 35 ft Height: V2

V2 is determined by VR, as no takeoff parameters can be changed after liftoff:

high V2 ⇔ high VR

For a specific weight, a higher V2 requires a higher VR. Therefore, also a longer
TOD because more distance is required to accelerate up to VR. But, a higher V2
will also enable the aircraft to have higher climb gradients (until a V2/VS maximal
value, as demonstrated in the chapter Maximum Performance Takeoff Weight).

Illustration C-39: Influence of V2 on Second Segment Gradient for a Specific Weight

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 73​ TAKEOFF

5.​MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE TAKEOFF WEIGHT
This section is specifically designed to explain the takeoff optimization principle.
The optimization objective is to obtain the maximum takeoff weight permitted by
the regulations. This means the highest takeoff weight that is limited by
performance and complies with all airworthiness requirements.

Note: For takeoff configuration, refer to the chapter Factors of Influence.

5.1.​TAKEOFF SPEED OPTIMIZATION

Takeoff speeds are the most important variables for the MTOW optimization. The
following section demonstrates how this optimization is achieved using speed
ratios (V1/VR and V2/VS).

5.1.1.​Speed Ratios: V1/VR and V2/VS

5.1.1.1.​ V1/VR Range

The decision speed V1 must always be less than the rotation speed VR. But, as
the VR depends on weight, the maximum V1 value is not fixed, while the maximum
V1/VR ratio is equal to one (regulatory value).
​
In addition, it was demonstrated that a V1 speed of less than 84% of the VR
makes the takeoff distances very long. Therefore, it does not have any takeoff
performance advantages. As a result, the minimum V1/VR ratio is equal to 0.84
(manufacturer value).

The V1/VR ratio is used in the optimization process, because its range is
well-identified:
0. 84 ≤ 𝑉1/𝑉𝑅 ≤ 1
​
Note: Any V1/VR increase (and respective decrease) should be considered to have
the same effect on takeoff performance as a V1 increase (and respective
decrease).

5.1.1.2.​ V2/VS Range

CS 25.107 §b
The minimum V2 speed is defined by the regulations :

𝑉2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1. 2 𝑉𝑠 (A300/A310)​

(𝑉2/𝑉𝑆) = 1. 2 𝑜𝑟 1. 13
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1. 13 𝑉𝑆1𝑔 (Fly-By-Wire aircraft)​

The stall speed depends on weight. So that the minimum V2 speed is not a fixed
value, while the minimum V2/VS ratio is known for a specific aircraft type.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 74​ TAKEOFF

In addition, a high V2 speed results in longer takeoff distances, and a reduction of
climb performance (Illustration C-40). As it does not provide any advantage, the
V2/VS ratio is limited to a maximum value (V2/VS maxi) that depends on the aircraft
type.

Illustration C-40 : 2nd Segment Climb Gradient variation with V2/VS Ratio

The V2/VS ratio is used in the optimization process, because its range is
well-identified.
​
Note: Any V2/VS increase (and respective decrease) should be considered to have
the same effect on the takeoff performance as a V2 increase (and respective
decrease).

5.1.2.​V1/VR Ratio Influence

The objective of this section is to study the influence of V1/VR ratio variations on
the takeoff performance, while the V2/VS ratio remains a constant. For that
purpose, it is considered that the following parameters are fixed:

Fixed Parameters
Elevation
Runway Data Runway
Clearway
Stopway
Slope
Obstacles
QNH
Outside Conditions Outside Air Temperature
Wind component
Flaps/Slats
Aircraft Data Air conditioning
Anti-ice
Aircraft status (MEL/CDL)
V2/VS

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 75​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.2.1.​ Runway Limitations

Any V1/VR increase results in (Illustration C-41):

●​ An increase in MTOW, limited by:
○​ TODN-1
○​ TORN-1

●​ A decrease in MTOW, limited by:

○​ ASD(N or N-1)

●​ No influence on the MTOW, limited by:

○​ TODN
○​ TORN

​
Illustration C-41 - Runway limited MTOW

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 76​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.2.2.​ Climb and Obstacle Limitations

The V1 speed (recognition speed on ground) has no influence on climb gradients

(first, second and final takeoff segments).

On the contrary, the obstacle-limited weight is increased with a higher V1,

because the takeoff distance is reduced. Therefore, the start of the takeoff
flight path is obtained at a shorter distance, and this requires a lower gradient to
clear the obstacles.

Any V1/VR increase results in (Illustration C-42):

●​ An increase in MTOW, limited by:
○​ Obstacles.

●​ No influence on the MTOW, limited by the:

○​ First segment
○​ Second segment
○​ Final takeoff segment.

Illustration C-42: Climb and Obstacle limited MTOW

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 77​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.2.3.​ Brake Energy and Tire Speed Limitations

There is a maximum V1 speed, limited by brake energy (VMBE) for each TOW. To
achieve a higher V1 speed, it is necessary to reduce the TOW.
​
On the contrary, the decision speed does not have an influence on the tire speed
limit.

Any V1/VR increase results in (Illustration C-43):

●​ A decrease in MTOW, limited by:
○​ Brake energy.

●​ No influence:
○​ Tire speed.

Illustration C-43: Brake energy and tire speed limited MTOW

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 78​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.2.4.​ All Limitations
The following Illustration (C-44) demonstrates that the highest of the maximum
takeoff weights can be achieved at a specific optimum V1/VR ratio. This optimum
point corresponds to the intersection between two limitation curves.

Illustration C-44: Optimum MTOW

The result of this optimization process is, for a specific V2/VS ratio, an optimum
MTOW and an associated optimum V1/VR ratio.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 79​ TAKEOFF

5.1.3.​V2/VS Ratio Influence

The purpose of this paragraph is to study the influence of V2/VS ratio variation on
the takeoff performance, for a specific V1/VR ratio.

5.1.3.1.​ Runway Limitations

As a general rule, for a specific V1/VR ratio, any increase in the V2/VS ratio results
in an increase in the OEI and AEO takeoff distances. In order to achieve a higher
V2 speed at 35 ft, the acceleration phase is longer.
​
On the contrary, the V2 speed has no direct impact on the ASD. But, a higher V2
speed results in a higher VR speed and, therefore, for a specific V1/VR ratio, in a
higher V1 speed. Therefore, it has an effect on ASD.

Any V2/VS increase results in (Illustration C-45):

●​ A decrease in MTOW limited by:

○​ TODN-1 and TODN
○​ TORN-1 and TORN
○​ ASDN-1 and ASDN

Illustration C-45: V2/VS Effect on the Runway Limitations

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 80​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.3.2.​ Climb and Obstacle Limitations
As shown in Illustration C-40, any V2/VS increase results in better climb gradients
(first and second segment) and, therefore, in better climb limited MTOWs (first
segment, second segment, obstacle).

On the other hand, as the aircraft flies the final takeoff segment at green dot
speed, this segment is not affected by V2 speed variations.

Illustration C-46: V2/VS Effect on the Climb and Obstacle Limitations

Any V2/VS increase results in (Illustration C-46):

●​ An increase in MTOW, limited by the:
○​ First segment
○​ Second segment
○​ Obstacles.
●​ No influence on the MTOW, limited by the:
○​ Final takeoff segment.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 81​ TAKEOFF

 5.1.3.3.​ Brake Energy and Tire Speed Limitations

The V2 speed does not have a direct impact on the brake energy limitation.
However, any V2 increase results in a VR increase and, therefore, in a V1 increase,
at a fixed V1/VR ratio. Therefore, there is an effect on the brake energy limited
weight.

The liftoff speed, VLOF, is limited by the tire speed (Vtire). As a result, V2 is limited to
a maximum value. For this reason, any V2/VS increase is identical to a VS
reduction, because the V2 is considered as fixed, and the tire speed limited TOW
is also reduced.

Any V2/VS increase results in (Illustration C-47):

●​ A decrease in MTOW, limited by the:
○​ Brake energy
○​ Tire speed.

Illustration C-47: V2/VS Effect on the Brake Energy and Tire Speed Limitations

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 82​ TAKEOFF

5.2.​RESULT OF THE OPTIMIZATION PROCESS

5.2.1.​Maximum Takeoff Weight

​
The previous section demonstrated how, for a specific V2/VS ratio, it is possible to
find an optimum MTOW and its associated optimum V1/VR ratio.

This is determined for each V2/VS ratio between V2/Vsmin and V2/Vsmax. In the end,
the highest of all the optimum MTOWs and associated optimum V1/VR is retained.
Therefore, it corresponds to an optimum V2/VS ratio. The result of the optimization
process, for a specific runway and takeoff conditions is as follows:

Result of the Optimization Process

●​ The highest possible MTOW

●​ The optimum V1/VR ratio
●​ The optimum V2/VS ratio

5.2.2.​Takeoff Speeds and Limitations

The optimization process determines the MTOW, based on a single set of

optimized takeoff speeds (V1, VR and V2). The use of different speeds results in a
TOW reduction.
When the optimum speed ratios (V1/VR and V2/VS) are obtained, the takeoff
speeds are calculated as follows:

(*) Note: The certified aircraft model defines this relationship.

Most of the time, the MTOW is restricted by two regulatory limitations (Illustration
C-48).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 83​ TAKEOFF

5.2.3.​MTOW with Two Limitations

Illustration C-48 illustrates that takeoff weight is limited by obstacles and by the
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD).

Illustration C-48: MTOW with Two Limitations

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 84​ TAKEOFF

5.2.4.​MTOW with One Limitation

In Illustration C-49, the takeoff weight is only limited by obstacles.

Illustration C-49: MTOW with One Limitation

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 85​ TAKEOFF

5.2.5.​MTOW with Three Limitations

In this specific case, there is a V1 range. As a result, regardless of the selected V1

speed (from the range between a minimum V1 and a maximum V1), the MTOW
remains the same while the nature of the limitation changes. The selected takeoff
V1 speed remains at the Operator’s discretion.

In Illustration C-50, the nature of the limitation depends on the V1/VR ratio:

●​ At V1/VRmin (Point 1): The takeoff weight is limited by the TODN-1 and by the
second segment.
●​ Between V1/VRmin and V1/VRmax: The takeoff weight is only limited by the
second segment.
●​ At V1/VRmax (Point 2): The takeoff weight is limited by the second segment
and by the brake energy.

Illustration C-50: MTOW with Three Limitations

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 86​ TAKEOFF

6.​TAKEOFF ON WET OR CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS
6.1.​DEFINITIONS OF CONTAMINANT

AMC 25.1591 §4.0 to §4.8

“The following definitions are a subset of the runway surface condition descriptors
for which a representative take-off performance model may be derived using the
methods contained in this AMC.”

6.1.1.​Frost

AMC 25.1591 §4.1

“Ice crystals formed from airborne moisture on a surface whose temperature is

below freezing. Frost differs from ice in that frost crystals grow independently and,
therefore, have a more granular in texture.”

Airbus does not provide performance data for takeoff with frost.

6.1.2.​Standing Water

AMC 25.1591 §4.1.a

“Water of a depth greater than 3 mm.”

Standing Water is caused by heavy rainfall and/or not sufficient runway drainage,
and with a depth of more than 3 mm (0.125 in).

6.1.3.​Slush

AMC 25.1591 §4.2

“Snow that is so water-saturated that water will drain from it when a handful is
picked up or will splatter if stepped on forcefully.”

Slush occurs at temperatures of approximately 5 °C.

6.1.4.​Wet Snow

AMC 25.1591 §4.3

“Snow that contains enough water to be able to make a well-compacted, solid

snowball without squeezing out water.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 87​ TAKEOFF

6.1.5.​Dry Snow

AMC 25.1591 §4.4

“Snow from which a snowball cannot readily be made.”

Snow that, if compacted by hand, does not stay compressed when released.

6.1.6.​Compacted Snow

AMC 25.1591 §4.5

“Snow that has been compacted into a solid-mass such that aeroplane tyres, at
operating pressures and loadings, will run on the runway surface without
significant further compaction or rutting of the runway surface.”

6.1.7.​Ice

AMC 25.1591 §4.6

“Water that has frozen or compacted snow that has transitioned into ice, in cold
and dry conditions.
Note: this definition excludes wet ice that has a film of water on top of it or
contains melting ice.”

Airbus defines an ice-covered runway as ICE COLD and DRY.

6.1.8.​Slippery Wet Runway

AMC 25.1591 §4.7

“A wet runway where the surface friction characteristics on a significant portion of

the runway have been determined to be degraded.”

6.1.9.​Specially Prepared Winter Runway (SPWR)

AMC 25.1591 §4.8

“A runway, with a dry frozen surface of compacted snow and/or ice which has
been treated with sand or grit or has been mechanically or chemically treated to
improve runway friction. The runway friction is monitored and reported on a
regular basis in accordance with national procedures.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 88​ TAKEOFF

6.2.​RUNWAY CONDITION

6.2.1.​Definitions of Runway Condition

Air OPS ANNEX 1​

“‘Contaminated runway’ means a runway of which a significant portion of its

surface area (whether in isolated areas or not) within the length and width being
used is covered by one or more of the substances listed under the runway
surface condition descriptors.”

FAR AC 25-31

”For purposes of condition reporting and airplane performance, a runway is

considered contaminated when more than 25 percent of the runway surface area
(within the reported length and the width being used) is covered by frost, ice, and
any depth of snow, slush, or water.”
​
Note: In FAR AC 25-31, for purposes of runway condition reporting and aircraft
performance, water has a depth of more than 3 mm (⅛ inch).

Air OPS ANNEX 1

“‘Wet runway’ means a runway whose surface is covered by any visible

dampness or water up to and including 3 mm deep within the area intended to be
used.”

AMC 25.1591 §2

“In line with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) standards, EASA considers a depth of more than 3 mm for
loose contaminant accountability in take-off performance assessments a
reasonable lower threshold.”

Note: A runway with surface water, slush or loose snow (with a depth of less than
3 mm) can be considered equal to a wet runway.

Air OPS ANNEX 1​

“‘Grooved runway’ is a runway where the runway is grooved or the runway is

treated with a porous friction course (PFC) or other materials. This is to improve
the friction capability of the aircraft.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 89​ TAKEOFF

 Air OPS ANNEX 1 FAR AC 25-31

“‘Damp runway’ means a runway when the surface is not dry, but when moisture
on it does give a shiny appearance.”

The FAA and the EASA consider a damp runway as a wet runway.

Air OPS ANNEX 1 FAR AC 25-31

“‘Dry runway’ means a runway whose surface is free of visible moisture and not
contaminated within the area intended to be used.”

6.2.2.​Runway Condition Reporting

Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS) - Aerodromes (Doc
9981) - Part II, Chapter 1

The Runway condition is reported in SNOWTAMs. A SNOWTAM is a special

NOTAM that provides a surface condition report, in a standard format. It notifies
the presence or removal of runway contaminants (e.g. snow, ice, slush, frost,
standing water) on the movement area.

The runway condition is reported for each runway third, and it contains (for each
third) the following:
●​ The runway condition code (RWYCC) (refer to the section Landing)
●​ The percentage of the coverage by the contaminant
●​ The depth of loose contaminant
●​ The condition description
●​ The width of runway to which the runway condition code applies, if less
than the published width.

Note: Airports in the United States report Field Conditions (FICONs), that contain
the same information in a different format.

6.3.​CONTAMINANTS CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES

AMC 25.1591 §5.0

6.3.1.​Range of Contaminants

AMC 25.1591 §5.1

“Contaminants can be classified as being:

(i) Drag producing, for example by contaminant displacement or
impingement,
(ii) Braking friction reducing, or
(iii) A combination of (i) and (ii).”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 90​ TAKEOFF

 AMC 25.1591 §5.1 Table 1

Table 1: Type of contaminants and their depth

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 91​ TAKEOFF

 “Note 1: Runways with water depths or slush depths or snow depths of 3 mm or
less are considered wet.”

“Note 2: Contaminant drag may be ignored.”

In this case, Airbus does not take the drag into account.

“Note 3: For conservatism, the same landing gear displacement and impingement
drag methodology is used for wet snow as for slush.”

“Note 4: Where depths are given as zero, it is assumed that the aeroplane is
rolling on the surface of the contaminant.”

“Note 5: No default model is provided for specially prepared winter runways [...].
Such runway surfaces are specific, and their treatment may be of variable
effectiveness. The competent authority of the State of operator should approve
the related procedures and methods.”

Airbus divides contaminants into loose and hard contaminants:

●​ Loose Contaminants:
Contaminants, like standing water, slush and loose snow are considered
loose contaminants, because they affect the acceleration and also the
deceleration capability of the aircraft. This happens because they reduce
the friction force, generate precipitation drag and cause the aircraft to
aquaplane.

●​ Hard Contaminants:
Contaminants like compacted snow and ice are termed as hard
contaminants, because they only affect the deceleration capability of the
aircraft. This occurs because they reduce the friction force.

6.3.2.​Other Contaminants

The runway may be covered with sand, rubber deposits, volcanic ash etc. There
is no regulatory definition of the contaminant type for these contaminants.
Therefore, Airbus does not provide performance data for them.

6.4.​EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE

CS 25.1591

“(a) Supplementary take-off performance information applicable to aeroplanes

operated on slippery wet runways and on runways contaminated with standing
water, slush, snow, or ice may be furnished at the discretion of the applicant.”

Airbus certified contaminated performance for all aircraft models, except for the
A300 and the A310.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 92​ TAKEOFF

The terms, defined in the chapter Takeoff Distances, for wet runways are
applicable to contaminated runways. But the contaminants have an impact on the
takeoff distances, due to their effect on:
●​ Drag
●​ Friction coefficient
●​ Aquaplaning.

Note: Wet runways, by definition, do not consider the drag effect.

AMC 25.1591 §6.2

6.4.1.​Aquaplaning and Contaminant Drag - Standing Water, Slush, Wet

Snow

AMC 25.1591 §7.1

“Total drag = Drag due to + Drag due to

due to fluid airframe
fluid displacement impingement
contaminant by tyres of fluid spray
from tyres”
The effect of these two drag components is twofold:
●​ The deceleration capability of the aircraft is better, that is advantageous for
the accelerate stop performance.
●​ The acceleration capability of the aircraft is worse, that is not
advantageous for the accelerate go performance.

The Airbus performance software takes this effect into account. However only
specific contaminant depths are published. When the real contaminant depth is
between two published values, it is not possible to know (without computation)
what published contaminant depth will be the most penalizing. Therefore, the
performance must be determined with both contaminant depths.

6.4.2.​Aquaplaning Speed

At higher speeds, the build-up of contaminant can result in the absence of contact
between the tire and the ground.

AMC 25.1591 §7.1.1

“An aeroplane will aquaplane at high speed on a surface that is contaminated by

standing water, slush or wet snow.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 93​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-51: Aquaplaning Phenomenon

6.4.3.​Displacement Drag

AMC 25.1591 §7.1.2

“[The Displacement Drag is] due to the wheel(s) running through the contaminant
and doing work by displacing the contaminant sideways and forwards.”

Illustration C-52: Displacement Drag

6.4.4.​Spray Impingement Drag

AMC 25.1591 §7.1.3

“[The Spray Impingement Drag is] due to the projection of contaminant on the
aircraft structure.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 94​ TAKEOFF

Flight test data indicates that the effect of precipitation drag is significant, and that
it affects the performance of the aircraft.​

Illustration C-53: Spray Impingement Drag

6.4.5.​Contaminant Drag - Dry Snow

AMC 25.1591 §7.2

The model for the displacement drag with dry snow is different, as defined in the
AMC 25.1591 chapter 7.2. The impingement drag can be neglected for dry snow.

6.4.6.​Braking Friction (Wet and Contaminated Runways)

6.4.6.1.​ Definitions

AMC 25.1591 §7.3

●​ Braking Friction Force

The deceleration of the aircraft is assisted by a friction force between the tire and
the runway, when the brakes are applied. This friction force acts in the area of
contact between the tire and the runway, and it depends on the wheel speed and
on the load applied on the wheel.

●​ Wheel Load

A load must be applied on the wheel, to increase the contact surface between the
tire and the runway, in order to create a braking friction force. The greater the load
on the wheel, the higher the friction force and the better the braking performance.

●​ Braking Friction Coefficient (μβ)

The friction coefficient, μβ, is defined as the ratio of the maximum tire friction force
that is available and the vertical load that acts on the tire.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 95​ TAKEOFF

 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
µβ = 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

μβ changes with the aircraft speed, and flight tests help to establish a direct
relation between μβ and ground speed.

Illustration C-54: Effect of Load Distribution on Braking Performance

●​ Wheel Slip

Wheel speed is defined as the speed of the tire at the contact area between the
tire and the runway.

The wheel speed range is from lockup speed (zero) to free rolling speed (equal to
the aircraft speed).

Any intermediate speed causes the tire to slip over the runway surface, with a
speed equal to: Aircraft speed minus speed of tire at the contact point. The
slipping is often in percentage of aircraft speed.

𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝 = ( 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 96​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-55: Wheel Slip

●​ Antiskid Efficiency

The braking friction force depends on the slip percentage, and the antiskid is
designed to achieve the optimum slip ratio.

The antiskid system compares the speed of each wheel of the main landing gear
at the contact point (measured by a tachometer) with the reference speed of the
aircraft. When the wheel speed drops below a threshold value, the antiskid
system commands the release of the brake pressure, in order to maintain the slip
at optimum value, and to prevent skidding or locking up of the wheels.

The maximum antiskid efficiency (η) is demonstrated by flight tests.

6.4.6.2.​ Default Values

AMC 25.1591 §7.3.1

“To enable aeroplane performance to be calculated conservatively in the absence

of any direct test evidence, default wheel-braking coefficient values as defined in
Table 2 may be used. These values represent the maximum effective
wheelbraking coefficient of a fully modulating anti-skid controlled braked
wheel/tyre.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 97​ TAKEOFF

 Table 2: Default Wheel-Braking Coefficient

Note: Aircraft certified before the Amdt27 to CS 25 are based on a 0.2 braking
coefficient for Compacted Snow above OAT of -15 °C.

CS 25.109 Subpart B FAR 25.109 Subpart B

”(c) The wet runway braking coefficient of friction for a smooth wet runway is
defined as a curve of friction coefficient versus ground speed and must be
computed as follows: ”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 98​ TAKEOFF

Note: For Airbus aircraft11 certified before the AMC 25.1591 (§7.3.1), the
performance on wet and contaminated runways was based on the same
accelerate stop time sequence used for dry runways (refer to the chapter
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)):

●​ Wet runway: µ = µ𝑑𝑟𝑦 /2 (limited to 0.4)

𝑤𝑒𝑡
●​ Contaminated runway: µ = µ𝑑𝑟𝑦 /4
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎
●​ Runway covered in compacted snow: µ = 0. 2
𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤
●​ Icy runway: µ = 0. 05
𝑖𝑐𝑦
●​ The aquaplaning phenomenon is considered.

6.4.7.​Operation on Grooved or PFC Runways

Specific runway surface preparation may enhance the braking friction coefficient
for wet runways. This can be achieved by runway grooving or by the use of
porous surfaces.
To take advantage of this enhancement:
●​ The airport must declare the characteristic of the runway, and perform the
necessary maintenance to achieve the expected friction coefficient.
●​ The AFM must provide the related performance information.
●​ The Operator should obtain the approval from the National Aviation
Authorities.

6.4.8.​Specially Prepared Winter Runway Surfaces

AMC 25.1591 §7.3.4

“At the discretion of the applicant, take-off performance data may be provided for
specially prepared winter runway surfaces. This may include icy surfaces that
have been treated with sand or gravel in such a way that a significant
improvement of friction may be demonstrated. The applicant should apply a
reasonable margin to the observed braking action in performance computations
for such surfaces, and assume wheel-braking coefficients no greater than 0.20 for
fully modulating anti-skid systems.”

11
Refer to Performance Program Manual (PPM) - Tyre/Runway Friction Coefficient for the
performance model for all Airbus aircrafts.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 99​ TAKEOFF

7.​REDUCED TAKEOFF THRUST
7.1.​PRINCIPLE OF THRUST REDUCTION
The actual takeoff weight of the aircraft is often below the maximum regulatory
takeoff weight. Therefore, in certain cases, it is possible to comply with all the
takeoff regulatory constraints at a thrust below the maximum takeoff thrust. It is
advantageous to adjust the thrust to the real need, because it increases the life
and the reliability of the engine, while it reduces maintenance and operating
costs.

Reduced thrust takeoff operations are usually divided into two categories:
●​ Operations that use the reduced thrust concept, known as flexible takeoffs
at Airbus
●​ Operations that use a specific derated thrust level, i.e. derated takeoffs.

7.2.​FLEXIBLE TAKEOFF

7.2.1.​Definition

CS 25 AMC 25.13 FAR AC 25-13

“(4)(c) Reduced takeoff thrust, for an aeroplane, is a takeoff thrust less than the
takeoff (or derated takeoff) thrust. The aeroplane takeoff performance and thrust
setting are established by approved simple methods, such as adjustments, or by
corrections to the takeoff or derated takeoff thrust setting and performance.
[In this case,] the thrust for takeoff is not considered as a takeoff operating limit.”

As displayed in the Illustration C-56 below, the actual takeoff weight is below the
maximum takeoff weight permitted by the regulations. Therefore, it is possible to
determine the outside temperature at which the required thrust is the maximum
takeoff thrust for this temperature. This temperature is referred to as “flexible
temperature (TFlex)” or “assumed outside temperature”.

In addition, per CS 25 AMC 25-13/AC 25-13:

​
“(5)(a) The reduced takeoff thrust setting
(2) Is based on an approved takeoff thrust rating or derated for which complete
aeroplane performance data is provided.
(3) Enables compliance with the applicable engine operating and aeroplane
controllability requirements in the event that takeoff thrust or derated takeoff
thrust is applied at any point in the takeoff path
(4) Is at least 60% of the maximum takeoff thrust (no derate) for the existing
ambient conditions.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 100​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-56: Flexible Temperature Principle

As a result, the flexible temperature is the input parameter through which the
FADEC adapts the thrust to the actual takeoff weight. This method is derived from
the approved rating for maximum takeoff thrust and, for this reason, the minimum
control speeds (VMCG, VMCA) are the same as for TOGA thrust.

In addition, the thrust reduction cannot exceed 40 % of the maximum takeoff

thrust.
Each aircraft is certified with a maximum thrust reduction. This maximum thrust
reduction results in a maximum flexible temperature.
​
To comply with the above requirements, a flexible takeoff is only possible when
the flexible temperature satisfies the three following conditions:

𝑇𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥 > 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐹

𝑇𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥 > 𝑂𝐴𝑇
𝑇𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥 ≤ 𝑇𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑥
​ ​ ​ ​

Regulations require that the operators perform periodic takeoff demonstrations,

with the maximum takeoff thrust setting, in order to check the takeoff parameters
(i.e. N1, N2, EPR, EGT). The time interval between takeoff demonstrations may
be extended, provided that the Operator uses an approved program to monitor
the engine condition.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 101​ TAKEOFF

7.2.2.​Flexible Takeoff and Runway State

CS 25 AMC 25.13 FAR AC 25-13

“(5)(f) The AFM states that [reduced thrust takeoffs] are not authorised on
runways contaminated with standing water, snow, slush, or ice, and are not
authorised on wet runways, including slippery wet runways, unless suitable
performance accountability is made for the increased stopping distance on the
wet surface."

The Airbus operational tools and documentation (e.g. EFB, FCOM) provide
performance information for flexible takeoffs on wet runways. As a result, a
flexible takeoff is permitted on wet runways, while it is prohibited on contaminated
runways.

7.2.3.​Flexible Takeoff Procedure

Use of flex takeoff thrust is at the discretion of the pilot. To perform a flexible
takeoff, a flexible temperature must be computed. Then, this temperature value
must be entered in the dedicated cockpit interface (e.g. MCDU on the A320),
during the takeoff preparation phase. At takeoff, the thrust levers must be set to
the FLX detent, as per the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP). TOGA thrust
remains available at any moment during the takeoff phase. However, in the event
of an engine failure after V1, TOGA selection is not required.

Illustration C-57: FMS Cockpit Interface Takeoff Performance Illustration C-58: Thrust Throttles Positions

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 102​ TAKEOFF

7.3.​DERATED TAKEOFF
7.3.1.​Definition

CS 25 AMC 25.13 FAR AC 25-13

“(4)(b) Derated takeoff thrust, for an aeroplane, is a takeoff thrust less than the
maximum takeoff thrust, for which exists in the AFM a set of separate and
independent, or clearly distinguishable, takeoff limitations and performance data
that complies with all the takeoff requirements of CS-25.
[In this case,] the thrust for takeoff is considered as a normal takeoff operating
limit.”

For a derated takeoff, the limitations, the procedures and the performance data
must be included in the AFM.

Note: The derated thrust is an option on some Airbus aircraft.

7.3.2.​Minimum Control Speeds with Derated Thrust

A derate level corresponds to the basic maximum thrust minus a specific

percentage. Therefore, the new maximum available thrust, at any point of the
takeoff flight path, is reduced, when compared with the non-derated thrust. Then,
new minimum control speeds (VMCG, VMCA) are established, as per CS/FAR
25.149.

Sometimes, a reduction in the minimum control speeds generates a takeoff

performance advantage (i.e. higher MTOW), for takeoffs on a short or
contaminated runway. The decision speed V1 is the maximum speed at which it is
still possible to reject the takeoff, and stop the aircraft within the runway distance
available. However, V1 must be above VMCG, and the ASD is often the limiting
criteria on a short runway. A reduction of the VMCG can permit a reduction of the
ASD for a determined takeoff weight, and result is better takeoff performance,
when the MTOW without derate is limited by ASD (i.e. VMCG).

7.3.3.​Derated Takeoff and Runway State

A derated takeoff is considered a normal takeoff with the engines at their normal
operating limits. New limitations, procedures, and performance data are provided
in the AFM for each derate level and for each runway surface. Therefore, it is
possible to determine the MTOW on a dry, wet, or contaminated runway, via the
EFB.
So, a derated takeoff is permitted on both wet and contaminated runways.

7.3.4.​Derated Takeoff Procedure

When derated takeoff is available, there are several certified levels, depending on
the aircraft models. This means that the AFM must contain a set of performance
data for TOGA, and a set for each derate level. The derate name is approximately

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 103​ TAKEOFF

 the percentage of thrust reduction compared to TOGA (e.g. D04 is approximately
TOGA-4%).

Then, the derate level computed by the EFB is entered in the FMS cockpit
interface during the takeoff preparation phase. At the brake release point, the
thrust levers must be set to FLX/MCT.

Important: In the case of engine failure during a derated takeoff, TOGA thrust
must never be selected until the aircraft becomes airborne and the speed is
above a minimum safe speed. The reason for this is to ensure a speed above
VMCA for TOGA.

Illustration C-59: FMS Cockpit Interface Takeoff Performance Illustration C-60: Thrust Throttles Positions

Note: On the A220, a flexible takeoff and a derated takeoff can be performed at
the same time. This is not the case for other Airbus aircraft.

7.4.​ATTCS/APR SYSTEMS
Some aircraft are equipped with the Automatic Take-off Thrust Control System
(ATTCS) or the Automatic Power Reserve (APR) system. In case of OEI, these
systems increase the thrust available on the remaining engine. These systems
enable the engine to reach a lower thrust level for takeoff (i.e. a higher Flex
temperature, or a derate level).

7.5.​CONCLUSION
Both the flexible takeoff and the derated takeoff significantly reduce the engine
stress, and this results in:
●​ A reduction of the probability of a failure (increased safety)
●​ A reduction of the engine degradation rate and its associated maintenance
costs (reduced costs).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 104​ TAKEOFF

 The main differences between a flexible and a derated takeoff are the following:

Flexible Takeoff Derated Takeoff

-​ Possibility to recover TOGA -​ TOGA selection not possible

at any moment (except above “F” speed)
-​ Not allowed on contaminated -​ Permitted on contaminated
runways runways
-​ No performance -​ Increased takeoff weight on
enhancement short and contaminated
runways VMCG limited

8.​SPECIFIC GUIDANCE FOR ENGINE FAILURE PROCEDURE

8.1.​PUBLISHED DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) is the main source of airport data.
It contains published departure procedures (e.g. SID, RNAV, etc.). For additional
information, refer to Appendix 6.

The published departure provides the all engine operative procedures for each
runway, usually based on recommendations and standards defined in the
PANS-OPS Vol II (Doc 8168).
A departure procedure is a designed IFR route, connected to an aerodrome with
a specified point, at which the en route phase of the flight starts. The published
departure procedure:
●​ Is designed to ensure an acceptable clearance above obstacles during the
departure phase
●​ Takes into account noise, ATC constraints and airspace restrictions.

In order to ensure an acceptable obstacle clearance, a gradient requirement at a

specific distance or altitude is published for the departure procedure. If no
gradient is published, a 3.3% minimum gradient is applicable. The published
gradient is an average gradient requirement.

8.2.​ENGINE FAILURE PROCEDURE

As previously referred in the Introduction of this chapter, the possibility of engine
failure during takeoff must always be considered. The crew must be provided with
a safe path to fly in the event of an engine failure.

Because the published departure procedure is designed for normal operations (i.e
AEO), in terms of performance, it is not acceptable to check if the gradient on the
published departure procedure can be achieved with OEI. This is too restricted for
the computation of the maximum takeoff weight.

Note: It is not conservative to check if the second segment gradient is above the
published gradient.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 105​ TAKEOFF

 Air OPS Subpart C​
CAT.POL.A.210

“(c) The operator shall establish contingency procedures to satisfy the

requirements in (a) and (b) and to provide a safe route, avoiding obstacles, to
enable the aeroplane to either comply with the en-route requirements of
CAT.POL.A.215, or land at either the aerodrome of departure or at a take-off
alternate aerodrome.”

An Engine Failure Procedure (EFP) must be defined for each departure

procedure to ensure the use of a specific OEI departure routing, in the event of an
engine failure that deviates from the normal routing during takeoff. Therefore,
obstacle clearance must be ensured on the EFP, in accordance with the
regulatory requirements described in the chapters Departure Sector and One
Engine Inoperative - Takeoff Flight Path.

Note: Engine Failure Procedure (EFP) is also known as:

●​ Engine Out Standard Instrument Departure (EOSID)
●​ Engine Out Procedure (EOP)

8.3.​OBSTACLE DATA
For normal AEO operations, the obstacle clearance is ensured by compliance
with the minimum gradient requirement, published on the departure procedure.
The obstacles considered to define the gradient requirement are based on ICAO
PANS-OPS procedure design recommendations. Therefore, the limiting obstacles
may be outside the takeoff funnel described in the chapter Departure Sector.
The obstacles that were considered for the published departure procedure are not
published.
The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) may contain a set of data for
obstacles and terrain. However, this obstacle database is not associated with a
specific EFP.

8.4.​STRATEGY TO DESIGN AN EFP

One of the strategies that may be considered for an EFP is a straight takeoff,
along the extended runway centreline. The Operator must comply with the
regulatory obstacle clearance that is previously described.
As referred in the chapter Management of the Extended Final Segment, the
takeoff flight path ends either:
●​ At the Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) or the Minimum Enroute Altitude
(MEA) for a route to the intended destination, or
●​ At a point where enroute obstacle clearance requirements can be satisfied,
or
●​ At a point from which an approach may be initiated to the departure airport
or to the departure alternate.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 106​ TAKEOFF

 The list of obstacles provided in the AIP may not be sufficient, because the
obstacles are identified based on a limited distance from the departure end of the
runway. Therefore, the Operator must ensure that the obstacles used for the
performance computation are considered until the end of the takeoff flight path.

At some airports, particularly those close to mountain areas, a straight takeoff in

the case of an engine failure can result in performance penalties, due to the
obstacle limitation.
In that case, it is possible to select one published departure procedure, as the
EFP, in order to avoid obstacles. If the takeoff performance is still too limiting, a
specific path can be defined, avoiding the most limiting obstacles

It is possible that several obstacles cannot be avoided with the minimum lateral
distance defined by the regulations, as described in the chapter Departure Sector.
The Operator must consider obstacles that are in the corridor of the trajectory that
the aircraft flies. The vertical clearance with the obstacle, that is described in the
chapter One Engine Inoperative - Takeoff Flight Path, must be checked. If the
MTOW is calculated with a straight trajectory, the obstacle height needs to be
adjusted, to consider the loss of height during the turn.

8.5.​LOSS OF CLIMB GRADIENT DURING A TURN

During a turn, the forces acting on the aircraft include not only the weight of the
aircraft acting downwards but also a horizontal acceleration force (Fa). The
resultant force is the “apparent weight” (Wa), with a magnitude equal to the load
factor (nz) times the weight of the aircraft.

Illustration C-61: Load Factor in a Turn

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 107​ TAKEOFF

Based on Illustration C-61, the load factor (nz) and the bank angle (Φ) are related
as follows:

1
𝑛𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ

When the aircraft enters into a banked turn, the load factor goes above nz=1. The
increased load factor results in a loss of climb gradient. The climb angle can be
defined as follows (refer to the chapter Climb):

​
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 1
γ = 𝑛𝑍 • 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
− 𝐿
𝐷

As observed in the above equation, the increase in load factor increases the
apparent weight, that must be supported by an increase in lift. The increase in lift
results in an increase in the drag and therefore a reduction in the climb gradient.

Air OPS Subpart C​

AMC2 CAT.POL.A.210

“(a) The Aeroplane Flight Manual generally provides a climb gradient decrement
for a 15° bank turn. For bank angles of less than 15°, a proportionate amount
should be applied, unless the manufacturer or AFM has provided other data.”

For some Airbus aircraft, there is no correction published in the AFM. The climb
gradient reduction can be computed via two different methods:
1.​ The use of the certified Flight Manual module in the Performance
Engineer’s Programs (PEP) software that contains the computation of the
net flight path, with or without turns, or
2.​ The use of a conservative loss of gradient vs. the bank angle chart that is
provided in the Airbus Performance Program Manual (PPM) of PEP. See
example in Illustration C-62.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 108​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-62: Loss of Gradient VS. Bank Angle (A320 Family Example)​

8.6.​TURN BANK ANGLE

As referred to in the chapter Turn Limitations and with reference to the

CAT.POL.A210, if a turn with a bank angle above 15 ° is required, the net takeoff
flight path must clear all obstacles located inside the departure sector by 50 ft. In
addition, the maximum bank angle is limited, depending on the height of the
aircraft above the ground. A specific approval must be obtained from local
authorities to increase the maximum bank angle above the standard maximum
values permitted by the regulation.

In addition, on Airbus Fly-By-Wire aircraft, the autopilot limits the bank angle at
takeoff with one engine inoperative, depending on the margin vs. the
maneuverability speeds.

The margin vs. the maneuverability speeds may change depending on the
environmental conditions. Therefore, it is a correct assumption to consider the
most limited value for the maximum bank angle in autopilot: 15 °.

An EFP may require that a turn is performed with a bank angle above 15 °. When
a turn with a bank angle above 15 ° must be performed, the procedure may be
designed to fly the turn manually. If the autopilot must be used in combination with
a bank angle above 15 °, the Operator must evaluate the autopilot capability to fly
the designed EFP. To achieve this, the Operator must ensure enough margin vs.
maneuvering speeds.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 109​ TAKEOFF

8.7.​DECISION POINT AND DEVIATION POINT

Air OPS Subpart C​

GM1 CAT.POL.A.210

“Take-off obstacle clearance:

If compliance with CAT.POL.A.210 is based on an engine failure route that differs
from the all engine departure route or SID normal departure, a ‘deviation point’
can be identified where the engine failure route deviates from the normal
departure route. Adequate obstacle clearance along the normal departure route
with failure of the critical engine at the deviation point will normally be available.
However, in certain situations the obstacle clearance along the normal departure
route may be marginal and should be checked to ensure that, in case of an
engine failure after the deviation point, a flight can safely proceed along the
normal departure route.”

If the critical engine fails at V1, the aircraft will follow the EFP flight path where the
obstacle clearance must be ensured as described in the chapters One Engine
Inoperative - Takeoff Flight Path and Departure Sector. Then, the obstacle
clearance along the EFP is ensured, if the engine failure happens between VEF
and the deviation point.

The deviation point is the most distant and common point between the published
departure procedure and the EFP. If the engine failure happens after the deviation
point, the aircraft flies on the trajectory of the published departure procedure.

The decision point is the point at which the flight crew can decide to follow the
published departure procedure or the EFP. The decision cannot occur after the
deviation point. Therefore, the obstacle clearance along the published departure
procedure must be checked with the assumption of an engine failure at the
decision point.

The decision point is defined by the Operator. Preferably, it must be far enough to
ensure that obstacles are cleared with an engine failure on the trajectory for the
published departure procedure. But it also must enable the flight crew to detect
the engine failure and activate the EFP procedure, in the case of an engine failure
at the decision point.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 110​ TAKEOFF

 Illustration C-63: Decision Point and Deviation Point

On Illustration C-63, the MTOW is computed with the following assumptions:

●​ An engine failure at VEF
●​ The obstacle clearance along the EFP trajectory satisfies the regulatory
requirements.

Then, with the assumption of an engine failure at decision point, the obstacle
clearance along the published departure procedure must be checked.

9.​RETURN TO LAND
In emergency situations, the flight crew may need to land shortly after takeoff, at a
weight above the Maximum Landing Weight (MLW).

The reasons for a return to land may include medical emergencies, onboard fire,
or aircraft failures.
Only a reduced number of cases require an immediate return to land, and most of
the scenarios enable the flight crew to compute the landing performance and
evaluate the need to make a diversion.

In the case of immediate return to land, the flight crew does not have time to
check the performance of the aircraft. To handle these situations, the certification
standard expects the aircraft to be able to land or to go-around with OEI on the
departure runway, in an overweight landing situation.

In this case, in addition to the overweight landing procedure and the associated
performance impact, specific go-around and landing performance must be
considered.

For the go-around, the minimum certified air climb gradients must be checked.
For certain aircraft types, the go-around can be performed in CONF 1+F, if the
climb gradient cannot be achieved in CONF 2. The landing configuration is, then,
CONF 3.
This is possible when VS1g (CONF 1+F) < 110 % VS1g (CONF 3).
In order to reduce the go-around constraints, a jettison system may be required.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 111​ TAKEOFF

 CS 25.1001 Subpart E FAR 25.1001 Subpart E

“(a) A fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless it is

shown that the aeroplane meets the climb requirements of [Landing Climb
gradient] and [Approach Climb gradient] at maximum take-off weight, less the
actual or computed weight of fuel necessary for a 15-minute flight comprised of a
take-off, go-around, and landing at the airport of departure with the aeroplane
configuration, speed, power, and thrust the same as that used in meeting the
applicable take-off, approach, and landing climb performance requirements of this
CS/FAR-25.”

For the landing capability, the following performance limitations should be

considered:
●​ Maximum brake energy
●​ Maximum tire speed
●​ Landing distances.

The certification assessment checks the capability of the Airbus aircraft for an
immediate return to land, in the case of:
●​ An emergency with no reduction to the performance of the aircraft (e.g.
medical emergency), or
●​ An engine failure.

In the case of a return to land, the landing distances are checked with the
following assumptions:
●​ ALD or LDTA, depending on the certification standard - refer to the section
Landing
●​ without operational margins
●​ on the same runway used for takeoff
●​ in dry and in wet conditions.

If the operational conditions have more constraints than the certification

conditions (for example, published gradient), the Operator should determine,
before takeoff, the capability of the aircraft to immediately return to land.
The Operator should limit the takeoff weight, or consider the use of a takeoff
alternate airport, if this requirement is not achieved.

Air OPS CAT.OP.MPA.182​

“(b) At the planning stage, to allow for a safe landing in case of an abnormal or
emergency situation after take-off, the operator shall select and specify in the
operational flight plan a take-off alternate aerodrome if either:
(1) the meteorological conditions at the aerodrome of departure are below the
operator’s established aerodrome landing minima for that operation; or
(2) it would be impossible to return to the aerodrome of departure for other
reasons.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 112​ TAKEOFF

The takeoff alternate airport must be located within:
●​ One hour flying time, at OEI cruising speed, in still air, for non-ETOPS twin
engine aircraft,
●​ Up to a maximum of two hour flying time, at OEI cruising speed, in still air,
for ETOPS twin engine aircraft,
●​ Two hour flying time, at AEO cruising speed, in still air, for four engine
aircraft.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 113​ TAKEOFF

D.​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
This section describes the in-flight performance optimization and limitations with
all engines operating. Certification standards take into account failure cases in
flight, and abnormal operations. These in-flight failures can be found in the In
Flight Performance With Failure section of this document.

1.​CLIMB
1.1.​CLIMB MANAGEMENT
1.1.1.​Thrust Setting

The standard climb rating is called “Maximum Climb Thrust”. At the thrust
reduction altitude (THR RED), pilots must reduce thrust from takeoff power to
climb power by setting the thrust levers to the climb (CL) gate (Illustration D-1).
This must be completed before a maximum time of 5 minutes after brake release.

Illustration G4: Thrust Throttle Positions

Illustration D-1: Thrust Lever Setting

Illustration D-1: Climb Power

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 114​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

1.1.2.​Derated Climb Thrusts

Derated or auto-derated climb thrust is available on some aircraft models, and

have thrust ratings that are reduced for maximum climb thrust. These ratings can
be used when there are no operational constraints to take into account, along the
flight path.

When derated climb thrust is available, the flight crew must select the applicable
derated climb level before takeoff via the FMS cockpit interface.

Derated climb thrust results in a slight increase in fuel and time, but reduced
maintenance costs.

Some aircraft models have an auto-derated thrust function that automatically

reduces the thrust during the climb phase. The reduced thrust level is computed
by the FMGS to have a similar performance level as a reference case, and
corresponds to the climb to REC MAX ALT at MTOW with Maximum Climb
Thrust. The function reduces the thrust as much as possible to provide the same
time to climb to the cruise altitude as the reference case. It also guarantees a
minimum climb capability and a limited impact on the fuel consumption.

The derated and auto-derated climb offers the following economical advantages:
●​ Increased engine life
●​ Better engine reliability
●​ Direct reduction in maintenance costs.

1.1.3.​Energy Sharing

Aircraft energy is provided by the engines. To fly, an aircraft needs:

●​ Kinetic energy: Energy necessary to accelerate.
●​ Potential energy: Energy necessary to climb.

The sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy cannot exceed the total
aircraft energy. As a result, when the aircraft needs to climb and accelerate, the
total energy must be divided between the requirement for speed and the
requirement for altitude.

The FMGS manages this energy sharing during the climb (60% for speed, 40%
for altitude). As a result, at a defined thrust, when:
●​ TAS increases: The climb gradient and the rate of climb (RC) decrease,
because potential energy is changed into kinetic energy.
●​ TAS decreases: The climb gradient and rate of climb increase, because
kinetic energy is changed into potential energy.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 115​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 1.1.4.​Climb Ceiling

The climb can continue until the aircraft levels off (i.e. when the rate of climb is
near zero). However, as it will use both time and fuel to reach the zero rate of
climb condition, the FMGS displays a maximum recommended altitude. In
general, this maximum recommended altitude corresponds to the climb ceiling,
defined by a rate of climb of 300 ft/min.

1.2.​CLIMB SPEEDS
1.2.1.​Climb at Selected Speeds

For aircraft not equipped with FMS economical speed management, the climb is
operated at a constant Indicated Air Speed (IAS) and Mach Number. For
example, a climb profile for the A320 family is:

250 kt / 300 kt / M0.78

Therefore, the climb phase is divided into three phases (Illustration D-2):

●​ Below 10 000 ft: Climb at constant IAS = 250 kt. The speed is limited by Air
Traffic Control (ATC) laws.
●​ Above 10 000 ft: Climb at constant IAS = 300 kt (limited to M0.78). At 10
000 ft, the aircraft accelerates to a more optimum climb speed (300 kt),
that is maintained as long as the mach number remains under 0.78.
●​ Above the crossover altitude: Climb at constant Mach = M0.78. The
crossover altitude is the altitude where 300 kt IAS is equal to M0.78. Above
this altitude, a constant ratio between the TAS and the sound velocity must
be maintained to avoid high speed buffeting.

Illustration D-2: Climb Profile at IAS/MACH Law

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 116​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

1.2.2.​Climb at Maximum Gradient

The maximum climb gradient is achieved at Green Dot speed. Climb at Green
Dot speed enables a target altitude to be achieved over the shortest distance.

Green Dot speed is computed by the Flight Management System based on

aircraft weight and altitude, and is indicated by a green circle on the Primary
Flight Display (PFD) as soon as the aircraft is in clean configuration.
Consequently, the flight crew can easily fly Green Dot speed in manual mode.
Green Dot is the target speed, in case of an engine failure after takeoff.

1.2.3.​Climb at Minimum Cost

The cost index aims to minimize direct operating costs (refer to the chapter
Cruise at Minimum Cost for cost index description). As a result, for a selected
cost index, an optimum climb speed (IASECON) and an optimum climb mach
number (MachECON) are calculated by the FMGS to optimize the climb profile. The
climb is then performed in managed mode, based on the following IAS/Mach law:

250 kt / IASECON / MachECON

To minimize the global fuel consumption during flight, a low cost index must be
used. It is advantageous to minimize climb duration to minimize the fuel
consumption. This is achieved at the maximum rate of climb speed.

CI = 0 ⇒ IASECON = Maximum rate of climb speed

Contrary to this, a higher cost index provides a higher climb speed, therefore the
rate of climb lowers. But the distance covered during the climb is longer, therefore
the cruise phase and total flight time are reduced. In general, the maximum climb
speed is limited to VMO - 10 kt.

CI = CImax ⇒ IASECON = VMO – 10 kt

Flight at a selected cost index provides the advantage that the overall costs for
the entire flight are optimized while the crew workload is kept low. Flight at a
given cost index in climb is one of the recommendations of the Green Operating
Procedures available in the FCTM. In addition, the use of the same cost index for
the entire flight is recommended in the FCTM Standard Operating Procedures for
Cruise.

When applying a different strategy, the Operator needs to consider the overall
costs and crew workload. Optimizing just one flight phase may not be globally
efficient.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 117​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 1.2.4.​Climb at Maximum rate

Climb at the maximum rate of climb speed enables a target altitude to be reached
in the shortest time.
The maximum rate of climb speed is not indicated on the PFD. However, a climb
at maximum rate can be performed in managed mode (refer to the chapter Climb
at minimum cost).

1.3.​CABIN CLIMB
Since the cabin is pressurized, a cabin pressurization system adjusts cabin
altitude to maintain a good level of passenger comfort during the flight.
During normal operations, the cabin altitude is limited to a maximum value that
depends on the aircraft type. The purpose of the maximum cabin altitude is to
limit differential pressure, DP, between the cabin pressure and the outside
atmospheric pressure to a maximum value. For example, Max cabin altitude on
A350 is 6 000 ft and DPmax = 620 hPa (9.4 PSI).
Cabin altitude changes based on a predefined law, in order to reach the
scheduled cabin altitude at the top of climb that is defined by the FMGS cruise
FL. For fly-by-wire aircraft, the cabin rate of climb is limited to 1 000 ft per minute.

Illustration D-3: A340-200/300 Cabin Climb Law Example

In the above illustration (D-3): for example, when the FMGS cruise level is FL250,
the cabin altitude remains at 3 050 ft during the cruise phase at this altitude.

1.4.​FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
1.4.1.​Altitude Effect

Due to air density reduction when pressure altitude increases, climb thrust and
drag decrease. However, since the drag force decreases at a lower rate than the
available thrust, the difference between thrust and drag decreases. Therefore, the
climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with pressure altitude, due to a
lower excess thrust.​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 118​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 1.4.2.​Temperature Effect

When the temperature increases, thrust decreases due to a lower air density. As
a result, the effect is the same as for the altitude.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
1.4.3.​Weight Effect

As detailed in Appendix 5, the climb gradient (𝛾rad) and rate of climb are defined
as follows:

​ ​ ​

Therefore, at a defined engine thrust, altitude, and climb speed (TAS), any
increase in weight results in a decrease in the climb gradient and rate of climb.

​​ ​ ​

1.4.4.​Wind Effect

A constant wind component has no influence on the rate of climb, but changes
the flight path.

Illustration D-4: Headwind Component in Climb

As indicated in Illustration D-4, the air climb gradient remains the same,
regardless of the wind component. Therefore, the fuel and time to the Top Of
Climb (T/C) does not change.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 119​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

2.​CRUISE
In cruise, the objective is to optimize speed and altitude to save on fuel, time or
total cost.

2.1.​FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION

2.1.1.​Fuel Flow (FF)

The fuel flow (FF) corresponds to the fuel consumption of the aircraft per unit of
time. In general, Fuel Flow units are:
●​ kg / h, or
●​ lb / h

2.1.2.​Specific Consumption (SFC)

The Specific Consumption (SFC) introduces the concept of engine efficiency to

the Fuel Flow. The Specific Consumption is equal to:

𝐹𝐹
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑇𝑎
With Ta = Thrust available

SFC units are:

●​ kg / h.N, or
●​ lb / h.lbf

2.1.3.​Distance Consumption (Cd)

The distance consumption (Cd) is the fuel consumption per unit of distance. It is
equal to:
𝐹𝐹
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐺𝑆

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 120​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

With GS = Ground Speed. GS is equal to True Air Speed (TAS) if the wind
velocity is 0.

The distance consumption units are:

●​ kg / nm, or
●​ lb / nm

2.1.4.​Specific range (SR)

The specific range (SR) is the distance covered per unit of fuel.
The specific range is equal to:

1
𝑆𝑅 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶𝑑)

The SR units are NM/kg or NM/ton.

The specific range (SR) indicates how far the aircraft can fly. The Fuel Flow (FF)
indicates how long the aircraft can remain airborne.

In addition, SR depends on aerodynamic characteristics (Mach and L/D), engine

performance (Specific Fuel Consumption)12, aircraft weight (mg) and sound
velocity at sea level (a0).

𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑇𝐴𝑆)

𝑆𝑅(𝐴𝑖𝑟) = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐹𝐹)

With the formulas established above:

And:
𝑇
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎. 𝑀 = 𝑎0. 𝑀. 𝑇0

𝑚𝑔
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶. 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶. 𝐿
𝐷

Therefore,

𝐿
𝑎0 . 𝑀 . 𝐷
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶
. 𝑚𝑔
𝑇
𝑇
0

12
The Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is equal to the fuel flow (FF) divided by the available
thrust. It is expressed in kg/h.N (kilogram per hour per Newton) and represents the fuel
consumption per thrust unit.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 121​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Where:
a0: The sound velocity at Mean Sea Level
M: Mach Number
L/D: Lift over drag ratio
SFC: Specific consumption
m: Weight
g: Gravitational acceleration
T: Temperature
T0: Temperature at Mean Sea Level

Based on this equation, the SR depends on three domains: aerodynamics,

engine and weight.

Specific range will increase with aerodynamic efficiency. Higher specific

consumption and weights degrade the specific range.

In All Engines Operating conditions, the aircraft should remain in Clean

configuration, and the speed should remain between the Green Dot speed and
VMO/MMO.

2.2.​CRUISE AT MINIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION

Maximum Range Mach Number (MMR)

Illustration D-5 indicates the variation of specific range as a function of Mach

number for a defined weight at a constant altitude.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 122​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-5: MMR at Fixed Altitude and Weight

As a result, for a defined weight, a maximum specific range value exists and the
corresponding Mach number is called Maximum Range Mach number (MMR).

The advantage of the Maximum Range Mach number is that the fuel consumption
for a defined distance is at a minimum. It also corresponds to the maximum
distance an aircraft can fly with a defined fuel quantity.

During the cruise flight phase, the weight of the aircraft decreases due to fuel
burn. At the same time, the specific range increases, but MMR decreases
(Illustration D-6). Therefore, the Mach number must be adjusted to compensate
for weight changes during the entire flight at constant altitude.

Illustration D-6: MMR versus Weight at Fixed Altitude

Despite its advantage of minimum fuel consumption, the cruise speed associated
with MMR is relatively slow. As a result, the trip time is relatively long.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 123​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

2.3.​TIME CONSTRAINTS
2.3.1.​Long Range Cruise Mach Number (MLRC)

An alternative to MMR is to increase cruise speed with only a slight increase in fuel
consumption. Typically, the Mach number for long-range cruise (MLRC) provides
this possibility.

At the Mach number for long-range cruise, the specific range corresponds to 99%
of the maximum specific range (Illustration D-7). In terms of cost, the 1% loss
compared to the maximum specific range results in a large increase of the cruise
speed due to the flat shape of the SR vs. Mach curve.

𝑀𝐿𝑅𝐶 > 𝑀𝑀𝑅

𝑆𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 > 0. 99 𝑋 𝑆𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

Illustration D-7: MLRC at Fixed Altitude and Weight

In relation to the Mach number for Maximum Range, the Mach number for long
range Cruise also decreases when weight decreases, as indicated in Illustration
D-8.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 124​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-8: MLRC versus Weight at Fixed Altitude

2.3.2.​Constant Mach Number

The aircraft may also be operated at a constant Mach number. Since the cruise
speed is fixed, it is easier to manage the flight.

Illustration D-9: SR Evolution at Constant Mach Number and Fixed Altitude

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 125​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 However, when the aircraft weight decreases, the difference between the selected
Mach and the MMR increases. As a result, fuel consumption increases beyond the
optimum.

2.4.​CRUISE AT MINIMUM COST

Economic Mach Number (MECON)

Before cost index introduction, the Mach number for Long-range Cruise was
considered as a minimum fuel Mach number. If we consider the Direct Operating
Cost (DOC) instead, the Economic Mach number (MECON), can be established.

As indicated in the below equation, DOCs have fixed, flight-time related and
fuel-consumption related costs. As a result, for a trip, DOC can be defined as:

𝐷𝑂𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐶𝐹. ∆𝐹 + 𝐶𝑇. ∆𝑇

That is:
CC = fixed costs
CF = cost of fuel unit
ΔF = trip fuel
CT = time related costs per flight hour
ΔT = trip time

Since DOCs are calculated per nautical mile, it is possible to plot fuel-related
costs, flight-time related costs, and direct operating costs based on the Mach
number (Illustration D-10).

Illustration D-10: Mach Number and Costs

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 126​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Minimum fuel costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach number. The
minimum DOC corresponds to a specific Mach number, referred to as Econ Mach
(MECON).

The MECON value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. This ratio is called cost
index (CI). The units of cost index usually are kg/min or 100lb/h. However to
avoid to interpret cost index as a fuel flow, CI are often published without units:

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑇
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐶𝐼) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 𝐶𝐹

When CT is fixed and CF increases, it becomes advantageous to decrease fuel

consumption. Therefore, when CI decreases, Econ Mach decreases.

The range of CI values are as follows:

●​ CI = 0: Flight time costs are equal to zero (fixed wages), therefore MECON =
MMR (lowest boundary).
●​ CI = CImax: Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low, therefore
MECON = MAX SPEED in order to have a trip with a minimum flight time. In
general, the maximum speed (MMO - 0.02) or (VMO - 10kt).

For example, a cost index of 30 kg/min means that the cost of one flight minute is
the same as the cost of 30 kg of fuel. This does not mean the fuel flow is
30 kg/min.

2.5.​ALTITUDE OPTIMIZATION
2.5.1.​Optimum Cruise Altitude

In fixed speed strategy, the optimum altitude corresponds to the altitude at which
the maximum Specific Range (SR) is reached.

As established in the chapter Fuel Consumption definition, the Specific Range is:

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 127​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 ​
𝐿
𝑎0 . 𝑀 . 𝐷
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶
. 𝑚𝑔
𝑇
𝑇
0

For Optimum Cruise altitude, we consider the following assumptions:

●​ Fixed speed (constant Mach number)
●​ Low variations of specific fuel consumption
●​ Fixed weight

Therefore, the Specific Range follows L/D variations.

In level flight, the weight compensates the lift. From the following flight mechanics
equation and with the above assumptions taken into account:

1 2
𝑚𝑔 = 2
· γ·𝑆·𝑃·𝐶 𝐿
·𝑀

It is found that to remain at level flight at a higher altitude (where the pressure
decreases), the lift must be increased.

From the review of SR changes with the altitude at a constant Mach number, it is
visible that, for each weight, there is an altitude where SR is maximum. This
altitude is referred to as “optimum altitude” (see Illustration D-11).​

Illustration D-11: Optimum Altitude at Fixed Mach Number

When the aircraft flies at the optimum altitude, it operates at the maximum lift to
drag ratio corresponding to the selected Mach number (as in Illustration D-12).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 128​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-12: High Speed Polar Curve

When the aircraft flies at high speed, the polar curve depends on the indicated
Mach number, and decreases when the Mach increases. Therefore, for each
Mach number, there is a different value of L/D, that is lower as the Mach number
increases, as displayed in Illustration D-12.

When the aircraft is in cruise at the optimum altitude for a specific Mach, CL is
fixed and corresponds to L/D of the selected Mach number. As a result, variable
parameters are weight and outside static pressure (Ps) of the optimum altitude.
The formula for a cruise at optimum altitude is:

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The optimum altitude curve, displayed in Illustration D-13, is directly extracted

from Illustration D-11.

Illustration D-13: Optimum Altitude and Weight at Fixed Mach Number

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 129​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

Summary:

Optimum altitude curves for ISO Mach number are all almost parallel (Illustration
D-14).

Illustration D-14: Curves of ISO Mach Number

2.5.2.​Wind Influence

The MMR (or MLRC or MECON) value varies with headwind or tailwind, due to
changes in the ground SR. Illustration D-15 displays the Maximum Range Mach
number with wind variations.

Illustration D-15: MMR and Wind Influence at Fixed Weight and Zp

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 130​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 ​ As a result:

The wind can be different at different altitudes. For a specific weight, when cruise
altitude is lower than optimum altitude, the specific range decreases (Illustration
D-10). However, it is possible that at a lower altitude with wind, the ground
specific range increases. When the wind difference between the optimum altitude
and a lower altitude reaches a specific value, the ground-specific range at lower
altitude is higher than the ground-specific range at optimum altitude. As a result,
in these conditions, the ground specific range is higher for cruise at the lower
altitude.

2.5.3.​Maximum Altitude

The maximum altitude is the lowest of:

●​ Climb ceiling
●​ Maximum Cruise Altitude

2.5.3.1.​ Climb Ceiling

As previously established in the “Climb” section, the climb gradient and the rate of
climb decrease with pressure altitude, due to lower excess of thrust. The climb
ceiling corresponds to the maximum altitude at which the aircraft can maintain a
vertical speed of 300 ft/min at Maximum Climb thrust.

2.5.3.2.​ Limit Mach Number at Constant Altitude

Each engine has a limited Max-Cruise rating. This rating depends on the
maximum temperature that the turbines can sustain. As a result, when outside
temperature increases, maximum thrust decreases (see Illustration D-16).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 131​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-16: Influence of Temperature on Limit Mach Number at Fixed Altitude

Illustration D-16 displays the maximum Mach number possible, as a function of

temperature at a specific altitude and weight.

Therefore, in summary, the change in limit Mach number at constant altitude is:

2.5.3.3.​ Maximum Cruise Altitude

For a specific weight and Mach number, the maximum cruise altitude is the
maximum altitude that an aircraft can maintain at maximum cruise thrust. The
maximum cruise thrust is the maximum thrust considered by the FMS in managed
mode.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 132​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-17: Zp curve VS. Weight at Fixed Mach Number

From Illustration D-17:

●​ At m1, the maximum altitude is Zp1 for temperatures less than ISA + 10
●​ At m2, the maximum altitude is Zp2 for temperatures less than ISA + 10, but
Zp1 for temperatures equal to ISA + 20.

In summary, maximum cruise altitude variations are:

2.5.4.​En Route Maneuver Limits

2.5.4.1.​ Lift Range

In level flight, lift balances weight and, when CL equals CLmax, the lift limit is
reached. At this point, if the angle of attack increases, level flight is no longer
possible.

Lift limit equation:

​

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 133​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-18: CLmax M2 Curve VS. Mach Number

At a specific weight, based on the lift limit equation, each CLmax.M2 value
corresponds to a static pressure (Ps) value, that is, a pressure altitude (Zp).
Therefore, there is a direct relationship between CLmax.M2 and Zp.

Illustration D-19 displays that, for a specific Zp, flight is possible between Mmin and
Mmax. When the Zp increases, the Mach range decreases until it is reduced to a
single point corresponding to the lift ceiling (Zpmax).

Illustration D-19: Lift Area Definition at a Fixed Weight

2.5.4.2.​ Operating Maneuver Limitations

2.5.4.2.1.​ Buffet Phenomenon

For the low Mach number limit, when speed decreases, the angle of attack must
be increased in order to increase the lift coefficient, to balance the lift equation.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 134​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-20: Low Speed Buffet

However, it is not possible to increase the angle of attack (AoA) indefinitely. At a

high AoA, the airflow separates from the upper wing surface. If the AoA continues
to increase, the point of airflow separation becomes unstable and rapidly moves
back and forth. As a result, the pressure distribution changes continuously and
also changes the position and magnitude of the lift. This effect is called buffeting
and is indicated by severe vibrations.

When the AoA reaches a maximum value, the separation point moves forward
and results in total flow separation of the wing upper surface. This results in a
significant loss of lift, referred to as a stall.

The phenomenon for high Mach number limit is different. At high speed,
compressibility effects produce shock waves on the wing upper surface. When
the Mach number, and/or AoA increase, the airflow separates from the wing
upper surface behind the shock wave, becomes unstable and induces buffeting of
the same type as encountered in the low speed case.

Illustration D-21: High Speed Airflow

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 2.5.4.2.2.​ Buffet Limit

In operation, the aircraft is subject to a load factor (n):

During banked turns, the load factor value mainly depends on the bank angle, as
displayed in Illustration D-22. In level flight, n = 1/cos(bank angle).

Illustration D-22: Load Factor variation with Bank Angle

At the lift limit:

At a specific pressure altitude (Ps) and specific weight (mg), one load factor
corresponds to each CL max M2. Therefore, a curve that displays load factor vs.
Mach number will have the same form as the one displayed in Illustration F17.

The Mach number range in operation is the range for which buffeting does not
occur.

Illustration D-23 displays the buffet limit, and for n = 1 (level straight flight), a
minimum Mach number is associated with low speed buffet and a maximum Mach
number is associated with high speed buffet. When n increases, the Mach
number range decreases, and when n = n max, Mmin = Mmax.

Therefore, nmax is the maximum load factor that is acceptable at this weight and
altitude, and the corresponding Mach number (M) permits the highest buffet limit
margin.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 136​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-23: Load Factor and Lift Area at Fixed Weight and Zp

2.5.4.2.3.​ Pressure Altitude Effect

Illustration D-24 illustrates the effects of pressure altitude on the lift area. It
appears that for a specific weight:

When nmax = 1, the aircraft reaches the lift ceiling. For example, in Illustration
D-24, pressure altitude Zp3 corresponds to the lift ceiling at a specific weight.

Illustration D-24: Influence of Pressure Altitude on the Lift Limit at Fixed Weight

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At pressure altitude Zp1 (Illustration D-24), nmax = 1.3. This means that it is
possible to sustain a load factor equal to 1.3, or make a 40° bank turn before
buffeting occurs.

In order to maintain a minimum margin against buffeting and to ensure good

aircraft maneuverability, it is necessary to determine an acceptable load factor
limit below which buffeting will never occur. In general, this load factor limit is fixed
to 1.3. This value is an operating limitation, but not a regulatory limitation. The
corresponding altitude is referred to as the “1.3 g buffet limited altitude” or “buffet
ceiling”. The usual limit for load factor is 1.4 g in turbulent conditions.

For a specific Mach number, Illustration D-25 displays the 1.3 g buffet limited
altitude variation with weight. At a specific Mach number, when weight decreases,
the buffet limited altitude increases.

Illustration D-25: 1.3g Buffet Limited Altitude at Fixed Mach

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 2.5.4.2.4.​ A320 example

Illustration D-26 displays how buffet limitations are illustrated in an A320 AFM.

Illustration D-26: Buffet Onset

Assumptions: Results:
​ n = 1.3 Speed range:
FL330 Mmin = M0.73
​ CG position: 31% Mmax = M0.82
​ Weight: 70 t

For a specific weight, the load factor limitation (1.3g) is taken into account as
follows:
●​ At a fixed FL, the cruise Mach range is determined for n = 1.3g,
●​ At a fixed cruise Mach, the maximum FL (buffet ceiling) is determined for
n = 1.3g.

2.5.5.​Recommended Maximum Altitude

The Recommended Maximum (REC MAX) altitude is provided by the FMS. It is

the lowest of the following maximum altitudes:
●​ 1.3g buffet limited altitude
●​ Maximum cruise altitude at maximum cruise thrust in level flight
●​ Maximum Climb altitude at maximum climb thrust with 300 ft/min vertical
speed
●​ Maximum certified altitude.

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The speed considered for REC MAX altitude computation is the speed between
Green Dot and VMO/MMO that maximizes the altitude. This speed mainly
depends on the current gross weight of the aircraft and the ∆ISA.

2.5.6.​Cruise Optimization : Step Climb

Optimum cruise should ideally coincide with optimum altitude. As a general rule,
this altitude is not constant, but increases as weight decreases during cruise.
However, ATC restrictions require level flight cruise. Aircraft must fly by segments
of constant altitude that should, ideally, be as near as possible to the optimum
altitude.

In accordance with the separation of aircraft by flight level, the level segments are
established at ± 2 000 ft from the optimum altitude in Reduced Vertical Separation
Minima (RVSM) airspace. In general, it is seen that in these conditions:

𝑆𝑅 ≥ 99% 𝑆𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥

Illustration D-27: A Step Climb Cruise Profile

As a result, the following profile is obtained for a step climb (Illustration D-27).​

Flight levels are selected in accordance with temperature conditions. Usually, the
first step starts at the first usable flight level that is compatible with maximum
cruise altitude. This is the case with the example of cruise at ISA condition in
Illustration D-27.

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3.​DESCENT/HOLDING
3.1.​DESCENT MANAGEMENT
3.1.1.​Thrust setting

The standard engine rating for descent is “Flight Idle Thrust”. For fly-by-wire
aircraft, the thrust lever position does not change when autothrust is engaged. At
THR RED, the throttle levers are set to the “CL” (climb) gate for the entire flight
(Illustration D-28). The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC), adjusts the
thrust level to the required value.

In case of an altitude constraint or a repressurization segment (see the chapter

Cabin Descent), the vertical speed of the aircraft may have to be limited during
descent. This is achieved at a thrust called “Adapted Thrust”. The adapted thrust
may change between flight idle thrust and maximum cruise thrust. It is provided
by the engines when autothrust is engaged, when the aircraft descent speed and
one of the two descent parameters (gradient or rate) remain fixed.

Illustration D-28: CL Gate is the Thrust Throttles Position During Descent with Auto-Thrust

3.2.​DESCENT SPEEDS
3.2.1.​Descent at Selected Speed
For a descent performed at a speed selected by the flight crew, the descent is
operated at a constant Mach Number and Indicated Air Speed (IAS). For
example, a typical descent profile for the A320 family is:

M0.78 / 300 kt / 250 kt

TAS variations during descent are indicated in Illustration D-29. For more details,
refer to the chapter Climb.

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 Illustration D-29: Descent Profile at Given MACH/IAS Law

3.2.2.​Descent at Minimum Gradient (Drift Down)

The descent gradient is at a minimum when speed is set to Green Dot speed.
Descent at Green Dot speed enables the highest possible altitude to be
maintained for the longest distance (without any fuel consumption impact
considered).​

A Green Dot speed descent is not recommended in normal operations, because it

results in increased flight time. On the other hand, it is very important in case of
an engine failure during cruise over mountainous terrain, because it increases
obstacle clearance margin and offers more escape solutions than higher speeds.
A Green Dot speed descent with one engine inoperative is referred to as drift
down procedure (refer to the chapter Obstacle/Drift Down Strategy).
3.2.3.​Descent at Minimum Rate
The minimum rate of descent speed is lower than Green Dot. As a result, a
descent at minimum rate is of no use in operations, compared to a descent at
Green Dot. The time needed to reach a specific altitude is longer than at Green
Dot and the distance covered is shorter. For this reason, and as a general rule, it
is not advantageous to descend at a speed lower than Green Dot.
3.2.4.​Descent at Minimum Cost
The cost index aims to lower direct operating costs for a specific flight. For a
specific cost index, an optimum descent Mach (MachECON) and an optimum
descent speed (IASECON) are calculated by the FMGS to optimize the descent.
The descent is then performed in managed mode, based on the following
MACH/IAS law:

MachECON / IASECON / 250 kt

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 To minimize global fuel consumption for a flight, a low cost index must be used.
Since the descent phase is performed at idle thrust, it is advantageous to
maximize its duration, because it minimizes fuel consumption. This is achieved at
a low descent speed, that depends on the aircraft type (e.g. 250 kt for the A320
family). However, the descent speed must remain above Green Dot.

CI = 0 ⇒ IASECON = Minimum descent speed (depends on A/C type)

On the contrary, a high cost index is required when the global flight time needs to
be reduced for cost reasons. In this case, the descent must be as fast as possible
(i.e. at the maximum rate of descent speed). The maximum rate is obtained at a
speed that is, in general, limited to VMO – 10 kt in normal operations.

CI = CImax ⇒ IASECON = VMO – 10 kt

Flight at a given cost index in descent is one of the recommendations of the

Green Operating Procedures in the FCTM. In addition, the use of the same cost
index for the entire flight is recommended in the FCTM Standard Operating
Procedures for Cruise.
3.2.5.​Emergency Descent
An emergency descent must be performed in case of a cabin pressurization
failure. The objective is to reach FL100 as soon as possible due to oxygen
constraints. In case of pressurization failure over mountainous terrain with high
obstacles, the objective is to first descend to a lower flight level that permits
obstacle clearance. After the obstacles are cleared, the objective is then to
descend to FL100.

MMO/VMO is the best speed schedule, because it enables the most rapid rate of
descent possible. This rate of descent is increased when the airbrakes are
extended as requested by emergency descent procedure.

3.3.​VERTICAL PROFILE MANAGEMENT

3.3.1.​Cabin Descent
The cabin pressure rate is optimized during descent so that it reaches the landing
field pressure + 0.1 psi just before landing.

Depending on the initial cabin and destination airport altitudes, the FMGS
calculates the necessary cabin descent time. This time is obtained from the
selected cabin rate of descent, defaulted to -350 ft per minute in the FMGS, but
which can be modified up to a maximum of -750 ft per minute.

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As soon as the cabin descent time is longer than the aircraft descent time, a
repressurization segment is necessary, during which the aircraft vertical speed is
limited to permit cabin repressurization (Illustration D-30).

​
Illustration D-30: Cabin Repressurization Segment

In some specific cases (landing at high altitude airports) , the cabin pressure at
cruise level is higher than the pressure at the landing airport. Therefore, the cabin
pressure must decrease during descent, and this means that the vertical speed of
the cabin is positive while the vertical speed of the aircraft is negative.
3.3.2.​Top of Descent
The FMGS calculates the position of the Top of Descent point and takes into
account speed and altitude constraints. The FMGS makes the assumption that
the aircraft flies the segment at idle thrust with the use of idle thrust plus a small
thrust margin. This provides the flight crew with some flexibility to keep the aircraft
on the descent path if engine anti-ice is used (this increases idle thrust), or if
there is a variation in the wind. This small extra amount of thrust also results in
small differences in the vertical profile that can be seen between a theoretical
profile at idle thrust and the profile computed by FMGS.
Operators can use the Idle Factor to adjust the Top of Descent computation on
each aircraft. The real idle thrust of each aircraft can change compared to
theoretical idle thrust, and this can cause flight crews to notice that the Top of
Descent is too early or too late. More information on the Idle Factor value update
can be found in the FCOM manual.
3.3.3.​Continuous Descent Approach
Some aircraft are equipped with the function for continuous descent approach. A
continuous descent will minimize the time that the aircraft is at a not optimum
altitude and therefore results in fuel savings. The FMGS computes the continuous
descent profile from the Top of Descent to 1 000 ft above ground level.
The possibility to perform a continuous descent approach at a specific airport
needs to be confirmed with ATC.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 144​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

3.4.​HOLDING MANAGEMENT
When holding is required, it is usually performed on a “race track pattern”, that
has two straight legs plus two 180 degree turns. When the aircraft makes a turn,
the distance covered is not the primary objective. However, the maximum holding
time (maximum endurance) is an important factor for any diversion decision. As a
result, it is important during holding to try to minimize fuel consumption with time
as much as possible, or to just minimize fuel flow (kg per hour or lb per hour).

The speed for minimum fuel consumption is somewhere between the minimum
drag speed and the maximum lift-to-drag ratio (Green Dot) speed, that are quite
similar in value. As a result, in clean configuration the standard holding speed is
based on Green Dot.

Holding patterns may result in limitations around specific airports due to obstacle
proximity. Green Dot speed is sometimes too high, particularly during turns that
require high bank angles. Since it is not possible to significantly reduce the speed
below Green Dot in clean configuration, slats may be extended and a holding
performed in CONF1 at “S” speed13.

Green Dot and S speeds are easy to fly in selected mode, since they are
indicated on the Primary Flight Display (PFD), as a function of aircraft weight and
configuration:
●​ In clean configuration: “Green Dot”.
●​ In configuration 1: “S speed”.

3.5.​FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
3.5.1.​Altitude Effect
During the descent phase, air density increases, so for a specific aircraft weight
and a specific true air speed, the drag force increases. The descent gradient and
rate of descent are proportional to drag (as detailed in Appendix 5), and therefore,
an increase in both descent gradient and descent rate is observed.

However, because the descent is never performed at a constant TAS, but at a

constant Mach or a constant IAS, it is not possible to conclude. The following
graph (Illustration D-31) illustrates the variation of the descent gradient (𝛾) and
rate of descent (RD), with altitude for a descent profile M0.82 / 300 kt / 250 kt.

13
S speed = Minimum slat retraction speed (from CONF1 to CONF CLEAN)

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 Illustration D-31: A330 example - Descent Gradient (γ) and RD variation with Altitude and TAS

Contrary to the climb phase, it is difficult to evaluate descent parameters (gradient

and rate), because they only depend on drag and not on thrust (that is considered
to be set to idle).
3.5.2.​Temperature Effect
Similarly to the pressure altitude, the temperature effect is difficult to evaluate. At
a specific altitude, an increase in temperature causes a reduction in air density.
As a result, drag also decreases, and it may be convenient to consider that the
magnitude of the gradient and rate of descent are reduced.
​
However, the TAS is not constant during the descent. For a specific Mach or IAS,
TAS increases with temperature, and therefore compensates for drag reduction.
This is the reason that descent parameter variations with temperature are not
significant.
3.5.3.​Weight Effect
Green Dot speed (for minimum gradient in descent) is a function of weight and
altitude. Illustration D-32 indicates that, in the standard descent speed range
(Green Dot to VMO), the rate and gradient of descent reduce at higher weights.

The balance of forces during descent indicates that:

​ ​ ​ Lift = Weight.cosγ = ½ ρ.S.TAS2.CL

​
At a specific TAS in the standard speed range, a higher weight means that a
higher lift coefficient (CL) is required to maintain the balance of forces. This is
achieved by an increase in the angle of attack (α) and a reduction in the descent
gradient, 𝛾. Since RD = TAS.𝛾, the rate of descent is also reduced at higher
weights.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 146​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Illustration D-32: Gradient and Rate of Descent variation with Speed and Weight

Therefore, in the speed range for standard descent:

​

3.5.4.​Wind Effect
As displayed in Illustration D-33, the air descent gradient (𝛾a) remains the same,
regardless of the wind component. Therefore, the fuel and time necessary to
descend from the Top of Descent (T/D) to the final level remain the same.

Illustration D-33: Headwind Effect on Descent Flight Path

​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

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E.​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
1.​ENGINE FAILURE
1.1.​PROBLEM CREATED BY LOSS OF POWER
In case of an engine failure during flight, the remaining thrust is no longer
sufficient to balance the drag force and to maintain the cruise speed. The thrust
necessary to fly at the initial altitude suddenly becomes higher than the available
thrust delivered by the operative engines, with Maximum Continuous Thrust
(MCT) rating. The only solution is to then descend to a lower flight level, where
the available thrust can equal the required thrust, this therefore enables the
aircraft to level off.

Illustration E-1: Thrust versus Velocity

1.2.​GENERAL DEFINITIONS

CS 25.123 Subpart B FAR 25.123 Subpart B

1.2.1.​Gross Drift Down Flight Path

The Gross Drift Down Flight Path is the flight path that the aircraft flies after an
engine failure (Illustration E-2). Regulations require that operators be provided
with drift down performance information, as described below:

“(a) For the en-route configuration, the [gross drift down] flight path must be
determined at each weight, altitude, and ambient temperature […]. The variations
of the weight along the flight path, accounting for the progressive consumption of
fuel […] by the operating engines, may be included in the computation. The flight
paths must be determined at any selected speed, with:
●​ The most unfavourable centre of gravity
●​ The critical engine inoperative.”

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1.2.2.​ Net Drift Down Flight Path

The Net Drift Down Flight Path is the Gross Flight Path minus a regulatory
reduction (Illustration E-2).

“(b) The one-engine-inoperative net flight path data must represent the actual
climb performance diminished by a gradient of climb of
●​ 1.1% for two-engined aeroplanes
●​ 1.6% for four-engined aeroplanes.”
(c) The two-engine-inoperative net flight path must represent the actual climb
performance diminished by a gradient of climb of
●​ 0.5% for four-engined aeroplanes.”

​ ​ Net Gradient = Gross Gradient – Gradient Penalty

Gradient penalty
Two-engine aircraft Four-engine aircraft
Net flight path (one engine out) 1.1% 1.6%
Net flight path (two engines out) - 0.5%
Table E-1: Gradient Penalties Between Gross and Net Drift Down Flight Paths

Illustration E-2: Gross and Net Drift Down Flight Paths (Climb and Descent)

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1.3.​EN ROUTE OBSTACLE CLEARANCE – ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE
1.3.1.​Lateral Clearance

Obstacle clearance must be ensured throughout the route in case of an engine

failure. The objective is to identify the obstacles that must be cleared based on
regulatory criteria:

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.215 FAR 121.191 Subpart I

“(c) The net flight path shall permit the aeroplane to continue flight from the
cruising altitude to an aerodrome where landing can be made […] clearing […] all
terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the
intended track”
(d) […] an operator must increase the widths margins […] to 18.5 km (10 nm) if
the navigational accuracy does not meet at least navigation specification RNAV5”
(Illustration E-3).

Illustration E-3: Lateral Clearance

The FAR regulation is similar, except that it requires a lateral margin of 5 statute
miles on each side of the intended track. In addition, the FAR regulation specifies
that a “different procedure” approval is required when the aircraft is nearer to the
critical obstruction it has to pass over, than to the nearest approved radio
navigation fix.

To perform a detailed route study (engine failure case), topographic data must be
used and the highest obstacles inside the required corridor width determined.​
Another, more rapid, but less accurate method, consists of the use of the
published Minimum Flight Altitudes that usually account for a margin of 2 000 ft
on the obstacles (refer to the chapter Minimum Flight Altitudes).

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1.3.2.​Vertical Clearance

Vertical clearance is defined as a margin between the net flight path and the
obstacles. The en route net flight path must be determined from the Aircraft Flight
Manual, and must take into account the expected meteorological conditions (wind
and temperature) along the route. In addition, if icing conditions can be expected
at the diversion level, the effect of the anti-ice system must be considered on the
net flight path.

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.215 FAR 121.191 Subpart I

Any route study should be performed by a check of one of the following two
conditions for vertical clearance. When Condition 1 cannot be met, or when it
appears to have too many penalties in terms of weight, a detailed study must then
be performed based on Condition 2.

Condition 1: 1 000 ft Clearance Margin

“CAT.POL.A.215
(b) The gradient of the en-route net flight path shall be positive at least 1,000 ft
above all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 NM) on either
side of the intended track.” (Illustration E-4)

Illustration E-4: Vertical Clearance (1,000 feet)

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Condition 2: 2 000 ft Clearance Margin

Condition 2 is related to the case of an engine failure during the cruise phase.
When Condition 1 is not satisfied, or when it has too many limitations in terms of
weight, a drift down procedure should be established, as detailed below:

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.215 FAR 121.191 Subpart I

“(c) The net flight path shall permit the aeroplane to continue flight from cruising
altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made, […] shall clear vertically,
by at least 2,000 ft all terrain and obstructions along the route within [the
prescribed corridor].” (Illustration E-5).

Illustration E-5: Vertical Clearance (2,000 feet)

At any point of a critical area on the route, it must always be possible to escape
and ensure, during descent, the obstacle clearance margin of 2 000 ft on the net
flight path. The following three escape procedures are available: Turn back,
Divert, or Continue.

1.3.3.​Diversion Airfield

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.215 FAR 121.191 Subpart I

“(a) The net flight path shall have a positive gradient at 1,500 ft above the
aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made after an engine failure.“
(Illustration E-6)

The route study must indicate the different diversion airfields that are possible en
route, associated with the various diversion scenarios. The gradient of the net
flight path should be positive at 1 500 ft (at least) above the airport where the
landing is expected. For that purpose, fuel jettisoning can be considered, when
the system is available.

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 Illustration E-6: Performance Requirement Above Diversion Airport

In addition:
“(c)(4) The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after engine
failure shall meet the following criteria:
●​ The performance requirements at the expected landing mass are met
●​ Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and field
condition reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished at the
estimated time of landing.”

Alternate airports must be clearly identified at dispatch, and must comply with the
prescribed weather minimums for the approach category. If these minimums are
not satisfied, the associated diversion procedures are no longer possible.

1.4.​OBSTACLE CLEARANCE – TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE

For 4 engine aircraft, when more than 90 min from a diversion airfield, the double
engine failure must be considered.

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.220 (a) FAR 121.193 Subpart I

Following a double engine failure, obstacles must be cleared by either a lateral or

vertical margin.

1.4.1.​Lateral Clearance
​
The regulations define the corridor width in which obstacles must be taken into
account, as follows:

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 Air OPS CAT.POL.A.220 FAR 121.193 Subpart I

“(b) The two engines inoperative en-route net flight path data shall allow the
aeroplane to continue the flight, in the expected meteorological conditions, from
the point where two engines are assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome
at which it is possible to land, […] clearing all terrain and obstructions along the
route within 9.3 km (5 nm)14 on either side of the intended track. […] If the
navigational accuracy does not meet at least navigation specification RNAV 5, the
operator shall increase the prescribed width margin […] to 18.5 km (10 nm)15.”

1.4.2.​ Vertical Clearance

Vertical clearance is defined as a margin between the net flight path with two
engines inoperative and the obstructions. The en route net flight path with two
engines inoperative must be determined from the Aircraft Flight Manual, and must
take into account:
●​ The expected meteorological conditions (wind and temperature) along the
route,
●​ The use of ice protection systems, if required.

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.220 FAR 121.193 Subpart I

“The net flight path shall clear vertically, by at least 2,000 ft all terrain and
obstructions along the route within [the prescribed corridor].”

Illustration E-7: Obstacle Clearance 2,000 feet – Two Engines Inoperative

14
FAA: 5 statute miles
15
EASA rule not valid for FAA

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 1.4.3.​Diversion Airfield – Two Engines Inoperative
FAR 121.193 Subpart I
Air OPS CAT.POL.A.220

“(d) The net flight path shall have a positive gradient at 1,500 ft above the
aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made after the failure of two
engines.“ (Illustration E-8).
The route study must indicate the different possible diversion airfields for en route
flight, associated with the various diversion scenarios. The gradient for the net
flight path with two-engines inoperative should be positive at 1 500 ft above the
airport where the landing is expected. For that purpose, fuel jettisoning can be
considered, when the system is available.

Illustration E-8: Performance Requirement above Diversion Airport

1.5.​AIRBUS POLICY
When an engine failure occurs during cruise, there are three possible strategies
considered by Airbus:
●​ The standard strategy
●​ The obstacle / drift down strategy
●​ The fixed speed strategy (applicable for ETOPS operations).

1.5.1.​Standard Strategy
Unless a specific procedure was established before dispatch (with ETOPS or
mountainous areas considered), the standard strategy is used.
The standard strategy consists of the following:
●​ Select Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) on the remaining engine(s).
●​ Target speed of:
○​ M0.78/300 kt for A320 Family
○​ M0.82/300 kt for A330/A340
○​ M0.85/300 kt for A350 and A380
●​ Climb or descend at the above speeds until EO LRC Ceiling is reached.

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1.5.2.​Obstacle/Drift Down Strategy

In case of an engine failure over a mountainous area during the climb or cruise
phase, the Obstacle Strategy or Drift Down Strategy (Illustration E-9) should be
applied. This procedure consists of:
●​ The selection of Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) on the remaining
engine(s).
●​ Deceleration to Green Dot speed.
●​ Climb or descent at Green Dot speed until the drift down ceiling16 is
reached.
●​ Continue with the standard strategy when the EO LRC ceiling clears the
obstacles with sufficient margins.

Illustration E-9: Drift Down Procedure (Climb and Descent)

Green Dot speed, indicated by a green circle on the primary flight display (PFD),
corresponds to the best lift-to-drag ratio speed, where aerodynamic efficiency is
at a maximum. As a result, the drift down strategy is the procedure that enables
the highest possible altitude to be achieved.

1.5.3.​Fixed Speed Strategy

Refer to the chapter ETOPS Speed Strategy.

16
Drift down ceiling = maximum altitude that the aircraft can be fly at Green Dot speed (level off)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 156​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
2.​PRESSURIZATION FAILURE
In case of an in-flight cabin pressurization loss, descent to a safe altitude is
necessary to comply with the oxygen system constraint. At the initial cruise
altitude, the proportion of oxygen in the air is not sufficient to permit
crewmembers and passengers to breathe normally. An oxygen system is required
to supply oxygen to passengers and crew. Since the necessary oxygen quantity
must be sufficient to supply the entire cabin, the oxygen flow rate is limited to a
maximum duration. A new flight altitude, where oxygen is no longer required,
must be reached before the oxygen supply is exhausted.

2.1.​PASSENGER OXYGEN REQUIREMENT

To determine passenger and flight crew supplementary oxygen requirements,
regulations provide the minimum oxygen quantity depending on flight altitude.
Oxygen reserves for crewmembers are always much larger than for passengers
and as a result, the descent profile is always more limited by the passenger
oxygen system than by the crew oxygen system.

Air OPS CAT.IDE.A.230 FAR 121.329

FAR 121.333

“GM1 CAT.IDE.A.230
(b) When calculating the amount of first-aid oxygen, the operator should take into
account the fact that, following a cabin depressurisation, supplemental oxygen as
calculated in accordance with Table 1 of CAT.IDE.A.235 and Table 1 of
CAT.IDE.A.240 should be sufficient to cope with potential effects of hypoxia for:
(1) all passengers when the cabin altitude is above 15 000 ft;
(2) at least 30 % of the passengers, for any period when, in the event of loss of
pressurisation and taking into account the circumstances of the flight, the
pressure altitude in the passenger compartment will be between 14 000 ft and 15
000 ft; and
(3) at least 10 % of the passengers for any period in excess of 30 minutes when
the pressure altitude in the passenger compartment will be between 10 000 ft and
14 000 ft.
CAT.IDE.A.230
(b) The oxygen supply referred to in (a) shall be sufficient for the remainder of the
flight after cabin depressurisation when the cabin altitude exceeds 8 000 ft but
does not exceed 15 000 ft, for at least 2 % of the passengers carried, but in no
case for less than one person.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 157​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 The condition (b) is usually achieved by portable oxygen. The following table
(E-2) provides a summary of the passenger oxygen requirements.

> 15 000 ft Supply to 100% of passengers

> 14 000 ft ​ Supply to 30% of passengers
≤ 15 000 ft
Flight > 10 000 ft ​ Supply to 10% of passengers (not
Altitude ≤ 14 000 ft required during the first 30 minutes)
> 8 000 ft ​ Supply to 2% of passengers after
≤ 10 000 ft cabin depressurization (achieved by
portable oxygen).
With a minimum of 10 minute supply for 100% of passengers

Table E-2: Oxygen Supply Requirement for Passengers

2.2.​OXYGEN SYSTEMS

Air OPS CAT.IDE.A.235 FAR 121.329

FAR 121.333
“CAT.IDE.A.235
(a) Pressurised aeroplanes operated at pressure altitudes above 10 000 ft shall
be equipped with supplemental oxygen equipment that is capable of storing and
dispensing the oxygen supplies[...]”

Following a cabin pressurization failure, oxygen is automatically supplied to

passengers through individual oxygen masks, deployed to seated areas and to
galley and lavatory areas. These units are automatically deployed in case of a
cabin pressurization loss, but they only supply oxygen for a limited period of time.

The duration of the passenger oxygen supply is different, depending on the type
of system. As of today, there are two main categories of oxygen systems:
chemical systems and gaseous systems.
​
2.2.1.​Chemical Systems

A chemical system has the following characteristics:

●​ There is an independent chemical generator that is activated when the
mask is pulled. When the mask is pulled, it is not possible to stop the
oxygen flow.
●​ The oxygen flow and supply pressure are independent of the cabin
altitude.
●​ The oxygen is supplied to passengers for a specific period of time, that is
usually 15 or 22 minutes, depending on the system.
●​ The system is designed to deliver a flow of oxygen for a pre-defined time.
●​ A maximum flight profile is provided for these systems. Above this profile
the system does not supply enough oxygen to enable the passenger to
breathe.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 158​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 2.2.2.​Gaseous Systems

2.2.2.1.​ Centralised Gaseous System

A gaseous system has specific advantages over the chemical system:
●​ It can be customized, because the Operator can select the number of high
pressure bottles of oxygen (up to 18 cylinders on the A340-600).
●​ The oxygen flow and supply pressure depend on the altitude. The flow rate
is controlled by a device that regulates altimetric flow in each mask
container. It enables passenger oxygen consumption to be optimized: The
lower the altitude, the lower the oxygen flow.
●​ The oxygen supply time depends on the flight profile, and on the number of
cylinders installed.
●​ There is no oxygen flow below a cabin pressure altitude of 10 000 ft.

2.2.2.2.​ Decentralized Gaseous Oxygen System

On some aircraft, there are options to use a decentralized gaseous oxygen
system:

●​ Provides the same or better operational flexibility as the centralized

gaseous oxygen
●​ Oxygen consumption varies depending on the descent profile.
●​ When a passenger pulls on a mask, the oxygen cylinder is mechanically
activated.
●​ The Oxygen Control Board, located on each container, will control the
oxygen flow to the masks in accordance with the cabin altitude.
●​ The Operator ensures that the descent procedure to be flown is compatible
with the usable volume of oxygen defined for the system.

2.3.​FLIGHT PROFILE
2.3.1.​Oxygen System Limitation

The route study for the case of a cabin pressurization failure must consider the
cabin pressure to be the same as the pressure altitude of the aircraft.

An oxygen system profile is defined, based on the system design characteristics

and within which the aircraft must always remain. The oxygen system profile
depends on the installed oxygen system:
●​ Chemical system: Profile is fixed based on O2 system time constraint
(published in In-Service Information articles).
●​ Gaseous systems: Customized profile (depends on the number of oxygen
bottles and obstacle location).

This flight profile is the maximum level that the aircraft can fly considering the
capability of the oxygen system. As an example, the following illustration E-10
displays the descent profile of a 22 minute oxygen system.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 159​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 Illustration E-10: A319 Descent Profile - 22 Minute Oxygen System

For example, the above profile indicates that 7 minutes after the cabin
depressurization, the aircraft must be at or below FL250. Above FL250, the
oxygen flow provided by the chemical system is not sufficient to supply the
passengers.

2.3.2.​Performance Limitation

The descent profile displayed in Illustration E-10 only depends on the capability of
the oxygen system, and not on the performance capability of the aircraft.

However, this does not mean that the aircraft is always able to follow the oxygen
profile, particularly in descent. As a result, the performance profile must be
determined, and this profile must always remain below the oxygen profile. The
calculation is based on the following assumptions:
●​ Descent phase: Emergency descent at MMO/VMO. Airbrakes can be
extended to increase the rate of descent if necessary.
●​ Cruise phase: Cruise at maximum speed (limited to VMO).

As a result, for a specific initial weight and flight level, the oxygen profile, based
on time, is transformed into a performance profile, based on distance (Illustration
E-11).

Illustration E-11: A319 Performance Profile – Oxygen System that lasts for 22 Minutes

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 160​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 ​
Note: When this performance profile is established, it is always considered that
the aircraft is able to fly at MMO/VMO. Cases where the speed should be
decreased (structural damage, turbulence…) should not to be taken into account.

2.4.​MINIMUM FLIGHT ALTITUDES

Air OPS CAT.OP.MPA.145 FAR 121.657

FAA guidance for selection of minimum flight altitudes is available in FAR

121.657. It indicates that no person may operate an aircraft under IFR, in
designated mountainous areas at an altitude less than 2 000 ft above the highest
obstacle within a horizontal distance of 5 miles from the center of the intended
course.

EASA guidance material is provided in GM1 CAT.OP.MPA.145(a), where the

standard definitions of minimum flight altitudes that are published are described:

●​ MOCA (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude) and MORA (Minimum

Off-Route Altitude) and MGA (Minimum Grid Altitude). They correspond to
the maximum terrain or obstacle elevation, plus:
○​ 1 000 ft for elevation up to 5 000 ft included (or 6 000 ft)17.
○​ 2 000 ft for elevation that exceeds 5 000 ft (or 6 000 ft) rounded off to
the next 100 ft.
●​ MEA (Minimum safe En route Altitude). It corresponds to the maximum
terrain or obstacle elevation, plus:
○​ 1 500 ft for elevation up to 5 000 ft included.
○​ 2 000 ft for elevation above 5 000 ft and below 10 000 ft.
○​ 10% of the elevation plus 1 000 ft above 10 000 ft.

As a result, the minimum flight altitude above 10 000 ft is considered acceptable

to carry out studies, and is equal to the highest obstacle elevation plus 2 000 ft.

3.​ETOPS FLIGHT
3.1.​TWIN ENGINE AIRCRAFT - 60 MINUTE RULE

Air OPS CAT.OP.MPA.140 FAR 121.161 Subpart H

AC 120-42B

“CAT.OP.MPA.140
(a) Unless approved by the competent Authority […], the operator shall not
operate a two-engined aeroplane over a route which contains a point further from
an adequate aerodrome, [...], than the appropriate distance [...]:
(1) flown in 60 minutes at the [approved] one-engine-inoperative cruising speed”.

17
Depends on the method: Jeppesen (5,000 feet) or KSS (6,000 feet)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 161​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 ETOPS (Extended Twin Operations) criteria was initially established in 1984 by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Under this criteria an airline
must obtain an ETOPS operational approval, in order to perform commercial
operations with an ETOPS certified twin-engine aircraft, on routes beyond 60 min
diversion time from an adequate airport.

Illustration E-12: 60 Minute Rule

Authorities such as the FAA or EASA translated these ETOPS regulations into
national regulations. These ETOPS regulations have evolved over the years,
particularly since 2007 to gradually enable operations of twin-engined aircraft
beyond the diversion time of 180 min.

In 2012, ICAO replaced its ETOPS standards with a new set of standards referred
to as EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations). These standards are
applicable to international commercial operations of both twin-engined aircraft
and aircraft with more than two engines.

For more information and guidance on ETOPS/EDTO, please refer to the set of
"Getting to Grips with ETOPS" brochures.

3.2.​ETOPS SPEED STRATEGY

As described in the Airbus policy chapter for One Engine Inoperative cases, the
recommended strategy for ETOPS operations is the Fixed Speed Strategy.

The Fixed Speed Strategy consists of the following:

1.​Select Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) on the remaining engine(s)
2.​Decelerate to the speed established at dispatch
3.​Cruise at the selected speed and altitude (established at dispatch).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 162​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
4.​GUIDANCE TO ROUTE STUDIES
In flight, engine or pressurization failures are cases that must be carefully
evaluated before operating a new route. The occurrence of engine or
pressurization failures can have a significant impact on flight altitudes, and
therefore, increases constraints over mountainous areas.

For flights over mountainous areas, a route study is necessary to evaluate if an

acceptable escape procedure is possible or not, when a failure occurs at the
worst moment during flight. If it is possible, it must be clearly defined and
indicated to the pilots. If it is not possible, a new route must be found.

A route study must be performed in accordance with airworthiness requirements,

detailed in the following sections.

As a general rule, engine or pressurization failures must be considered to occur

at the most critical points along the intended route. However, because
depressurization profiles and engine failure profiles are different, the critical points
may be different between the two failure cases. It is important to note that
regulations do not require to consider performance to cope with the simultaneous
failure of both engine and cabin pressurization.

When both failure cases are managed separately, the number of critical points
and the number of escape routes increase, resulting in more complexity,
increased crew workload and higher risk of error.

In order to limit crew workload and reduce the risk of error, the Operator should, if
possible, define the same critical points for both failure cases. The route study
should then be based on the most penalizing descent profile. (Illustration E-13).

Illustration E-13: A319 Descent Profiles - Engine + Cabin Pressurization Failures

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 163​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
4.1.​OBSTACLE CLEARANCE – ENGINE FAILURE
In case of engine failure, the net flight path needs to clear obstacles by 1 000 ft if
the failure occurs during climb and 2 000 ft if the failure occurs in cruise.

The Operator must check that the net flight path clears all terrain and obstacles
by the regulatory margins.
The net flight path must be determined based on certified (AFM) performance and
conservative assumptions:
●​ Takeoff weight at departure airport equal to the maximum certified takeoff
weight
●​ Conservative environmental conditions with respect to wind and
temperature.
The net flight path is then compared to the terrain and obstacles considered for
the study.

This comparison enables the identification of the points (A) and (B) along the
critical segment of the route. If an engine failure occurs and if the aircraft initiates
a drift down:
●​ A no-return point (A): The point after which it is not possible to turn back,
because the obstacle clearance margin of 2 000 ft on the net flight path is
not ensured.
●​ A continuing point (B): The point after which it is possible to continue on
the route because the obstacle clearance margin of 2 000 ft on the net
flight path is ensured.

If the no-return point (A) is after the continuing point (B) (Illustration E-14), the
procedure should consider several possibilities. If the engine failure occurs:
●​ Before B: Return
●​ After A: Continue
●​ Between A and B: Either return or continue

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 164​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 Illustration E-14: No Return Point after the continuing point

If the no-return point (A) is before the continuing point (B) (Illustration E-15), the
procedure should consider the aircraft possibility as follows. If the engine failure
occurs:
●​ Before A: Return
●​ After B: Continue
●​ Between A and B:
●​ Establish an escape procedure that ensures the applicable margin for
obstacle clearance.
●​ If it is not possible, consider a weight reduction at takeoff.
●​ If the weight reduction is not acceptable, consider another route.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 165​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
 Illustration E-15: No Return Point is before continuing point

4.2.​OBSTACLE CLEARANCE – CABIN PRESSURIZATION FAILURE

A net flight path is not required in the case of cabin pressurization failure. The net
flight path is a safety margin when there is a risk that the aircraft cannot maintain
the expected descent performance (engine failure case).

In case of cabin depressurization, the aircraft can fly without any altitude
constraint below the initial flight level, because all engines are operative.
Therefore, the standard minimum flight altitudes apply and the descent profile
must clear any terrain and obstacle by 2 000 ft (Illustration E-16).

Illustration E-16: A319 Obstacle clearance profile

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 166​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
To check this, the Operator needs to consider all of the constraints of the terrain
and obstacles that must be cleared with a 2 000 ft margin. Then, the Operator
needs to calculate the “performance” profile (in distance) based on the
chemical/gaseous oxygen profile (in time) with the assumption of an emergency
descent and cruise speeds. The maximum speed is usually considered.

Comparing the terrain profile and performance profile enables the Operator to
determine the critical sector on the route, that includes the following points: if a
pressurization failure occurs and if the aircraft initiates an emergency descent, the
flight path clears the most penalizing obstacle by the minimum margin of 2 000 ft.
A critical point can be:
●​ A no-return point (A): The point after which it is not possible to turn back,
because the obstacle clearance margin of 2 000 ft is not ensured, or the
Oxygen system limit is exceeded.
●​ A continuing point (B): The point after which it is possible to continue on
the route because the obstacle clearance margin of 2 000 ft is ensured and
the Oxygen system limit is not exceeded.

If the no-return point (A) is after the continuing point (B),the procedure should
consider the possibilities as follows, unless another procedure is found to be
more appropriate (closer diversion airport, safer escape procedure…). If the
pressurization failure occurs:
●​ Before B: Return
●​ After A: Continue
●​ Between A and B: Either return or continue

If the no-return point (A) is before the continuing point (B) (Illustration E-15), the
procedure should consider the possibilities as follows, unless another procedure
is found to be more appropriate. If the pressurization failure occurs:
●​ Before A: Return
●​ After B: Continue
●​ Between A and B: Establish an escape procedure that ensures the
relevant obstacle clearance margin. If it is not possible, consider another
route.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 167​ IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH FAILURE
F.​ LANDING
1.​INTRODUCTION
To operate an aircraft, an Operator must check landing requirements based on
airplane certification (CS 25 / FAR 25), and on operational constraints defined in
Air OPS and FAR 121. In normal operations, landing distances are not usually
limiting, with landing distances at Maximum Landing Weight achievable in most
cases. This results in a reduction in the level of importance associated with
landing checks during dispatch. However, landing performance can be
significantly limited in the case of inoperative items, adverse external conditions,
or go-around constraints. Therefore, a performance assessment is of the highest
importance to ensure safe operations.

The following sections describe dispatch and in-flight landing distance definitions,
for dry, wet and contaminated runways.
For contaminant definition, refer to the takeoff chapter Definitions of
Contaminants.
For operation on grooved or PFC runways, refer to the takeoff chapter Operation
on grooved or PFC runways.

2.​LANDING LIMITATIONS
2.1.​ RUNWAY LENGTH: LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA)
2.1.1.​ LDA with no Obstacle under Landing Path

Air OPS Annex 1 Definitions FAR 1.1 General definitions

When there is no obstacle under the landing path, the LDA is the runway length
(TORA). The stopway cannot be used for landing distance calculation.

Illustration F-1: Landing Distance Available

2.1.2.​ LDA with Obstacles under Landing Path

The LDA may be reduced due to obstacles under the landing path.

Annex 8 of ICAO recommendations specifies the dimension of the protection

surfaces for landing and approach (i.e. approach funnel).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 168​ LANDING

When there is no obstacle in the approach funnel, as shown in Illustration F-2, the
LDA is the full runway length.​

Illustration F-2 : Approach Surface

If there is an obstacle in the approach funnel, a displaced threshold is defined.

The displaced threshold considers a 2 % plane from the top of the most
penalizing obstacle, plus a 60 m distance margin.

Illustration F-3: Displaced Threshold

In the case of an obstacle, the LDA should be reduced by the displaced threshold
length.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 169​ LANDING

2.2.​ DISPATCH LANDING REQUIREMENTS​

2.2.1.​ Actual Landing Distance (ALD)

2.2.1.1.​ ALD with manual landing

CS 25.125 Subpart B FAR 25.125 Subpart B

“(a)The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop

from a point 50 ft above the landing surface must be determined (for standard
temperatures, at each weight, altitude and wind within the operational limits
established by the applicant for the aeroplane) as follows:
●​ The aeroplane must be in the landing configuration
●​ A stabilized approach, with a calibrated airspeed of VLS must be
maintained down to the 50 ft.”

In addition to the above extract, several additional regulatory conditions are

considered:

●​ Not excessive vertical acceleration

●​ Landing on a level, smooth, dry, runway with hard surface
●​ Acceptable pressure on the wheel braking systems
●​ Deceleration means other than wheel brakes: spoilers, reversers (except
on dry runway), can be used if they are safe and reliable.

Note: For dispatch under MEL, ALD is also certified with degraded deceleration
means (spoiler inoperative, one brake inoperative…).

Illustration F-4: Actual Landing Distance

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 170​ LANDING

 CS 25.1592

“(a) At the discretion of the applicant, supplementary landing performance

information may be furnished for aeroplanes landing on slippery wet runways and
on runways contaminated with standing water, slush, snow, or ice to be used by
operators to support the dispatch of a flight.”

AMC 25.1592

“6.4 Landing-distance data for dispatch:

For dispatch computation, performance data for landing on a contaminated
runway surface may include credit for reverse thrust [...]; CS 25.125(g) requires to
consider the one engine inoperative configuration. The applicant should assume
that the engine fails during the landing flare. If this adversely affects the
availability of a deceleration device, then the applicant, in compliance with CS
25.125(g), must compare:
(a) the normal landing distance without engine failure, using the available
deceleration means factored by 1.15; and
(b) the unfactored landing distance, assuming an engine failure in the
landing flare and loss of availability of any related deceleration means.
The scheduled landing distance is the longer between (a) and (b) above. Such
distance is the minimum landing distance that already includes an operational
factor of 1.15.”

Note:
For aircraft certified before AMC 25-1592, only AMC 25-1592 6.4(a) is
considered.
For Airbus aircraft certified after AMC 25-1592, case (a) is the longest distance.

On dry runways, landing distances are demonstrated with standard temperatures,

in accordance with CS/FAR 25. However, on contaminated runways Airbus
decided to take into account the influence of temperature on landing distance
demonstration. This ensures additional safety because it provides a conservative
ALD.

2.2.1.2.​ ALD with Automatic Landing

CS AWO

The ALD must be established and published in the aircraft Flight Manual, if it
exceeds the manual landing distance that is expected.

On a dry runway, the ALD in autoland is defined as follows:

ALD = (Da + Dg)

Where: ​ Da is the airborne phase distance.

​ ​ Dg is the ground phase distance.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 171​ LANDING

 Illustration F-5 : Airborne Phase

The airborne phase Da is the distance from the runway threshold up to the
beginning of the glidescope (d1), plus the distance from the beginning of the
glidescope up to the mean touchdown point (d2), plus three times the standard
deviation of d2 (σd2).
The distance from the beginning of the glidescope to the mean touchdown point
(d2), as well as its corresponding standard deviation (σd2), were established from
the results of more than a thousand automatic landings that were simulated.

Illustration F-6 : Ground Phase

The Ground Phase Dg for an automatic landing is established as with a manual

landing, under the assumption that the touchdown speed is equal to the mean
touchdown speed (Vtd), plus three times the standard deviation of this speed
(σVTD).

2.2.2.​ Required Landing Distance (RLD)

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.230 & 235 FAR 121.195 (b) Subpart I

The assumption is “that the aeroplane will land on the most favorable runway, in
still air”. In addition, “the aeroplane will land on the runway most likely to be
assigned considering the probable wind speed and direction and the ground
handling characteristics of the aeroplane, and considering other conditions such
as landing aids and terrain”.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 172​ LANDING

Before departure, operators must check that the LDA at the destination is at least
equal to the RLD for the predicted Landing Weight and forecasted conditions.
The RLD, based on certified landing performance (ALD), was established to
assist operators to define the minimum distance required at destination, and
permit flight dispatch.

In all cases, the requirement is:​ RLD ≤ LDA

Operators must take into account the runway slope when its value is more than
± 2%. If not, it is considered to be zero.

In the event of an aircraft system failure that is known before dispatch, and that
affects the landing distance, the available runway length must be at least equal to
the RLD with failure.

2.2.2.1.​ RLD Dry Runways

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.230 FAR 121.195 (b)

The Landing Weight of the aircraft must permit landing within 60 % of the Landing
Distance Available at both the destination and any alternate airport.

RLD dry = ALD / 0.6 ≤ LDA

2.2.2.2.​ RLD Wet Runways

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.235 FAR 121.195 (d)

For a runway surface smooth and wet, the RLD must be at least 115 % that of a
dry surface.

RLD wet = 1.15 RLD dry ≤ LDA

A landing distance on a wet runway, shorter than 1.15 RLDdry, but no less than
that required on a dry runway, may be used if the Airplane Flight Manual includes
specific additional information about landing distances on wet runways. In
general, this is not the case for Airbus aircraft.

2.2.2.3.​ RLD Contaminated Runways

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.235

If the surface is contaminated, the RLD must be at least the longer of either:
●​ The RLD on a wet runway, or
●​ 115% of the landing distance determined in accordance with approved
contaminated landing distance data.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 173​ LANDING

 For ALD contaminated x 1.15
RLD contaminated = the highest value of or
RLD wet

contaminated runways, the manufacturer must provide landing performance for

speed, V, at 50 ft above the airport so that:

1.23 VS1g ≤ V ≤ 1.23 VS1g + 10 kt

In specific contaminated runway cases, the manufacturer can provide detailed

instructions that include antiskid, reverse, airbrakes, or spoiler. In the most critical
cases, landing can be prohibited.

2.2.2.4.​ RLD with Automatic Landing

Regulations define the RLD for an automatic landing on a dry runway as 1.15
times the ALD in automatic landing.

This distance must be used for automatic landing, when it is longer than the RLD
in manual mode.
ALD automatic x 1.15
RLD automatic = the highest value of or
RLD manual

2.2.3.​ Conclusion​

●​ Landing Weight must satisfy the structural constraints. Therefore, the first
limitation is:

LW ≤ maximum structural landing weight

●​ Landing Weight is limited by aircraft performance (runway limitations and

go-around limitations). Therefore, the second condition is:

LW ≤ maximum performance landing weight

●​ Therefore, from these two conditions, it is possible to define the maximum

permitted landing weight called maximum regulatory landing weight
(MLW):

Maximum Structural
Landing weight
MLW = the minimum of or
Maximum landing Weight
limited by performance

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 174​ LANDING

2.3.​ In-FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS – LANDING DISTANCE AT THE TIME OF ARRIVAL
(LDTA)
2.3.1.​ Introduction

CS 25.1592 Subpart G FAR 25.1592 Subpart G

AMC 25.1592 AC 25-32

“CS/FAR 25.1592
(b) Landing-distance information must be furnished for assessing the landing
performance at the time of arrival on dry, wet, slippery wet runways, and runways
contaminated with standing water, slush, snow, or ice.”

ALD and RLD may not provide sufficient accuracy for operations. CS25.1592
defines a landing distance calculation that is more operational: Landing Distance
At the Time of Arrival.

As part of the approach preparation, the flight crew should always make an
in-flight performance calculation, each time conditions change from the
assumptions made at dispatch, particularly in the following cases:
●​ Runway change,
●​ Degradation of the runway conditions since dispatch,
●​ In-flight failure that affects the landing performance.

The LDTA model is designed to be consistent with an operational landing in terms

of speed loss between threshold and touchdown (flare technique), and in terms of
braking technique, use of reversers and runway surface condition.

The operational model takes into account:

●​ Approach speed
●​ Pressure altitude
●​ Outside temperature and wind
●​ Runway slope

Note: In Airbus documentation, the following terms are also used to refer to LDTA:
In Flight Landing Distance (IFLD), Landing Distance (LD), Operational Landing
Distance (OLD).

2.3.2.​ Air Distance

AMC 25.1592
chapter 6.1
“[...] ‘air distance’ is defined as the distance from an aeroplane height of 15 m (50
ft) above the landing surface to the point of the main-gear touchdown.”
“[...] The [...] air distance represents a flare time of 7 sec and a touchdown speed
(VTD) of 96 % of the VAPP.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 175​ LANDING

2.3.3.​ Ground Distance

The ground distance is the distance from the point of the main gear touchdown to
the point where the aircraft comes to a stop.
It depends on the touchdown speed and the runway surface condition.

2.3.4.​ Touchdown Speed

As detailed in the section 2.3.2 Air Distance, the touchdown speed depends on
the approach speed (VAPP).

AMC 25.1592
chapter 6.1

“[...] The VAPP should be consistent with the procedures recommended by the
applicant, including any speed additives, e.g. those that may be used due to
winds or icing conditions. The applicant should also provide the effects of higher
speeds, to account for variations that occur in operations or are caused by the
operating procedures of individual operators.”

The approach speed is equal to VLS, plus additional corrections for the following:
●​ A/THR
●​ Ice Accretion
●​ Headwind
●​ Pilot speed increment.

2.3.5.​ Runway Surface Condition

The airport reports the runway condition, based on six codes, called Runway
Condition Codes (RWYCC). The RWYCC are defined from 6 for a dry runway
down to 1 for an icy runway.

AMC 25.1592 chapter 4

“RWYCC is a number that is used in the runway condition report and describes
the effect of the runway surface condition(s) on the deceleration performance and
lateral control of the aeroplane.”

Airport operators make an assessment of the runway state, report the type, depth
and coverage of the contaminant, and then use the RCAM (cf. Illustration F-7) to
report a RWYCC. Airport operators can upgrade or downgrade based on their
experience or the current conditions, or reports (automatic or from flight crew)
from aircraft that just landed. Aerodrome operators report this information in a
format known as SNOWTAM, or through communication with ATC.
Flight crew also use the RCAM to evaluate the deceleration, and directional
control. They need to report a PIREP if the conditions are worse than the
published RWYCC.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 176​ LANDING

 Illustration F-7: Runway Condition Assessment Matrix (RCAM)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 177​ LANDING

 2.3.6.​ Safety Margins

Air OPS CAT.OP.MPA.303​

“(a) No approach to land shall be continued unless the landing distance available
(LDA) on the intended runway is at least 115 % of the landing distance at the
estimated time of landing [...].”

EASA requires a minimum of a 15 % margin to be applied on the LDTA.

In Airbus documentation, the LDTA with the margin is often referred to as
Factored Landing Distance (FLD).
This 15 % increment serves to provide a margin to take into account variations in
operational parameters that are included in the LDTA calculation.

2.3.7.​ In-Flight Failure

Currently, the regulations do not provide specific guidance for LDTA calculation in
the case of a failure.

Airbus provides methods to compute landing distance in the case of a failure. A

failure may affect the airborne phase, the VAPP and/or the ground distance.

For a failure that does not affect the airborne phase: the air distance is the same
as without failure.
In the case of a failure that affects the airborne phase (e.g. “slats fault"): the air
distance is based on 7 seconds with a touchdown speed of 99 % of VAPP.

For the purpose of a performance computation with a failure, Airbus defines the
Vref as the VLS in CONF FULL, plus a speed increment due to the failure (ΔVref).

The regulations do not provide specific guidance on the safety margin to apply in
the case of system(s) failure(s).
Airbus position is that the 15 % margin may be disregarded in case of emergency.

2.4.​ FACTORS OF INFLUENCE

2.4.1.​ Pressure Altitude and Temperature

For Airbus Fly-by-Wire aircraft, the approach speed, VAPP, is equal to 1.23 VS1g.
However, the corresponding TAS increases with the pressure altitude and
temperature.

𝑍𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐴𝑇 ↗ ⇒ ρ ↘ ⇒ 𝑇𝐴𝑆 ↗

Therefore, the landing distance will also increase.

𝑍𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐴𝑇 ↗ ⇒ 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ↗

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 178​ LANDING

 The landing distances calculation at dispatch on a dry runway considers ISA
conditions. The dispatch landing distance does not depend on OAT variations,
however an additional safety margin is applied to account for the influence of
temperature variation.

2.4.2.​ Wind

CS 25.125 Subpart B FAR 25.125 Subpart B

“(f) The landing distance data must include correction factors for not more than
50% of the nominal wind components along the landing path opposite to the
direction of landing, and not less than 150% of the nominal wind components
along the landing path in the direction of landing.

Illustration F8: Headwind ⇒​ Landing distance

Illustration F9: Tailwind ⇒ Landing distance

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 179​ LANDING

2.4.3.​ Runway Slope

An upward slope increases the stopping capability of the aircraft, and therefore,
decreases landing distance.

The landing distances calculation at dispatch on a dry or wet surface only

consider the runway slope when the value of the slope is more than ± 2 %. If not,
it is considered to be zero.

2.4.4.​ Runway Conditions

The definition of runway conditions is the same as for takeoff. When the runway is
contaminated, landing performance is affected by the friction coefficient of the
runway and the precipitation drag due to contaminants.

2.4.5.​ Aircraft Configuration: Flap Setting

Several landing configurations are possible for landing: for example CONF 3 or
CONF FULL.

A higher flap deflection results in an increase in the lift coefficient (CL), and in the
wing surface. With a higher flap deflection, it is therefore possible to reduce
speed so that the aircraft will need a shorter distance to land (VS1G CONF FULL <
VS1G CONF 3).
When wing flap deflection increases, landing distance decreases.
​

2.4.6.​ Aircraft Speeds: Approach

For an Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft the approach speed (VAPP) is equal to 1.23 VS1g.
However, this speed can be increased due to corrections related to wind, A/THR
use and ice accretion. The pilot can also apply a discretionary speed increment
(DVpilot) in case of turbulence.

A higher VAPP results in an increase in the landing distance.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 180​ LANDING

2.5.​ DISPATCH VS. IN-FLIGHT - LANDING DISTANCES PERFORMANCE CHECKS
As seen in the chapter Dispatch Landing Requirements:

RLD ≤ LDA

In addition:

Air OPS CAT.POL.A.235 Landing - wet and contaminated runways​

“The LDTA required by CAT.OP.MPA.303 may, in some cases, and in particular on

wet or contaminated runways, exceed the landing distance considered at the time
of dispatch."

CAT.POL.A.235 states that the FLD computation at descent preparation may

exceed the LDA, even without significant changes in computation assumptions,
when compared to dispatch.
Therefore, particularly for wet and contaminated runways, to anticipate a risk of
diversion, both RLD and FLD should be checked at dispatch:

RLD ≤ LDA
and
FLD ≤ LDA

2.6.​ OVERWEIGHT LANDING REQUIREMENTS

For overweight landing, refer to the chapter Return to Land in the Takeoff section.

3.​GO-AROUND LIMITATIONS
Flight crew may have to stop an approach and perform a go-around.
In this case, minimum climb gradients are defined in certification and operational
regulations.

3.1.​ CERTIFIED GO-AROUND GRADIENTS

In terms of certification, the aircraft manufacturer must demonstrate a minimum
climb capability of the aircraft with one engine inoperative. The gradient is
calculated at a specific altitude, and it does not consider a flight path. The
minimum gradients to be checked are defined in the regulation.

The minimum gradient does not consider obstacle clearance since the
certification requirement is not specific to an airport or runway.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 181​ LANDING

3.1.1.​ Approach Climb

CS 25.121 Subpart B FAR 25.121 Subpart B

“(d) Approach. In a configuration corresponding to the normal

all-engines-operating procedure in which VSR for this configuration does not
exceed 110% of the VSR for the related all-engines-operating landing
configuration:
(1) steady gradient of climb may not be less than 2·1% for two-engined
aeroplanes, 2·4% for three-engined aeroplanes and 2·7% for four-engined
aeroplanes, with –
(i) The critical engine inoperative, the remaining engines at the go-around
power or thrust setting;
(ii) The maximum landing weight;
(iii) A climb speed established in connection with normal landing
procedures, but not more than 1.4 VSR; and
(iv) Landing gear retracted.
(2) The requirements of sub-paragraph (d)(1) of this paragraph must be met:
(i) In non-icing conditions; and
(ii) In icing conditions with the most critical of the Approach Ice accretion(s)
[...]. The climb speed selected for non-icing conditions may be used if
the climb speed for icing conditions, computed in accordance with
sub-paragraph (d)(1)(iii) of this paragraph, does not exceed that for
non-icing conditions by more than the greater of 5.6 km/h (3 knots)
CAS or 3%.”

Illustration F10: Regulatory minimum approach climb gradient requirements

CS/FAR 25.121 defines the missed approach climb capability requirements of an

aircraft, with one engine inoperative. The reason for the “Approach Climb”
wording is that go-around performance is not based on landing configuration.

For example, for landing in configuration Full, the approach climb gradient is
computed in configuration 3.
​

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 182​ LANDING

 3.1.1.1.​ Computation Assumptions
●​ One engine inoperative
●​ TOGA thrust
●​ Landing gear UP
●​ Slats and flaps in approach configuration (CONF 2 or 3 in most cases)
●​ V ≥ 1.23 VS1g
●​ V ≥ VMCL

(the maximum value depends on each aircraft type certification).

3.1.1.2.​ Requirements
The minimum gradients to be demonstrated:

Approach Climb
Gradient (%)

Minimum climb Twin 2.1 %

gradient
one engine out Quad 2.7 %

Illustration F-11: Minimum Approach Climb Gradient Requirement

​
3.1.2.​ Landing Climb

CS 25.119 Subpart B FAR 25.119 Subpart B

“CS/FAR 25.119 Landing climb: all engines operating

In the landing configuration, the steady gradient of climb may not be less than
3·2% [...]; and
(a) In non-icing conditions, with a climb speed of VREF determined in
accordance with CS 25.125(b)(2)(i); and
(b) In icing conditions with the most critical of the “Landing Ice” accretion(s)
[...], and with a climb speed of VREF determined in accordance with CS
25.125(b)(2)(i).”

Illustration F-12: Minimum Landing Climb Gradient Requirement

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 183​ LANDING

 The objective of the landing climb requirement is to ensure aircraft climb
capability in the case of a Missed Approach with all engines operating. The
reason for the “Landing Climb” wording is that go-around performance is based
on landing configuration.

3.1.2.1.​ Computation Assumptions

●​ All engines operative
●​ Thrust available 8 seconds after start of thrust control movement from
minimum flight idle to TOGA thrust
●​ Landing gear DOWN
●​ Slats and flaps in landing configuration (e.g. CONF 3 or FULL)
●​ 1.13 VS1g ≤ V ≤ 1.23 VS1g
●​ V ≥ VMCL.

3.1.2.2.​ Requirements
The minimum landing climb gradient to be demonstrated is 3.2 % for all aircraft
types.

For all Airbus aircraft, the approach climb requirement is more limiting than the
landing climb requirement.

3.2.​ OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Certification standards do not define a regulatory net flight path for obstacle
clearance in the go-around phase. However, airports publish Missed Approach
Procedures that take into account lateral and vertical obstacle clearance margins.

3.2.1.​ Published Gradient for Missed Approach

For a specific approach, a Missed Approach procedure provides lateral and

vertical guidance in the case of a go-around down to minimum decision altitude
(DA) or minimum decision height (DH).

The PANS-OPS Vol II (Doc 8168) provides standards and recommendations to

write Missed Approach Procedures.

Based on PANS-OPS, the Missed Approach procedure design criteria are

outlined as follows:
●​ Established for each instrument approach
●​ Defines a start of procedure (start of climb (SOC) and an end of procedure,
Missed Approach Altitude (MAA).
●​ MAA must be sufficient to permit:
○​ The start of another approach, or
○​ Return to a dedicated holding pattern, or
○​ Continuation of en-route flight.
●​ Ensure acceptable obstacle clearance during the go-around phase
●​ Takes into account ATC and airspace constraints

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 184​ LANDING

For a specific runway, the published procedures may have Missed Approach
gradients and/or Missed Approach altitudes that are different depending on the
approach type, to ensure compliance with obstacle clearance.

The PANS-OPS considers an obstacle protection surface from the Start of Climb
(SOC) to the Missed Approach altitude. If a 2.5 % plan ensures that all obstacles
are cleared, no gradient is published on the chart and the 2.5 % gradient is
applicable.

Illustration F-13: Minimum Published Gradient for Missed Approach

However, a go-around climb gradient of 2.5 % may not be sufficient to satisfy the
obstacle constraints. If the minimum gradient required to clear the obstacle
exceeds 2.5%, the minimum gradient value is published in the charts.

Illustration F-14: Minimum Approach Climb Gradient not Satisfied Due to Obstacle

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 185​ LANDING

 Illustration F-15: Published Missed Approach Gradient Increased to Satisfy Obstacle Constraint

The go-around gradient value is also associated with the decision height (DA/H)
of the procedure. When the decision height of the procedure is increased, it is
possible to define a lower minimum go-around climb gradient, and that still
ensures the obstacle clearance.

Illustration F-16: Decision Height at Threshold Elevation

Illustration F-17: Decision height increased to meet the minimum missed approach gradient

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 186​ LANDING

Therefore, the published go-around gradient defines an obstacle protection
surface that ensures obstacle clearance.

Illustration F-18: Obstacle Protection Surface

During the go around procedure, the flight path from the Start of Climb to the
Missed Approach Altitude must be above the obstacle protection surface that
ensures obstacle clearance. The obstacle protection surface defines a minimum
average gradient.

Illustration F-19: Flight path from Start of Climb to Missed Approach Altitude

The average go-around gradient must be checked from the SOC. However, the
SOC is a PANS OPS procedure design parameter and is not published on the
approach chart.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 187​ LANDING

 Illustration F-20: Published Descent Path (SOC is not published)

Therefore, one option to demonstrate published gradient compliance is to

consider the gradient from the point when the aircraft has a positive climb
gradient up to the Missed Approach Altitude. This option is more conservative
than if the gradient from the SOC is considered.

Illustration F-21: Flight Path from Start of Climb to Missed Approach Altitude

The PANS-OPS provides recommendations to design Missed Approach

procedures that consider normal operations (all engine operative).

However, the regulation requires that compliance with a go-around procedure

constraint must be checked one engine inoperative.

CAT.POL.A.200 General
Regulation (EU) No 965/2012

“(a) The approved performance data in the AFM shall be supplemented as

necessary with other data if the approved performance data in the AFM is
insufficient in respect of items such as:
(1) accounting for reasonably expected adverse operating conditions such as
take-off and landing on contaminated runways; and
(2) consideration of engine failure in all flight phases.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 188​ LANDING

 AMC2 CAT.POL.A.225
Landing – destination and alternate aerodromes
ED Decision 2014/015/R

“MISSED APPROACH
(a) For instrument approaches with a missed approach climb gradient greater
than 2.5 %, the operator should verify that the expected landing mass of the
aeroplane allows for a missed approach with a climb gradient equal to or greater
than the applicable missed approach gradient in the OEI missed approach
configuration and at the associated speed.
(b) For instrument approaches with DH below 200 ft, the operator should verify
that the expected landing mass of the aeroplane allows a missed approach
gradient of climb, with the critical engine failed and with the speed and
configuration used for a missed approach of at least 2.5 %, or the published
gradient, whichever is greater.”

The Maximum Landing Weight, limited by go-around performance, must satisfy

the CS 25.121 requirements (defined in the chapter Approach Climb), CS 25.119
(defined in the chapter Landing Climb), and also CAT.POL.A.200 and AMC2
CAT.POL.A.225.

Therefore, operators need to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly a go-around with
one engine inoperative.

Airbus position is that in order to ensure obstacle clearance in case of Missed

Approach, the aircraft flight path must remain above the procedure protection
surface, with one engine inoperative.

As part of the Operational Performance data, Airbus provides computation tools

for the Operator to compute the average climb gradient for a Missed Approach
with one engine inoperative. In some cases, this average gradient may penalize
the Maximum Landing Weight.

The go-around speed (VGA) can be optimized to improve the climb gradient in the
go-around at a fixed weight, or to increase the missed approach limited weight at
a fixed gradient. The optimization of the VGA consists of an increase in speed, in
the following the range:

1.23 VS1g ≤ VGA ≤ 1.41 VS1g

The VGA optimization requires the introduction of an acceleration segment before

climb in the go-around (from the VAPP to the VGA) in the Missed Approach
procedure. Also, it must consider the impact on obstacle clearance in the Missed
Approach path, due to the acceleration of the aircraft.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 189​ LANDING

 Illustration F-22: Go around speed optimization

Therefore, the go-around speed optimization must only be used if an obstacle

check is performed.

The go-around performance can also be increased by increasing the approach

speed. However, this is not recommended because a higher VAPP results in
longer landing distance.

If it is not possible to comply with the minimum published gradient, the regulation
permits the application of alternative means of compliance.

3.2.2.​ Alternative Means of Compliance

GM1 CAT.POL.A.225
Landing – destination and alternate aerodromes
ED Decision 2014/015/R

“MISSED APPROACH GRADIENT

(a) Where an aeroplane cannot achieve the missed approach gradient specified
in AMC2 CAT.POL.A.225, when operating at or near maximum certificated
landing mass and in engine-out conditions, the operator has the opportunity to
propose an alternative means of compliance to the competent authority
demonstrating that a missed approach can be executed safely taking into account
appropriate mitigating measures.
(b) The proposal for an alternative means of compliance may involve the
following:
(1) considerations to mass, altitude and temperature limitations and wind for
the missed approach;
(2) a proposal to increase the DA/H or MDA/H; and
(3) a contingency procedure ensuring a safe route and avoiding obstacles.”

FAA - AC 120-91A

“20.b.3.h: Operators may make obstacle clearance assumptions similar to those

applied to corresponding takeoff flight paths in the determination of net vertical
flightpath clearance or lateral track obstacle clearance.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 190​ LANDING

 The Alternative Means of Compliance provides the Operator with a number of
options to ensure compliance with the Missed Approach procedure. One option is
to retain the published Missed Approach procedure, however, the Operator must
check obstacle clearance for each aircraft type in their fleet. The Missed
Approach procedure is designed to ensure obstacle clearance for various types of
aircraft, and as a result it may be conservative for some aircraft. To validate the
obstacle clearance, the Operator can use the takeoff obstacle requirements to
ensure sufficient lateral and vertical obstacles margins.

Another option for the Operator is to develop their own contingency procedure for
a Missed Approach with One Engine Inoperative. It is possible to design an
entirely new procedure that considers a new flight path, or for the Operator to use
their own Takeoff procedure with One Engine Inoperative. For both cases, the
Operator must ensure appropriate obstacle clearance in the go-around
configuration.

The Operator must submit the procedure to the competent authority, in order to
obtain the approval of the Alternative Means of Compliance.

3.3.​ FACTORS OF INFLUENCE

3.3.1.​ Pressure Altitude

TOGA thrust, used for go-around, decreases when pressure altitude increases.

Therefore, in the case of a go-around, a decrease in engine thrust results in a

decrease in the air climb gradients.

3.3.2.​ Temperature

Engine thrust decreases when the temperature exceeds the reference

temperature. Therefore, in case of a go-around, the air climb gradients will
decrease.

3.3.3.​ Aircraft Configuration

3.3.3.1.​ Engine Air bleed

Engine air bleed, for de-icing or air conditioning, results in a decrease in engine
thrust.
As a result, air climb gradients for the go-around will decrease.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 191​ LANDING

 3.3.3.2.​ Flap setting
When flap deflection increases, drag increases, and therefore air climb
performance decreases.

For landing at high elevation airports, a lower landing flap may be preferable to
increase the go-around performance, if the landing distance is not limiting.

3.3.3.3.​ Aircraft Speed: Go-Around

When go-around speed (VGA) increases, it increases the lift-drag ratio, and
therefore has a positive effect on the climb performance of the aircraft.

Therefore, an increase in the go-around (VGA) speed results in an increase in the

air climb gradients in the event of a go-around.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 192​ LANDING

G.​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
1.​EASA – FUEL/ ENERGY PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
1.1.​ INTRODUCTION
The minimum fuel quantity required for the planned route must be calculated for
each flight. Currently, Airbus aircraft use fuel as energy, but the regulation
anticipates the use of future sources of energy.

Operational documentation must include procedures that permit the flight crew to
manage fuel. Procedures must be provided for normal operations and unplanned
situations that can occur in flight.

These two features are part of the EASA Fuel Scheme Rules. Since October
2022, three different schemes for fuel planning and in flight fuel management are
proposed to the operators:

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.180(a)

“Each operator shall establish, implement, and maintain a fuel/energy scheme

that is either:

(i) a basic fuel/energy scheme, which shall form the basis for a basic
fuel/energy scheme with variations and an individual fuel/energy
scheme; the basic fuel/energy scheme derives from a large-scale
analysis of safety and operational data from previous performance and
experience of the industry, applying scientific principles; the basic
fuel/energy scheme shall ensure, in this order, a safe, effective, and
efficient operation of the aircraft; or

(ii) a basic fuel/energy scheme with variations, which is a basic

fuel/energy scheme where the analysis referred to in point (i) is used to
establish a variation to the basic fuel/energy scheme that ensures, in
this order, a safe, effective, and efficient operation of the aircraft; or

(iii) an individual fuel/energy scheme, which derives from a comparative

analysis of the operator’s safety and operational data, applying
scientific principles; the analysis is used to establish a fuel/energy
scheme with a higher or equivalent level of safety to that of the basic
fuel/energy scheme that ensures, in this order, a safe, effective, and
efficient operation of the aircraft.“

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 193​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 An Operator can select from three different fuel schemes options as follows:
●​ The basic fuel scheme (e.g. 5 % contingency fuel)
●​ The basic fuel scheme with variations (e.g 3 % contingency fuel or a
statistical contingency fuel and statistical taxi fuel)
●​ The individual fuel scheme with fuel reduction based on specific criteria
and on a statistical database of more than two years.

Each fuel/energy scheme has three policies:

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.180(b)

“All fuel/energy schemes shall comprise:

(1) a fuel/energy planning and in-flight re-planning policy;
(2) an aerodrome selection policy; and
(3) an in-flight fuel/energy management policy.”

The three fuel policies are connected. For example, the selection of alternate
airports has an impact on the fuel reserves. In addition, inaccuracies on planned
fuel quantities will have an impact on fuel management during the flight.

These three different fuel schemes were established to make fuel planning and
fuel management more flexible for operators, and to enable them, in some cases,
to carry less fuel, based on:
●​ The appropriate selection of alternate airport
●​ The appropriate in-flight fuel management procedures
●​ Historical and statistical data.

Since fuel schemes are the responsibility of the Operator and are specific to each
airline's operation, no specific guidelines for individual fuel schemes are provided
in this document.

1.1.​POLICY FOR FUEL/ENERGY PLANNING AND IN-FLIGHT RE-PLANNING

1.1.1.​Regulatory Fuel/Energy Quantities (Basic and Variations)

1.1.1.1.​ Introduction

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)

Irrespective of the fuel scheme chosen by the Operator, the minimum fuel quantity
(Q) calculated for fuel/energy planning is defined as:

𝑄 = 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑇𝐹 + 𝐶𝐹 + 𝐴𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐴𝑑𝑑 + 𝑋𝐹 + 𝐷𝐹

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 194​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Where

●​ TF = Trip Fuel
●​ CF = Contingency Fuel
●​ AF = Alternate Fuel
●​ FR = Final Reserve Fuel
●​ Add = Additional Fuel
●​ XF = Extra Fuel
●​ DF = Discretionary Fuel

Illustration G-1 identifies the fuel quantities for the different flight phases of a
standard flight plan.

Illustration G-1: Fuel quantities for different phases of flight of a Standard Flight Plan

The regulation defines the conditions that must be considered for each flight in
order to correctly adjust the fuel quantities:

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(b)

“(1) aircraft fuel/energy consumption data;

(2) anticipated masses;
(3) anticipated meteorological conditions;
(4) the effects of deferred maintenance items and/or of configuration deviations;
(5) the expected departure and arrival routing and runways; and
(6) anticipated delays”.

Suppliers of flight planning software use the fuel consumption data provided by
the manufacturer for each aircraft model. In addition, fuel consumption data that
results from fuel consumption monitoring should be used when available:

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 195​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 Air OPS Subpart B​
GM1 CAT.OP.MPA.181(b) ​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“PLANNING OF FLIGHTS
(b) A flight should be planned by using the most accurate information available. If
aircraft-specific data that is derived from a fuel consumption monitoring system is
available, this data is used in preference to data that is provided by the aircraft
manufacturer. Data that is provided by the aircraft manufacturer should be used
only in specific cases, e.g. when introducing a new aircraft type into service.”
The operators can find more information on Aircraft Performance Monitoring in the
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance Monitoring brochure.

In addition, the Airbus MMEL and MCDL provide the effects on the fuel
consumption of deferred maintenance items and configuration deviations. MMEL
and MCDL items can result in an increase in fuel consumption. The effects are
taken into account if the MMEL/MCDL items and the associated fuel penalties are
defined in the flight planning software, or by manual adjustment of the fuel
quantity by the flight dispatcher.

The following chapter outlines the different fuel quantities defined by

CAT.OP.MPA.181 (c), and their associated requirements as part of a Basic Fuel
Scheme, and of a Basic Fuel Scheme with variations, when applicable.

1.1.1.2.​ Taxi Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(1)

Quantity “that shall not be less than the amount expected to be used prior to
take-off.”

1.1.1.2.1.​ Basic Fuel Scheme

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(a)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“The operator should take into account the local conditions at the departure
aerodrome and the APU consumption”.

The Operator can estimate the taxi time before takeoff, in terms of operational
constraints (e.g. traffic or weather conditions).
In the “Minimum Fuel Requirements” section of the Aircraft Performance Data
(APD) manual, Airbus provides the average fuel consumption per minute of the
aircraft during taxi. It also includes the APU consumption per hour.
The Operator is, then, able to calculate the taxi fuel quantity with this value and
taxi time.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 196​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 1.1.1.2.2.​ Basic Fuel Scheme with Variations

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC5.CAT.OP.MPA.181​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

“To calculate taxi fuel for a basic fuel scheme with variations, the operator may
use statistical taxi fuel”.

The Operator can use historical data on taxi fuel available in their system (e.g.
ACARS messages), and define a taxi fuel quantity that is adapted to the
departure airport.

1.1.1.3.​ Trip Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(2)

Quantity “that shall be the amount of fuel/energy that is required to enable the
aeroplane to fly from take-off, or from the point of in-flight re-planning, to landing
at the destination aerodrome.”

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1 CAT.OP.MPA.181(b)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“The operator should for trip fuel, include:

●​ Fuel for take-off and climb from the aerodrome elevation to the initial
cruising level/altitude, taking into account the expected departure routing
●​ Fuel from the top of climb to the top of descent, including any step
climb/descent
●​ Fuel from the top of descent to the point where the approach procedure is
initiated, taking into account the expected arrival routing
●​ Fuel for making an approach and landing at the destination aerodrome.”

The supplier of the flight planning software may be able to confirm that the
calculated trip fuel is compliant with the EASA rules, particularly that the expected
SID and STAR are considered.
It may also display the variation in fuel consumption depending on the SID or the
STAR that the aircraft flies, in the case of any change in the departure or arrival
routes.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 197​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 1.1.1.4.​ Contingency Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(3)

Quantity “that shall be the amount of fuel/energy required to compensate for

unforeseen factors”.

1.1.1.4.1.​ Basic Fuel Scheme

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“Contingency fuel is the greatest of two quantities:

●​ 5 % of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight re-planning, 5 % of
the trip fuel for the remainder of the flight.
●​ An amount to fly for 5 minutes at holding speed at 1 500 ft (450 m) above
the destination aerodrome in standard conditions.”

Flight planning software may be able to determine for each flight the highest
quantity in order to comply with the basic fuel/energy scheme for contingency
fuel/energy.
In order to provide a minimum reference value for contingency fuel, the Operator
can calculate, for a given aircraft type, the fixed value of fuel quantity that
corresponds to 5 minutes of flight, in the following conditions:
●​ At holding speed
●​ At 1 500 ft
●​ At MLW
●​ In standard conditions.

The fuel quantity corresponding to the above conditions can be determined using
engineering performance software.
1.1.1.4.2.​ Basic Fuel Scheme with Variations

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC6.CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

“The contingency fuel should be the fuel described in points (1) or (2), whichever
is higher:
(1) An amount of fuel that should be either:
●​ Not less than 3 % of the planned trip fuel, or in the event of in-flight
re-planning, 3 % of the trip fuel for the remainder of the flight provided that
a fuel en route alternate (fuel ERA) aerodrome is available
●​ An amount of fuel sufficient for 20-minute flying time based upon the
planned trip fuel consumption

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 198​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 ●​ An amount of fuel based on a statistical fuel method that ensures an
appropriate statistical coverage of the deviation from the planned to the
actual trip fuel; prior to implementing a statistical fuel method, a continuous
2-year operation is required during which statistical contingency fuel (SCF)
data is recorded
(2) an amount of fuel to fly for 5 minutes at holding speed at 1 500 ft (450 m)
above the destination aerodrome in standard conditions.”

GM2.CAT.OP.MPA.181 provides an example of statistical contingency fuel.

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC7.CAT.OP.MPA.181​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

AMC7 CAT.OP.MPA.181 provides the location criteria for fuel en route alternate
(ERA) in order to reduce the contingency fuel from 5% to 3%:

“The fuel en route alternate (fuel ERA) aerodrome should be located within a
circle with a radius equal to 20 % of the total flight plan distance; the centre of this
circle lies on the planned route at a distance from the destination aerodrome
equal to 25 % of the total flight plan distance, or at least 20 % of the total flight
plan distance plus 50 NM, whichever is greater. All distances should be calculated
in still-air conditions. The fuel ERA aerodrome should be nominated in the
operational flight plan.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 199​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 Illustration G-2 Contingency Fuel

If the Operator plans to apply the contingency fuel variation, they must check if
their flight planning provider can handle it. Flight planning providers may offer for
example:
1.​ An ERA functionality (i.e. automatic ERA airport suggestion)
2.​ A comparison between the “3 % of the planned trip fuel” and the
“20-minute flying time”.

In addition, the ERA airport must be available and the MLW for this airport must
be determined at the time of dispatch as required by GM1 CAT.POL.A.330(a).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 200​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 1.1.1.5.​ Destination Alternate Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(4)

“When a flight is operated with at least one destination alternate aerodrome, it

shall be the amount of fuel/energy required to fly from the destination aerodrome
to the destination alternate aerodrome; or
when a flight is operated with no destination alternate aerodrome, it shall be the
amount of fuel/energy required to hold at the destination aerodrome, while
enabling the aeroplane to perform a safe landing, and to allow for deviations from
the planned operation; as a minimum, this amount shall be 15-minute fuel/energy
at holding speed at 1 500ft (450 m) above the aerodrome elevation in standard
conditions, calculated according to the estimated aeroplane mass on arrival at the
destination aerodrome.”
1.1.1.5.1.​ Basic Fuel Scheme

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(d)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“(1) When the aircraft is operated with one destination alternate aerodrome:

●​ Fuel for a missed approach from the applicable DA/H or MDA/H at the
destination aerodrome to the missed-approach altitude, taking into account
the complete missed-approach procedure
●​ Fuel for climb from the missed-approach altitude to the cruising
level/altitude, taking into account the expected departure routing
●​ Fuel for cruising from the top of climb to the top of descent, taking into
account the expected routing
●​ Fuel for descent from the top of descent to the point where the approach is
initiated, taking into account the expected arrival routing
●​ Fuel for making an approach and landing at the destination alternate
aerodrome

(2) When the aircraft is operated with two destination alternate aerodromes, the
amount of fuel that is calculated in accordance with point (1), based on the
destination alternate aerodrome that requires the greater amount of fuel;”

Flight planning software, depending on the provider, can check that, in the case of
one or two destination alternate aerodromes, the alternate fuel is compliant with
the EASA regulations, particularly the consideration of the complete procedure for
missed approach at the destination airport.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 201​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 1.1.1.5.2.​ Basic Fuel Scheme with Variations

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(d)

Basic Fuel Scheme with variations - No destination Alternate aerodrome

“The operator may operate with no destination alternate aerodrome when the
destination aerodrome is an isolated aerodrome or when the following two
conditions are met:

●​ The duration of the planned flight from take-off to landing does not exceed
6 hours or, in the event of in-flight re-planning, in accordance with point
CAT.OP.MPA.181(d), the remaining flying time to destination does not
exceed 4 hours; and
●​ Two separate runways are usable at the destination aerodrome and the
appropriate weather reports and/or weather forecasts indicate that for the
period from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the expected time of arrival, the
ceiling is at least 2 000 ft (600 m) or the circling height 500 ft (150 m),
whichever is greater, and ground visibility is at least 5 km.

In the case of operations without alternate airports, the Operator may calculate,
for a given aircraft type, the fixed value of fuel quantity that corresponds to 15
minutes of flight in the following conditions:
●​ At holding speed
●​ At 1 500 ft
●​ At MLW
●​ In standard conditions.

The fuel quantity corresponding to the above conditions can be computed using
engineering performance software.

1.1.1.6.​ Final Reserve Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(5)

The final reserve fuel quantity is “the amount of fuel/energy that is calculated at
holding speed at 1 500ft (450 m) above the aerodrome elevation in standard
conditions according to the aeroplane estimated mass on arrival at the destination
alternate aerodrome, or destination aerodrome when no destination alternate
aerodrome is required, and shall not be less than the fuel/energy to fly for 30
minutes”.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 202​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
In order to provide a minimum reference value for the fuel final reserve, the
Operator may calculate, for a given aircraft, the fixed value of fuel quantity that
corresponds to 30 minutes of flight in the following conditions:
●​ At holding speed
●​ At 1 500 ft
●​ At MLW
●​ In standard conditions.

The fuel quantity corresponding to the above conditions can be computed using
engineering performance software.

1.1.1.7.​ Additional Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

CAT.OP.MPA.181(c)(6)

The additional fuel quantity is “the amount of fuel/energy to enable the aeroplane
to land at a fuel/energy en route alternate aerodrome in the event of an aircraft
failure that significantly increases the fuel/energy consumption at the most critical
point along the route. This additional fuel/energy is required only if the minimum
amount of fuel/energy that is calculated according to points (c)(2) to (c)(5) is not
sufficient for such an event.”

If it is determined that the fuel required for aircraft failure scenarios exceeds the
fuel on board at the most critical point (based on the applicable operational
requirements), additional fuel should be included. The additional fuel quantity is
that necessary to safely manage the failure scenarios.

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(f)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

The additional fuel quantity is the “Amount of fuel that allows the aeroplane to
proceed, in the event of an engine failure or loss of pressurization, from the most
critical point along the route to a fuel en route alternate (fuel ERA) aerodrome in
the relevant aircraft configuration, hold there for 15 minutes at 1 500 ft (450 m)
above the aerodrome elevation in standard conditions, make an approach, and
land.”

This additional fuel/energy is required only if the minimum amount of fuel/energy

that is calculated according to chapter Trip Fuel/Energy to Final Reserve
Fuel/Energy is not sufficient for such an event.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 203​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
The flight planning software must include functionalities to determine the
following:
●​ Identify the most critical point on the route
●​ The fuel required, in the case of engine failure or loss of pressurization,
between the critical point and the ERA airport.

Flight planning softwares should calculate the fuel consumption for these
scenarios at a specific speed and flight level, in accordance with the settings
defined by the administrator of the flight planning software.

Airbus recommends the following strategies for speed and Flight Level (FL), in
case of diversion:
Diversion Speed:
●​ For an engine failure scenario: standard, obstacle or fixed speed strategy
(refer to the FCTM).
●​ For a loss of pressurization scenario: VMO/MMO above 10 000 ft, and LRC
speed at or below 10 000 ft.
Diversion FL:
●​ For an engine failure scenario: the flight planning software may, depending
on the provider, be able to calculate the OEI optimum FL for diversion at
specific aircraft weights and specific external conditions.
●​ For a loss of pressurization scenario: FL100.

Note: If the descent is not managed by the flight planning software, and if
possible, cruise may be considered at diversion FL, starting from the critical
point. This proposal is more conservative in terms of fuel planning than a descent
from the critical point followed by cruise at diversion FL.

Additional Requirements for ETOPS Flights:

To comply with AMC1 CAT.OP.MPA.181 (f) and AMC 20-6 APPENDIX 4 4.c, three
critical scenarios must be considered:
●​ A rapid decompression at the most critical point followed by descent to
10 000 ft or MSA.
●​ A rapid decompression and a simultaneous engine failure at the most
critical point followed by descent to 10 000 ft or MSA.
●​ An engine failure at the most critical point, followed by descent to the
cruise altitude with One Engine Inoperative (OEI).

The scenario that requires the largest fuel/energy quantity must be selected.

As for non-ETOPS flights, flight planning softwares may, depending on the

provider, be able to find the most critical point on the route and to calculate the
fuel required to satisfy these three scenarios.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 204​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
The Getting to Grips with ETOPS vol I & II provide guidelines on the different
ETOPS scenarios, for the correct setup of the flight planning software.

1.1.1.8.​ Extra Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(g)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

Quantity of fuel/energy that “include anticipated delays or specific operational

constraints that can be predicted.”

1.1.1.9.​ Discretionary Fuel/Energy

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1.CAT.OP.MPA.181(h)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“Quantity of fuel/energy at the sole discretion of the commander.”

1.1.2.​Procedures with an Impact on Fuel Quantities

1.1.2.1.​ Procedure for Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF)

The RCF procedure is a variation proposed to the Operator. It has an impact on

the contingency fuel, because it permits to carry less contingency fuel than the
quantity required by the Basic Fuel Scheme.

The Operator selects a point (B), referred to as the decision point, along the
planned route (Illustration G-3). At this point, there are two possibilities:
●​ To reach a suitable diversion airport, compliant with the Maximum Landing
Weight (MLW) limitations.
●​ To continue the flight to the destination airport C, when the remaining fuel
is sufficient.

Illustration G-3: Reduced Contingency Fuel - Decision Point

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 205​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 Air OPS Subpart B​
AMC6.CAT.OP.MPA.181(d)​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

“If the operator’s fuel policy includes pre-flight planning to a destination 1

aerodrome (commercial destination with an RCF procedure using a decision point
along the route) and a destination 2 aerodrome (optional refueling destination), the
amount in the pre-flight calculation of the required usable fuel should be greater
than the sum in points (1) or (2):

(1)​The sum of (Q1):

●​ Taxi fuel;
●​ Trip fuel to the destination 1 aerodrome via the decision point;
●​ Contingency fuel equal to not less than 5 % of the fuel that is estimated to
be consumed from the decision point to the destination 1 aerodrome;
●​ Destination 1 alternate fuel or no alternate fuel if the remaining flying time
from the decision point to destination 1 aerodrome is less than 6 hours and
destination 1 fulfill the other criteria for operations with no alternate airport;
●​ FRF;
●​ Additional fuel;
●​ Extra fuel if there are anticipated delays or specific operational constraints;
●​ Discretionary fuel, if required by the commander.

(2)​The sum of (Q2):

●​ Taxi fuel;
●​ Trip fuel to the destination 2 aerodrome via the decision point;
●​ contingency fuel equal to not less than the amount that is calculated in
accordance with point (c) of this AMC, from the departure aerodrome to the
destination 2 aerodrome;
●​ Alternate fuel if a destination 2 alternate aerodrome is required
●​ FRF;
●​ Additional fuel;
●​ Extra fuel if there are anticipated delays or specific operational constraints;
●​ Discretionary fuel, if required by the commander;”

The fuel scenarios are summarized as follows:

F1 = taxiA + tripAC + 5% tripBC + alternateCD + holdingD + additional + extra + discretionary

F2 = taxiA + tripAE + fuel1.2.1.4.2 + alternate + holdingE + additional + extra + discretionary

The destination 2 airport is usually selected close to the decision point (B) and Q1
is equal to the highest fuel quantity. As a result, the contingency fuel is only a
percentage of the trip fuel between the decision point (B) and the destination
airport C and not a percentage of the fuel required for the entire trip, as it is the
case for a standard flight.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 206​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Flight planning software may, depending on the provider, be able to manage the
application of the RCF procedure.

To be allowed by the authority to apply RCF procedure, the Operator must

demonstrate to the authority that their operations are based on a reliable APM
process.

1.1.2.2.​ Isolated Airport

The use of an isolated destination airport is a variation proposed to the Operator.
This variation has an impact on different fuel reserves and enables a reduction of
the amount of fuel on board when the destination alternate airport is far from the
destination airport.

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC7 CAT.OP.MPA.182

“(a) The operator should use a destination aerodrome as an isolated aerodrome if

the alternate fuel plus the Final Reserve Fuel (FRF) that is required to reach the
nearest adequate destination alternate aerodrome is more than the amount of fuel
required to fly for 2 hours with normal cruise consumption above the destination
aerodrome, including the FRF.

(b) If the operator’s fuel planning policy includes an isolated aerodrome, a Point of
No Return (PNR) should be determined by a computerized flight-planning system
and specified in the operational flight plan. The required usable fuel for pre-flight
calculation should be as indicated in points (b)(1) or (b)(2), whichever is greater:

(1) the sum of (Q1):

●​ Taxi fuel;
●​ Trip fuel from the departure aerodrome to the isolated aerodrome via the
PNR;
●​ Contingency fuel that is calculated in accordance with the operator’s
current fuel scheme
●​ Additional fuel, if required, but not less than the fuel to fly for 2 hours with
normal cruise consumption above the destination aerodrome, including the
FRF;
●​ Extra fuel if there are anticipated delays or specific operational constraints;
●​ Discretionary fuel, if required by the commander.

(2) The sum of (Q2):

●​ Taxi fuel;
●​ Trip fuel from the departure aerodrome to the fuel ERA PNR aerodrome via
the PNR;
●​ Contingency fuel that is calculated in accordance with the operator’s
current fuel scheme;

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 207​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 ●​ Additional fuel, if required, but not less than the fuel to fly for 30 minutes at
holding speed at 1 500 ft (450 m) above the fuel ERA aerodrome elevation
in standard conditions, which should not be less than the FRF;
●​ Extra fuel if there are anticipated delays or specific operational constraints;
●​ Discretionary fuel, if required by the commander.”

The fuel ERA PNR aerodrome is usually selected close to the PNR, and the Q1 is
the highest fuel quantity. As a result, with the use of a PNR, the fuel quantity
required for a normal cruise of 2 hours replaces the alternate and final reserve
fuel quantities.

A conservative value may be defined for the fuel quantity, based on the normal
consumption for a cruise of 2 hours above the destination aerodrome. This value
can be determined with engineering performance software.

1.2.​FUEL MANAGEMENT
1.2.1.​Introduction

The CAT.OP.MPA.185 provides information on in-flight fuel management and fuel

reserves.

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC1 CAT.OP.MPA.185(b)​ Basic Fuel Scheme

“The flight should be conducted to ensure that the usable fuel expected to remain
upon landing at the destination aerodrome is not less than:
●​ The required alternate fuel plus the Final Reserve Fuel (FRF); or
●​ the FRF if no alternate aerodrome is required.”

The CAT.OP.MPA.185 defines the announcements for “Minimum Fuel” and

“Mayday Fuel” that the flight crew must use to advise Air Traffic Control when the
above requirements cannot be met.

1.2.2.​Procedure for Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF)

Air OPS Subpart B​
AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.185(a)​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

“If the RCF procedure is used on a flight to proceed to destination 1 aerodrome,

the commander should ensure that the remaining usable fuel at the decision point
is at least the total of the following:
●​ Trip fuel from the decision point to destination 1 aerodrome
●​ Contingency fuel that is equal to 5 % of the trip fuel from the decision point
to destination 1 aerodrome
●​ Additional fuel, if required
●​ FRF.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 208​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 Illustration G-4: Reduced Contingency Fuel : Fuel Management

Minimum Remaining Usable Fuel = tripBC + 5% tripBC + additional + FRF

If at the decision point the remaining usable fuel is below this minimum amount,
the flight crew must proceed to the refueling aerodrome (E).

1.2.3.​Isolated Aerodrome Procedure

Air OPS Subpart B​

AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.185(b)​ Basic Fuel Scheme with variations

“On a flight to an isolated aerodrome, the commander should ensure that the
remaining usable fuel at the actual PNR is at least the total of the following:
●​ Trip fuel from the PNR to the destination isolated aerodrome
●​ Contingency fuel from the PNR to the destination isolated aerodrome
●​ The additional fuel required for isolated aerodromes, as described in AMC7
CAT.OP.MPA.182.”

If the remaining usable fuel at the actual PNR is below this amount, the flight crew
must proceed to the fuel ERA PNR aerodrome referred to in the chapter Isolated
Airport.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 209​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
2.​FAA – FUEL/ENERGY PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
2.1.​DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPERATIONS
The FAA does not establish different fuel schemes, but instead different types of
operations that have an impact on the minimum quantity of required fuel.

Three cases must be considered:

●​ Domestic Operations

○​ Between any points in the 48 contiguous States of the USA or the

District of Columbia, or
○​ Operations only in the 48 contiguous States of the USA or the District of
Columbia, or
○​ Operations in any State, territory, or possession of the USA, or
○​ When specifically authorized by the Administrator, operations between
any point in the 48 contiguous States of the USA or the District of
Columbia and any specifically authorized point outside the 48
contiguous States of the USA or the District of Columbia.

●​ Flag Operations

○​ Between any point in the State of Alaska or the State of Hawaii or any
territory or possession of the USA and any point outside the State of
Alaska or the State of Hawaii or any territory or possession of the USA,
respectively, or
○​ Between any point in the 48 contiguous States of the USA or the
District of Columbia and any point outside the 48 contiguous States of
the USA and the District of Columbia, or
○​ Between any point outside the USA and another point outside the USA.

●​ Supplemental Operations

○​ Operations for which the departure time, the departure location, and the
arrival location are specifically negotiated with the customer or with the
customer's representative.
○​ Operations with only cargo.

2.2.​FUEL POLICY
The required fuel quantity for a safe trip along the planned route is calculated for
each flight. Each Operator has their own fuel policy. This policy is based on the
loading of the minimum fuel required by the regulation (FAR 121).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 210​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
2.2.1.​Minimum Fuel Quantity

2.2.1.1.​ Minimum Fuel Quantity for Domestic Operations

For domestic operations, the minimum fuel quantity is:

FAR 121.639 Subpart U

“No person may dispatch or take off an airplane unless it has enough fuel--
(a) To fly to the airport to which it is dispatched
(b) Thereafter, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport (where
required) for the airport to which dispatched; and
(c) Thereafter, to fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption.”

The minimum fuel quantity (Q) calculated for domestic operations is defined as:

𝑄 = 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑇𝐹 + 𝐴𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅

Where:
●​ TF = Trip Fuel
●​ AF = Alternate Fuel
●​ FR = Final Reserve fuel

Illustration G-5 indicates the fuel quantities for the different flight phases of a
standard flight plan.

Illustration G-5: Fuel Quantities for Domestic Operation

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 211​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 2.2.1.2.​ Minimum Fuel for Flag and Supplemental Operations
For flag and supplemental operations, the minimum fuel quantity is defined as:

FAR 121.645 Subpart U

“(b) Any certificate holder conducting flag or supplemental operations, […]

considering wind and other weather conditions expected, must have enough fuel–
​
(1) To fly to and land at the airport to which it is released;
(2) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time required to fly
from the airport of departure to, and land at, the airport to which it was
released;​
(3) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in
the flight release, if an alternate is required; and
(4) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 feet above the
alternate airport (or the destination airport if no alternate is required) under
standard temperature conditions.”

The minimum fuel quantity (Q) calculated for flag and supplemental operations is
defined as:

𝑄 = 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑇𝐹 + 𝐴𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐴𝑑𝑑

Where:
●​ TF = Trip Fuel
●​ CF = Contingency Fuel
●​ AF = Alternate Fuel
●​ FR = Final Reserve fuel
●​ Add = Additional fuel

Illustration G-6 indicates the fuel quantities for the different flight phases of a
standard flight plan.

The following operating conditions should be considered for each flight:

●​ Realistic data for aircraft fuel consumption

●​ Anticipated weight
●​ Expected weather conditions
●​ Procedures and restrictions related to air traffic services.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 212​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 Illustration G-6: Fuel Quantities for Flag and Supplemental Operations

2.2.2.​Taxi Fuel

The required taxi fuel is the same for all types of operations. In order to determine
this quantity, the local conditions at departure and the APU consumption should
be considered. Therefore this quantity is the same as per the EASA Basic Fuel
Scheme, refer to chapter Taxi Fuel/Energy.

2.2.3.​Trip Fuel

The required trip fuel is the same for all types of operations. The required fuel
quantity from brake release at the departure airport to landing at the destination
airport. This quantity takes into account the fuel required for the following:

●​ Takeoff
●​ Climb to cruise level
●​ Flight from the end of climb to the beginning of descent
●​ Flight from the beginning of descent to the beginning of approach
●​ Approach
●​ Landing at the destination airport
●​ Anticipated traffic delays.

Latest forecast weather conditions must also be considered.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 213​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 2.2.4.​Contingency Fuel

Contingency fuel is only required for flag and supplemental operations. For these
operations, the contingency fuel is the amount of fuel that is necessary to fly for
10 % of the total required time from brake release at the departure airport to
landing at the destination airport.

2.2.5.​Alternate Fuel

The alternate fuel required is the same for all types of operations. The alternate
fuel is the amount of fuel that is necessary to fly to the most distant alternate
airport, and takes into account:
●​ Missed approach at the destination airport
●​ Climb from the missed approach altitude to the cruise level
●​ Flight from the end of climb to the beginning of descent
●​ Flight from the beginning of descent to the beginning of approach
●​ Approach
●​ Landing at the alternate airport.

When two alternate airports are required (see below), the alternate fuel should be
sufficient to proceed to the alternate airport that requires the greater fuel quantity.

2.2.5.1.​ Two Alternate Airports Required

Two alternate airports are required, when:

FAR 121.619 Subpart U

“When the weather conditions forecast for the destination and first alternate
airport are marginal at least one additional alternate must be designated.”

2.2.5.2.​ Destination Alternate Airport Not required

A destination alternate airport is not required, if the following conditions are satisfied:

2.2.5.2.1.​ Domestic Operations

FAR 121.619 Subpart U

“(a) […] However, no alternate airport is required if for at least 1 hour before and
1 hour after the estimated time of arrival at the destination airport the
appropriate weather reports or forecasts, or any combination of them, indicate--​
​ (1) The ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation; and​
​ (2) Visibility will be at least 3 miles.”

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 214​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
 2.2.5.2.2.​ Flag Operations

FAR 121.621 Subpart U

“(1) The flight is scheduled for not more than 6 hours and, for at least 1 hour
before and 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival at the destination airport,
the appropriate weather reports or forecasts, or any combination of them, indicate
the ceiling will be:
(i) At least 1,500 feet above the lowest circling MDA, if a circling approach is
required and authorized for that airport; or
(ii) At least 1,500 feet above the lowest published instrument approach
minimum or 2,000 feet above the airport elevation, whichever is greater;
and
(iii) The visibility at that airport will be at least 3 miles, or 2 miles more
than the lowest applicable visibility minimums, whichever is greater, for the
instrument approach procedures to be used at the destination airport.”

2.2.6.​Final Reserve Fuel

2.2.6.1.​ Domestic Operations

The final reserve fuel is the minimum fuel required to fly for 45 minutes at normal
cruise consumption.

2.2.6.2.​ Flag and Supplemental Operations

The final reserve fuel is the minimum fuel required to fly for 30 minutes, in the
following conditions:
●​ At 1 500 ft above the alternate airport, or destination airport (if an
alternate is not required)
●​ At holding speed
●​ In ISA conditions

2.2.7.​Additional Fuel

Additional fuel may be required for flag and supplemental operations, if requested
by the FAA administrator for safety reasons (e.g: engine failure, pressurization
failure, ETOPS, etc.).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 215​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
2.3.​PROCEDURES WITH AN IMPACT ON FUEL QUANTITIES
2.3.1.​Isolated Airport Procedure

FAR 121.645(c) Subpart U

“No person may release a turbine-engine powered airplane (other than a

turbo-propeller airplane) to an airport for which an alternate is not specified under
§ 121.621(a)(2) or § 121.623(b) unless it has enough fuel, considering wind and
other weather conditions expected, to fly to that airport and thereafter to fly for at
least two hours at normal cruising fuel consumption.”

FAR 121.621 (a)(2) Subpart U

“The flight is over a route approved without an available alternate airport for a
particular destination airport and the airplane has enough fuel to meet the
requirements of § 121.641(b) or § 121.645(c).”

For this type of airport, there is no alternate airport. The regulatory quantity of
takeoff fuel must include:
●​ Taxi fuel
●​ Trip fuel
●​ Additional fuel: This quantity must be above the quantity necessary for a 2
hour flight at normal cruise fuel consumption.

2.3.2.​Redispatch Procedure

This procedure permits the Operator to carry less than the standard contingency
fuel. This procedure may be advantageous in the case of fuel capacity limitations,
or takeoff limitations.
Operators select a point, referred to as the decision point along the planned route
(Illustration I9). At this point, there are two possibilities:
●​ To reach a suitable diversion airport, where the maximum landing weight
limitation is complied with.
●​ To continue the flight to the destination airport, if the remaining fuel is
sufficient.

This procedure is advantageous for flag and supplemental operations, for which
the contingency fuel depends on the flight time. The FAR 121 regulation defines
the following:

FAR 121.631

“(a) A certificate holder may specify any regular, provisional, or refueling

airport, authorized for the type of aircraft, as a destination for the purpose of
original dispatch or release

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 216​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
(b) No person may allow a flight to continue to an airport to which it has been
dispatched or released unless the weather conditions at an alternate airport that
was specified in the dispatch or flight release are forecast to be at or above the
alternate minimums specified in the operations specifications for that airport at the
time the aircraft would arrive at the alternate airport. However, the dispatch or
flight release may be amended en route to include any alternate airport that
is within the fuel range of the aircraft […]
(c) No person may change an original destination or alternate airport that is
specified in the original dispatch or flight release to another airport while the
aircraft is en route unless the other airport is authorized for that type of
aircraft and the appropriate requirements […] are met at the time of
redispatch or amendment of the flight release.”

Illustration G-7: Redispatch Procedure

With this procedure, the required fuel is the greatest of:

F1 = taxiA + tripAC + 10% trip timeBC + alternateCD + holdingD + additional
F2 = taxiA + tripAE + 10% trip timeBE + alternateEF + holdingF + additional

​
If we compare the standard fuel planning to the fuel planning provided in the
Redispatch Procedure, the maximum contingency fuel reduction is 10% of the trip
time between A and B.

2.3.3.​ETOPS Procedure

FAR 121.621 Subpart H

AC 120-42A

The procedure is similar to Air OPS ETOPS Procedure (chapter Additional Fuel
Energy).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 217​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
2.4.​FUEL MANAGEMENT

FAR 121 does not provide fuel management rules, but the Operating Manual must
address the appropriate procedures. For example, operators may consider the
following:

The remaining fuel in flight must be sufficient to fly to an airport where a safe
landing is possible.

The minimum quantity of remaining fuel at landing is defined in the Operating

Manual of the Airline, and is usually equal to the final reserve fuel. The final
reserve fuel is defined as the fuel quantity that is necessary to fly for a period of
30 to 45 minutes at 1 500 ft above the airport, in ISA conditions, at holding speed.

This applies to the destination airport, the destination alternate airport, and/or any
en route alternate airport.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 218​ FUEL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
APPENDIX
APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)
1.1.​OBJECTIVE
It is essential to know the density, pressure and temperature at any point of the
atmosphere, in order to determine other parameters that include the aircraft
speed or altitude.

To provide a common reference based on a relationship between these variables,

ICAO defined a standard mathematical model of the atmosphere to be as realistic
as possible.

This standard atmospheric model, referred to as the International Standard

Atmosphere, ISA, is used as a reference to compare real atmospheric conditions
and the corresponding engine/aircraft performance.

For example, a standard computable atmosphere enables:

●​ The calibration of measurement instruments so that all instruments provide
the same information in the same atmospheric conditions.
●​ Aircraft and engine performance comparison. Atmospheric inputs in
performance software are based on ISA values.

ICAO publishes a Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 km

(262 500 ft)), Doc 7488, Third Edition, 1993, ISBN 92-9194-004-6.

1.2.​TEMPERATURE MODELING
The following diagram (Illustration A1-1) illustrates the temperature variations in
the standard atmosphere:

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 219​ APPENDIX

 ​
Illustration A1-1: ISA Temperature

The international reference is based on a sea level temperature of 15 °C at a

standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa. The standard density of the air at sea level is
1.225 kg/m3.

Temperature decreases with altitude at a constant rate of -6.5 °C / 1 000 m or

-1.98 °C / 1 000 ft up to the tropopause. The standard tropopause altitude is 11
000 m or 36 089 ft.
From the tropopause upward, the temperature remains at a constant value of
-56.5 °C.
Therefore, the air, that is considered as a perfect gas in the ISA model, has the
following characteristics:

●​ At Mean Sea Level (MSL):

ISA temperature = T0 = +15 °C = 288.15 K

●​ Above MSL and below the tropopause (36 089 ft):

ISA temperature (ºC) = T0 - 1.98 x [Alt(ft)/1000]

For a rapid determination of the standard temperature at a specific altitude, the

following approximate formula can be used:
ISA temperature (ºC) = 15 - 2 x [Alt(ft)/1000]

●​ Above the tropopause (36 089 ft):

ISA temperature = -56.5 ºC = 216.65 K

The ISA model is used as a reference to compare real atmospheric conditions

and the corresponding engine/aircraft performance. The atmospheric conditions
will therefore be defined as ISA +/- ΔISA at a given flight level.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 220​ APPENDIX

 Example:
Let us consider an aircraft in flight in the following conditions:
Altitude = 33 000 ft
Current Temperature = -41 ºC

The standard temperature at 33 000 ft is: ISA = 15 - 2 x 33 = -51 ºC,

and the current temperature is -41 ºC, i.e. 10 ºC above the standard.

Result: The atmospheric flight condition corresponds to ISA+10.

1.3.​PRESSURE MODELING
To calculate the standard pressure P at a specific altitude, the following
assumptions are used:

●​ Temperature is standard.
●​ Air is a perfect gas.

The altitude obtained from the measurement of the static pressure is referred to
as pressure altitude (Zp), and a standard (ISA) table can be set up (table A1-1).

Illustration A1-2: Pressure Altitude variation with Pressure

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 221​ APPENDIX

 Table A1-1: Example of Tabulated Pressure Altitude Values

With the assumption of a volume of air in static equilibrium, the aerostatic

equation relates a change in height to a change in pressure as follows:

With​ ρ = air density at an altitude h

g = gravity acceleration (9.80665 m/s2)
dh = height of the volume unit
dP = pressure variation on dh

The temperature, pressure and density are related by the equation for a perfect
gas:

With R = universal gas constant (287.053 J/kg/K)

Therefore:
●​ At Mean Sea Level (MSL):
P0 = 1013.25 hPa

●​ Above MSL and below the tropopause (36 089 ft):

With ​ P0 = 1 013.25 hPa (standard pressure at sea level)

T0 = 288.15 K (standard temperature at sea level)
α = 0.0065 ºC/m
g0 = 9.80665 m/s2
R = 287.053 J/kg/K
h = Altitude (m)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 222​ APPENDIX

 Note: For low altitudes, a reduction of 1 hPa in the pressure approximately
corresponds to a pressure altitude increase of 28 ft.

●​ Above the tropopause (36 089 ft):

With ​ P1 = 226.32 hPa (standard pressure at 11 000 m)

T1 = 216.65 K (standard temperature at 11 000 m)
h1 = 11 000 m
g0 = 9.80665 m/s2
R = 287.053 J/kg/K
h = Altitude (m)

1.4.​DENSITY MODELING
To calculate the standard density ρ at a specific altitude, the air is considered to
be a perfect gas. Therefore, at a specific altitude, the standard density ρ (kg/m3)
can be obtained as follows:

with ​ R = Universal gas constant (287.053 J/kg/K)

P in Pascal
T in Kelvin

At Mean Sea Level (MSL):

ρ0 = 1.225 kg/m3

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 223​ APPENDIX

1.5.​ISA TABLE
The ISA parameters (temperature, pressure, density) can be provided as a
function of the altitude in a table, as shown in Table A1-2:

PRESSURE
ALTITUDE TEMPE- PRESSURE DENSITY Speed of ALTITUDE
(ft) RATURE. RATIO σ = ρ/ρo sound (meters)
(°C) hPa PSI In.Hg δ = P/Po (kt)

40 000 - 56.5 188 2.72 5.54 0.1851 0.2462 573 12 192

39 000 - 56.5 197 2.58 5.81 0.1942 0.2583 573 11 887
38 000 - 56.5 206 2.99 6.10 0.2038 0.2710 573 11 582
37 000 - 56.5 217 3.14 6.40 0.2138 0.2844 573 11 278
36 000 - 56.3 227 3.30 6.71 0.2243 0.2981 573 10 973
35 000 - 54.3 238 3.46 7.04 0.2353 0.3099 576 10 668
34 000 - 52.4 250 3.63 7.38 0.2467 0.3220 579 10 363
33 000 - 50.4 262 3.80 7.74 0.2586 0.3345 581 10 058
32 000 - 48.4 274 3.98 8.11 0.2709 0.3473 584 9 754
31 000 - 46.4 287 4.17 8.49 0.2837 0.3605 586 9 449
30 000 - 44.4 301 4.36 8.89 0.2970 0.3741 589 9 144
29 000 - 42.5 315 4.57 9.30 0.3107 0.3881 591 8 839
28 000 - 40.5 329 4.78 9.73 0.3250 0.4025 594 8 534
27 000 - 38.5 344 4.99 10.17 0.3398 0.4173 597 8 230
26 000 - 36.5 360 5.22 10.63 0.3552 0.4325 599 7 925
25 000 - 34.5 376 5.45 11.10 0.3711 0.4481 602 7 620
24 000 - 32.5 393 5.70 11.60 0.3876 0.4642 604 7 315
23 000 - 30.6 410 5.95 12.11 0.4046 0.4806 607 7 010
22 000 - 28.6 428 6.21 12.64 0.4223 0.4976 609 6 706
21 000 - 26.6 446 6.47 13.18 0.4406 0.5150 611 6 401
20 000 - 24.6 466 6.75 13.75 0.4595 0.5328 614 6 096
19 000 - 22.6 485 7.04 14.34 0.4791 0.5511 616 5 791
18 000 - 20.7 506 7.34 14.94 0.4994 0.5699 619 5 406
17 000 - 18.7 527 7.65 15.57 0.5203 0.5892 621 5 182
16 000 - 16.7 549 7.97 16.22 0.5420 0.6090 624 4 877
15 000 - 14.7 572 8.29 16.89 0.5643 0.6292 626 4 572
14 000 - 12.7 595 8.63 17.58 0.5875 0.6500 628 4 267
13 000 - 10.8 619 8.99 18.29 0.6113 0.6713 631 3 962
12 000 - 8.8 644 9.35 19.03 0.6360 0.6932 633 3 658
11 000 - 6.8 670 9.72 19.79 0.6614 0.7156 636 3 353
10 000 - 4.8 697 10.10 20.58 0.6877 0.7385 638 3 048
9 000 - 2.8 724 10.51 21.39 0.7148 0.7620 640 2 743
8 000 - 0.8 753 10.92 22.22 0.7428 0.7860 643 2 438
7 000 + 1.1 782 11.34 23.09 0.7716 0.8106 645 2 134
6 000 + 3.1 812 11.78 23.98 0.8014 0.8359 647 1 829
5 000 + 5.1 843 12.23 24.90 0.8320 0.8617 650 1 524
4 000 + 7.1 875 12.69 25.84 0.8637 0.8881 652 1 219
3 000 + 9.1 908 13.17 26.82 0.8962 0.9151 654 914
2 000 + 11.0 942 13.67 27.82 0.9298 0.9428 656 610
1 000 + 13.0 977 14.17 28.86 0.9644 0.9711 659 305
0 + 15.0 1013 14.70 29.92 1.0000 1.0000 661 0
- 1 000 + 17.0 1050 15.23 31.02 1.0366 1.0295 664 - 305

Table A1-2: International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 224​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 2:TEMPERATURES FOR AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
1.1.​DEFINITIONS
1.1.1.​Total Air Temperature (TAT)

The TAT or Impact Temperature takes into account the temperature of the still air
(static air temperature, refer to the chapter Factors of Influence) and the heat
energy of the air stream due to its motion (dynamic aspect).
The TAT is measured by a probe.

1.1.2.​Static Air Temperature (SAT)

The SAT or Outside Air Temperature (OAT) is the temperature of the ambient air.
It enables the computation of the:

●​ True Air Speed (TAS) from the Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
●​ True altitude from the pressure altitude
●​ Thrust parameters (EPR or N1) for the takeoff power.

In flight, the SAT is computed from the measured TAT and Mach number as
follows:

𝑇𝐴𝑇 𝐶𝑃
𝑆𝐴𝑇 = γ−1 2 with γ = 𝐶𝑣
= 1. 4 when 𝑀 < 2
1+ 2
𝑀

2
𝑇𝐴𝑇 = 𝑆𝐴𝑇(1 + 0. 2𝑀 ) with TAT and SAT in K

1.2.​HOW IS IT MEASURED?
The temperature is measured by three different TAT probes.
The OAT is provided by the weather services of the airports.
Some aircraft (e.g. A350) have OAT probes for OAT measurement when on
ground.

The TAT probes are on the lower side of the fuselage, below the cockpit windows,
near the nose. When the aircraft is fitted with OAT probes, these are found in the
nose landing gear bay.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 225​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A2-1 Example of TAT and OAT probes location on aircraft

1.3.​WHERE IS IT DISPLAYED IN THE COCKPIT?

The TAT and the SAT are permanently displayed in the cockpit.

Illustration A2-2: Example of TAT and SAT location on the system display page of the ECAM

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 226​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 3: ALTIMETRY
1.1.​PRESSURE ALTITUDE
1.1.1.​Definition

Pressure altitude is a barometric measurement changed into an altitude via the

ISA model.
​
1.1.2.​How is it measured?

On Airbus aircraft, the static pressure measurement is achieved through

dedicated probes.

Illustration A3-1: Example of pressure probes location on aircraft

1.1.3.​Where is it displayed?

The pressure altitude is displayed by the altimeter. All the indications associated
with altitude are permanently displayed on the right hand side of the PFDs.

​
Illustration A3-2: Altitude scale location

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 227​ APPENDIX

1.1.4.​Altimetry setting

The objective of altimetry is to ensure vertical margins, above ground and

between aircraft.
In the cockpit, the altimeter displays a vertical distance between the static
pressure measured and a reference pressure.

Under the assumption of ISA temperature, the Indicated Altitude (IA) is the
vertical distance between the following two pressures (Illustration A3-3):
●​ The ambient pressure (current location of the aircraft)
●​ A reference pressure, corresponding to a pressure selected by the pilot
through the pressure setting knob of the altimeter.

Illustration A3-3: Indicated altitude (IA)

The altimetry setting defines the reference pressure that will define the reference
altitude (Zp = 0 ft). The use of an identical reference by all aircraft enables to
ensure their vertical separation. The pressure setting and the indicated altitude
move in the same direction: Any increase in the pressure setting results in an
increase in the corresponding Indicated Altitude.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 228​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A3-4: QNH and Pressure Altitude

​
Several operational settings for pressure can be selected through the pressure
setting knob of the altimeter (Illustration A3-4):

●​ The QFE is the pressure measured at the airport reference point. With the
QFE setting, the altimeter indicates the height above the airport or Above
Airport Level (AAL), provided the temperature is standard.
○​ On ground, at the related airport, the Indicated Altitude is 0 ft.
​
Note: The QFE setting is only relevant next to the airport. It is less and less used
in commercial aviation and is often just an option on Airbus aircraft.

●​ The QNH is the pressure measured at the official airport elevation, set at
sea level by the ISA Model. With the QNH setting, the altimeter indicates
the Altitude, or height Above the Mean Sea Level (AMSL), provided the
temperature is standard.
○​ At the airport level in ISA conditions, the Indicated altitude is the
topographic altitude of the terrain.
○​ At sea level, the Indicated Altitude is 0 ft.

Note: The QNH setting is obtained by the correction of a measured QFE to the
sea level pressure. It is the reference for low altitude, takeoff and landing
operations.

●​ The Standard setting is the pressure measured when the altimeter is set at
1013 hPa. With the standard setting, the altimeter indicates the pressure
altitude of the aircraft. As a reminder, the pressure altitude is the altitude
above the 1 013 hPa isobaric surface (provided temperature is standard).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 229​ APPENDIX

Note: The objective of the standard setting is to have the same reference for all
aircraft regardless of where they come from. With the same reference, all aircraft
have the same indicated altitude when they cross the same point. It provides a
vertical separation between aircraft and also removes the local pressure
variations throughout the flight.

After takeoff (usually performed with QNH setting), the flight crew selects the
standard setting when a specific altitude is exceeded, referred to as Transition
Altitude.
Before landing, the flight crew selects QNH (or QFE) setting when below the
Transition Level.

The layer between the transition altitude and the transition level is called the
transition layer (Illustration A3-5).

Illustration A3-5: Transition Altitude and Transition Level

The transition altitude is usually provided on the Standard Instrument Departure

(SID) charts, however, the transition level is usually given by the Air Traffic Control
(ATC).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 230​ APPENDIX

1.1.5.​Where is it set/checked?

The altimeter setting (also referred to as baro reference) is controlled via a knob
and its outer ring. They are on the external part of the EFIS control panel.

Illustration A3-6: Baro reference knob and window location

The baro reference is displayed on the corresponding window and on the PFD,
below the altitude scale.

Illustration A3-7: Baro reference location on PFD

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 231​ APPENDIX

1.1.6.​Flight Levels

The Flight Level is the aircraft altitude when in standard setting. It corresponds to
the Indicated Altitude in ft divided by 100, provided the standard setting is
selected.
𝑍𝑝
𝐹𝐿 = 100

As an example, at 30 000 ft with standard setting selected, the Flight Level is

FL300.

The Transition Level is the lowest flight level above the transition altitude.

1.1.7.​True altitude

The True Altitude is the geometric height above the Mean Sea Level (MSL). The
true altitude of an aircraft is not usually the same as the Indicated Altitude. This is
mainly because the temperature is different from ISA.

1.1.8.​Temperature Correction

Temperature has a significant influence on separation between isobaric surfaces:

altimetric ISA indications can be affected. In addition, the ISA law considers that T
= 15 °C at sea level, but this is not usually the case. As a result, a correction of
the ISA table is necessary, to fit with the conditions of the day.

Illustration A3-8: Example of variation of separation between Isobaric surfaces with temperature

Based on the conditions of the day, the temperature can be corrected by ΔT, for
all ISA values. ΔT is the difference between OAT and ISA. This ISA + ΔT
modelization prevents the aircraft from flying too low in a cold atmosphere.

The correction between True Altitude and Indicated Altitude can be defined as
follows:
𝑇𝐼𝑆𝐴+∆𝑇
∆𝑇𝐴 = ∆𝐼𝐴 ( 𝑇𝐼𝑆𝐴
)

With​ ΔTA = True altitude correction

IA = Indicated altitude
TISA+ΔT = Current temperature (in Kelvin)​ ​
TISA = Standard temperature (in Kelvin)
ΔT = Temperature correction (OAT - ISA)

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 232​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A3-9: IA VS.TA as a function of temperature

●​ When it is hot (OAT>ISA), True Altitude is higher than Indicated Altitude.

●​ When it is cold (OAT<ISA), True Altitude is lower than Indicated Altitude.
●​ The effect of temperature on Indicated Altitude increases with altitude.

Illustration A3-10: Temperature effect on True Altitude, for a constant Indicated Altitude

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 233​ APPENDIX

Study case: Sion airport in Switzerland.

​ During an ILS approach on Runway 26, it is required to overfly specific

waypoints at defined geometrical altitudes, regardless of the temperature
conditions (Illustration A3-11). For example, at 17 Nm from the glide antenna, the
aircraft must be at a height of 8 919 ft above the runway, or at a true altitude of 10
500 ft above mean sea level.

The glide slope intersection on Illustration A3-11 is 16 000 ft, corresponding to a

height of 14 419 ft.

Illustration A3-12 provides the indicated altitude values to maintain the required
true altitude for different temperature conditions:

When temperature is ISA - 10:

●​ True altitude ​ ​ ​ 16 000 ft​ 10 500 ft
●​ Indicated altitude​ ​ 16 600 ft​ 10 900 ft
●​ Δ altitude​​ ​ ​ 600 ft ​ 400 ft

When temperature is ISA - 20:

●​ True altitude ​ ​ ​ 16 000 ft​ 10 500 ft
●​ Indicated altitude ​ ​ 17 300 ft ​ 11 350 ft
●​ Δ altitude​​ ​ ​ 1 300 ft​ 850 ft

Result:
●​ When the temperature moves away from the standard, altimetric error
increases.
●​ The altimetric error induced by temperature is proportional to altitude.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 234​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A3-11: Sion Airport Chart

Radio signals are transmitted to the ground and the time to receive the return
signal provides the means to determine the height.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 235​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A3-12: Temperature Effect on Indicated Altitude

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 236​ APPENDIX

1.2.​RADIO HEIGHT
1.2.1.​Definition

The source of Radio Height is the radio altimeter, an antenna installed on the
underside of the aircraft rear fuselage. The radio altimeter transmits radio signals
to the ground and the time to receive the return signal provides the means to
determine the height.

Illustration A3-13: Radio height principle

The RH indicates the geometric height between the aircraft and the ground.

1.2.2.​The Use of Radio Height

The radio altitude is more accurate than the pressure altitude, but it cannot be
used for vertical separation because there is no common reference. It is used for
landing, particularly for precision approaches.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 237​ APPENDIX

1.2.3.​Where is it displayed?

The RH is displayed on the PFD (below the attitude scale) when the aircraft is at
or below 2 500 ft above the ground.

Illustration A3-14: Radio Height location on PFD

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 238​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 4: SPEEDS
1.1.​DEFINITIONS
To operate an aircraft, the flight crew use different types of speed. There are
speeds to manage the flight while margins from critical areas are maintained, and
there are other speeds that are mainly used for navigational and performance
optimization purposes.

1.1.1.​Calibrated AirSpeed (CAS)

​
The Calibrated AirSpeed (CAS) is obtained from the dynamic pressure q (or ΔP)
that is a difference between the impact pressure Pi (measured by the pitot probes)
and the static pressure Ps (measured by the static probes). The takeoff and
landing performance calculations are performed in CAS.

𝐶𝐴𝑆 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑞)

Flight at a constant CAS during a climb phase enables the aerodynamic effect to
remain the same as at sea level.

1.1.2.​Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

The Indicated Air Speed (IAS) is the speed displayed by the airspeed indicator.
The flight crew use it for low speed operations, that is why operational speeds
(e.g. V1, VR, V2, etc…), are in IAS.
If the pressure measurement were perfect, the IAS would be equal to the CAS.
However, some errors need to be corrected due to various parameters that
include aircraft angle of attack, slats/flaps configuration, ground effect etc.
The IAS is the CAS plus a correction called “instrument error” (Ki). CAS to IAS
calibration is certified and available in the AFM.

𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆 + 𝐾𝑖
​
1.1.3.​True Air Speed (TAS)

The True Air Speed (TAS) is the speed of the aircraft in the airflow (general
definition of a mobile speed).

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

The TAS can be computed from the CAS, with the use of the air density (ρ) ratio
and a compressibility correction (K).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 239​ APPENDIX

 ρ0
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = ρ
. 𝐾. 𝐶𝐴𝑆

The TAS is used for flight mechanics (e.g. lift determination) and for the
computation of the Ground Speed (GS).

1.1.4.​Ground Speed (GS)

The Ground Speed (GS) is the aircraft speed in a ground reference system that is
fixed. It is equal to the TAS corrected for the wind component (Illustration A10).
The aircraft computes the GS with the use of the inertial and GPS data.

Illustration A4-1: Ground Speed and Drift Angle

The GS is used for navigation calculations because the flight routes always refer
to the ground.
​
Ground Distance = GS x Time

1.1.5.​Mach Number (M)

The Mach Number (M) is a comparison between the TAS and the sound velocity.
It is used as a cruise control parameter.

𝑇𝐴𝑆
𝑀= 𝑎

With TAS = True Air Speed in knots

​ a = The sound velocity at the flight altitude in knots

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 240​ APPENDIX

 The sound velocity in m/s is deduced from the following:

𝑎 = γ𝑅𝑇
With​ ℽ=1.4
R=287J/kg/K
T= SAT = ambient temperature in Kelvin

1.2.​TAS VARIATION
The following graph (Illustration A11) illustrates the TAS variation as a function of
the pressure altitude for a typical climb of a subsonic aircraft:
●​ Initially constant CAS 250kt till FL100
●​ Acceleration
●​ Constant CAS 300 kt up to the crossover altitude
●​ Constant Mach (M0.78).

Illustration A4-2: Blue line: Variations of True Air Speed – Climb profile 300 kt / M0.78

The altitude at which the CAS and Mach correspond to the same TAS is called the
crossover altitude. The curves for constant CAS and constant Mach intersect at
this point. The crossover altitude value is different for each couple (CAS, Mach).
Above the crossover altitude, the Mach number becomes the reference speed.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 241​ APPENDIX

1.3.​WHERE IS IT DISPLAYED?
The IAS is displayed on the speed scale of the PFD.
The Mach number is displayed below the speed scale of the PFD.
The GS and TAS are displayed on the top left of the Navigation Display (ND).

Illustration A4-3: Speeds displayed on the PFD

1.4.​SUMMARY
The TAS is the speed used for flight mechanics (L = ½ S . Ps / RT . TAS2 . CL ).
The GS is the speed used for navigation.
The CAS (or IAS) is the speed used for low speed flight phases and for
certification (e.g. Stall speeds).
The MACH is the speed for high speed flight phases, it enables cruise speed
optimization.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 242​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 5: FLIGHT MECHANICS
For a flight at constant speed in level flight, the engine thrust must balance the
drag force.

As a general rule, when engine thrust is higher than drag, the aircraft can use this
extra thrust to accelerate and/or climb. Contrary to this, when the thrust is not
sufficient enough to compensate for drag, the aircraft must decelerate and/or
descend.

In flight, four forces are applied to an aircraft: thrust, drag, lift and weight. If the
aircraft is in steady level flight, as a first approximation, the following balance is
obtained (Illustration A12):
●​ The thrust for steady level flight (T) is equal to drag (D = ½ ρ S V2 CD),
●​ Weight (mg) is equal to lift (L = ½ ρ S V2 CL).

Illustration A5-1: Balance of Forces for Steady Level Flight

1.1.​STANDARD LIFT EQUATION

​
Weight = mg = ½ ρ S (TAS)2 CL​ ​ (1)

With ​ m = Aircraft mass

g = Gravitational acceleration
ρ = Air density
S = Wing area
CL = Lift coefficient

The lift coefficient, CL, is a function of the angle of attack (α), the Mach number
(M), and the aircraft configuration.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 243​ APPENDIX

1.2.​STANDARD DRAG EQUATION
Thrust = ½ ρ S (TAS)2 CD​ ​

With CD = Drag coefficient

The drag coefficient, CD, is a function of the angle of attack (α), the Mach number
(M) and the aircraft configuration.

1.3.​EQUATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF THE MACH NUMBER

Lift and drag equations may be expressed as a function of the Mach number M.
As a result, the equations are:

Weight = 0.7 PS S M2 CL​ ​

Thrust = 0.7 PS S M2 CD​

With Ps = Static Pressure

1.4.​EQUATIONS IN CLIMB AND DESCENT

The following Illustration (A5-2) displays the different forces applied on an aircraft
in climb and Illustration (A5-3) displays the different forces applied in descent.

Illustration A5-2: Balance of Forces in Climb18

18
In order to simplify, the thrust vector is represented parallel to the aircraft longitudinal axis.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 244​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A5-3: Balance of Forces in Descent19

●​ The angle of attack (α) is the angle between the aircraft axis and the
aerodynamic axis (speed vector axis tangent to the flight path).
●​ The climb/descent gradient (γ) is the angle between the horizontal axis and
the aerodynamic axis.
●​ The aircraft attitude (θ) is the angle between the aircraft axis and the
horizontal axis (in a ground reference system).
●​ The rate of climb (RC)/rate of descent (RD) is the vertical component of the
speed of the aircraft. RC and RD are defined in ft per minute. RC is
positive and RD is negative.

During climb or descent at constant speed, the balance of forces is reached.

Along the aerodynamic axis, this balance can be defined as:

​ (1)​ ​ Thrust cosα = Drag + Weight sinγ

The balance along the vertical axis, becomes :

​ (2)​ ​ Lift = Weight cosγ​

19
In order to simplify, the thrust vector is represented parallel to the aircraft longitudinal axis.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 245​ APPENDIX

1.4.1.​Climb/Descent Gradient (𝛾)

The climb/descent gradient (γ) and the angle of attack (α) are usually small and
can be neglected so that :

sinγ ≈ tanγ ≈ γ (in radian)

cosγ ≈ 1 and cosα ≈ 1
As a result:

​ (3)​ ​ Thrust = Drag + Weight γ

​ (4)​ ​ ​ Lift = Weight

​ From equation (3), Thrust - Drag = Weight γ. Then:

​ (5)​ ​

​ (4)+(5)​

With the use of L/D (the Lift-to-Drag ratio), the climb angle becomes:

(6)​ ​

​ That gives, in percent:

​ (7)​ ​

Descent is performed at the Flight Idle thrust (i.e. at a thrust near zero). As a
result, in descent:

(6 for descent)​ ​

​ That gives, in percent:

​ (7 for descent)​ ​

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 246​ APPENDIX

Summary: At a fixed weight and engine rating, the climb gradient is maximum
when (Thrust – Drag) is maximum (i.e. when the drag is minimum or when the
lift-to-drag ratio is maximum). The best lift-to-drag ratio speed is called Green Dot
(or Drift-down) speed. In case of an engine failure, flight at Green Dot speed
permits the aircraft to have maximum aerodynamic efficiency and compensate for
the power loss.

At a fixed weight, the descent gradient is minimum when the drag is minimum, or
when the lift-to-drag ratio is maximum. The minimum descent angle speed is,
therefore, Green Dot speed.

1.4.2.​Rate of Climb (RC)/ Rate of Descent (RD)

The Rate of Climb (RC)/Rate of Descent (RD) corresponds to the vertical speed
of the aircraft. As a result:

​ (8)​ ​ RC = TAS sinγ ≈ TAS γ​ ​ (sinγ ≈ γrad as γ is small)

RD = TAS sinγ ≈ TAS γ​ ​ (sinγ ≈ γrad as γ is small)

From equation (5),

Therefore:

(9)​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ or ​ ​

Summary: At a fixed aircraft weight, the rate of climb is maximum when ​

TASx(Thrust – Drag) is maximum. In terms of power20, the rate of climb is
maximum when (Pthrust – Pdrag) is maximum.
At a fixed aircraft weight, the rate of descent is minimum, when TASxDrag is
minimum.

20
The force power (Pforce) is the force multiplied by the speed (TAS). The unit is watt (W).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 247​ APPENDIX

1.5.​SPEED POLAR
1.5.1.​Required Thrust

To fly at a constant level and constant speed, the thrust must balance the drag. As
a result, drag can be considered as the thrust required to maintain a constant
flight level and a constant speed. The Speed Polar Curve enables to identify the
variation of the required thrust, as a function of the cruise speed and angle of
attack.

Illustration A5-4: Required Thrust

1.5.2.​Required Thrust and Available Thrust

At a fixed altitude, temperature, weight and thrust setting, the engines produce a
specific amount of Thrust available (Ta), as displayed in the illustration below.

Illustration A5-5: Required Thrust and Available Thrust

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 248​ APPENDIX

To maintain level flight, the thrust available must be equal to the thrust required at
a specific cruise speed.

As displayed in the Illustration A5-5, two possible speeds can be used to maintain
level flight: a “stable” point (after a change, the parameters return to the initial
state) and an “unstable” point (after a change, the parameters do not return to the
initial point). The stable point corresponds to engine first rating, and the unstable
point corresponds to engine second rating.

The following Illustration (A5-6) displays both the thrust and the drag forces
variation with the True Air Speed.

To fly at a constant flight level and constant speed, the thrust must balance the
drag. As a result, drag can be considered as the thrust required to maintain a
constant flight level and a constant speed. Climb is only possible when the
available thrust is higher than the required thrust (excess of thrust).

The following illustration indicates that, for a given weight:

●​ The climb angle (γ) is proportional to the difference between the available
thrust and the required thrust.
●​ The rate of climb (RC) is proportional to the difference between the
available thrust and the required thrust. In addition, as RC = TAS γ, the
maximum rate of climb is obtained for a TAS higher than Green Dot (when
dRC/dTAS = 0).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 249​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A5-6: Thrust Curves and Speed Polar for Climb

In operation, flight crews use Green Dot speed, not L/Dmax ratio. It is not
advantageous to climb at a speed lower than Green Dot, as it requires a longer
distance and time to reach a specific flight level.

The example below (Illustration A5-7) displays both thrust and drag forces, as a
function of True Air Speed for descent.

The following illustration indicates that, for a given weight:

●​ The descent angle (γ) is proportional to the drag force, and is at its
minimum at Green Dot speed.
●​ The rate of descent (RD) is proportional to the drag force. As RD = TAS.γ,
the minimum rate of descent is obtained for a TAS lower than Green Dot
(when dRD/dTAS = 0).

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 250​ APPENDIX

 Illustration A5-7: Drag Curve and Speed Polar for Descent

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 251​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 6: AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION
The primary source of aeronautical data for a specific airport is the Aeronautical
Information Publication (AIP).
The AIP is edited and revised by the National Aviation Authorities of the specific
country.
Based on this information, some airport data providers put all the information
available in a single publication.

The AIP usually includes (for all local commercial airports) the following
information in an electronic format (eAIP):

●​ Aerodrome Chart:
This chart provides precise information on the runway heading and
threshold position. It also provides all declared runway lengths (TORA,
TODA, ASDA) for main runways and intersections.

●​ Obstacle positions and elevations:

The obstacle information is available in charts (Type A, B and C). In
addition, National Aviation Authorities now usually provide information on
the obstacles in the eAIP through Electronic Terrain and Obstacle Data
(eTOD) surrounding the airport. The eTOD is the digital representation of
terrain and obstacles provided as a database used by airborne and ground
applications, for example Procedure Design etc.
Four areas of the State territory are required in eTOD:
○​ Area 1: the entire territory of a State: useful for en-route analyses.
○​ Area 2: the smallest of terminal control area or a 45 km radius around
the airport: useful for Engine Failure Procedure analyses.
○​ Area 3: aerodrome/heliport area that extends from the edges of the
runway to 90 m from the runway centreline and for all other parts of
aerodrome/heliport movement areas, 50 m from the edges of the
defined areas.
○​ Area 4: Category II or III operations area (restricted to those runways
with Category II or III precision approaches).

●​ Standard Instrument Departure Chart (SID):

This chart describes the departures procedures and provides all the
information required for navigation (navaids positions, flight headings, turn
descriptions, altitude limitations)

●​ Standard Terminal Arrival Route Chart (STAR):

Similarly to the SID chart, the STAR chart describes the arrival procedures
and provides information required for navigation.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 252​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 7: USE OF SNOWTAM IN OPERATIONS
ICAO 10066 PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT
EASA Aerodromes (Regulation (EU) No 139/2014) Annex I — Definitions for
terms
(41b) ‘SNOWTAM’ means a special series NOTAM given in a standard format,
which provides a surface condition report notifying the presence or cessation of
hazardous conditions due to snow, ice, slush, frost, standing water or water
associated with snow, slush, ice, or frost on the movement area;

The FAA defines FICON NOTAM in the AC 150/5200-30D to report the pavement
surface conditions on runways, taxiways, and aprons and Runway Condition
Codes (RWYCC) if more than 25 percent of the overall runway length and width
coverage or cleared width of the runway is contaminated.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 253​ APPENDIX

 SNOWTAM FORMAT

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 254​ APPENDIX

 SNOWTAM example: ​
ESGG ​
02170055 03 5/3/3 100/100/100 03/08/09 SLUSH/WET SNOW/WET SNOW

1.1.​DESCRIPTION OF SNOWTAM
(AERODROME LOCATION INDICATOR)​
ESGG

(LOWER RUNWAY DESIGNATION NUMBER)​

03 => RUNWAY 03​
​
(RUNWAY CONDITION CODE (RWYCC) ON EACH RUNWAY THIRD)​
5 /3 /3 => RWYCC 5 on first third of the runway, RWYCC 3 on 2nd third, RWYCC
3 on last third​
​
(PER CENT COVERAGE CONTAMINANT FOR EACH RUNWAY THIRD)​
100/100/100 => 100% coverage on the first third of the runway…​

(DEPTH (mm) OF LOOSE CONTAMINANT FOR EACH RUNWAY THIRD)​

03/08/09 => 3mm of contaminant of the first third of the runway…​
​
(CONDITION DESCRIPTION OVER TOTAL RUNWAY LENGTH)​
(Observed on each runway third, starting from threshold having the lower runway
designation number) ​
SLUSH/WET SNOW/WET SNOW

1.2.​PRIMARY USE OF SNOWTAM INFORMATION

1.2.1.​ Takeoff

As referred to in the section Takeoff, the certification of the takeoff performance is

based on contaminant type and depth.
In the example above, the takeoff performance computation is based on WET
SNOW 10mm.
With the use of Contaminant type and depth, all the effects of the contaminant are
considered, including:
●​ Effect of reduced friction coefficient
●​ Effect of contaminant on drag
●​ Aquaplaning considerations.
The effect of fluid contaminants on aircraft drag must be considered for TOR,
TOD and ASD computations. The higher the drag of the contaminant, the longer
the takeoff distance.

1.2.2.​ Landing Dispatch

As referred to in the section Landing, the certification of Required Landing

Distance is based on contaminant type.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 255​ APPENDIX

 In the example above, the performance computation for Landing Dispatch is
based on WET SNOW. The drag effect of the contaminant is not considered, or is
considered only for the minimum depth.

1.2.3.​ Landing distance at time of arrival

As referred to in the section Landing, the computation of Landing Distance at time

of arrival is based on RWYCC information.
In the above SNOWTAM example, the performance computation for Landing
distance is based on RWYCC 3.
The use of RWYCC only considers the effect of reduced friction forces (reduced
braking action). The drag of the contaminant is not considered.

1.2.4.​ Use of intermediate depth

​
Airbus aircraft are certified for specific values of contaminant depth. When the
reported depth is between two certified values, assessments for both the lower
and the higher depth of the contaminant must be performed to identify the most
conservative depth.

1.3.​USE OF RWYCC AT TAKEOFF

Although RWYCC is defined for landing performance assessment, when a
SNOWTAM provides information that is not consistent between the contaminant
type and RWYCC, a pilot may decide to consider all available information,
including RWYCC, for the takeoff performance computation. It is important to take
this information into account when the reported RWYCC is lower than the
expected one.

For example: 2/2/2 100/100/100 10/10/10 DRY SNOW/DRY SNOW/DRY SNOW

Based on the RCAM matrix, DRY SNOW must be reported as RWYCC 3. In this
example, the airport decided to ‘downgrade’ the RWYCC based on observations
or reports that describe the braking action as degraded.
In this type of situation, the pilot should consider this information, and consider
this ‘downgrade’ for the takeoff computation.

Depending on aircraft type, two options may be available for Airbus operators:
●​ Both the downgraded RWYCC and the runway condition (contaminant type
and depth) are used to perform the takeoff computation. In this case, the
lowest friction coefficient is considered. The drag and aquaplaning effect
are based on the contaminant type and depth input.
●​ An equivalent contaminant type is used as a representation of the
downgraded conditions. For example, for a runway covered by a hard
contaminant, or a fluid contaminant with a depth of 3 mm (1/8 in) or less
and, in the case of a downgrade to RWYCC 4, the takeoff performance
computation may be performed with Compacted Snow.

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 256​ APPENDIX

APPENDIX 8 : ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Greek letters
α ( alpha ) Angle of attack
ℽ ( gamma ) Climb or descent angle
δ ( delta ) Pressure ratio = P / P0
Δ ( DELTA ) Parameters’ variation (ex : ΔISA, ΔP)
η ( eta ) Anti-skid efficiency
φ ( phi ) Bank angle
μ ( mu ) Runway friction coefficient
θ ( theta ) Aircraft pitch angle
ρ ( rho ) Air density
ρ0 ( rho zero ) Air density at Mean Sea Level
σ ( sigma ) Air density ratio = ρ / ρ0

A
a Sound velocity
a0 Sound velocity at sea level
AAL Above Aerodrome Level
AC Advisory Circular (FAA)
ADIRS Air Data / Inertial Reference System
AECG All Engine Climb Gradient
AEO All Engines Operative
AFM Aircraft Flight Manual
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
ALD Actual Landing Distance
AMC Acceptable Means of Compliance (EASA)
AMSL Above Mean Sea Level
AOM Airline Operation Manual
APD Aircraft Performance Data
APM Aircraft Performance Monitoring (program)
APR Automatic Power Reserve
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
ASD Accelerate-Stop Distance
ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance Available
ATC Air Traffic Control
A/THR Autothrust
ATTCS Automatic Take-off Thrust Control System

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 257​ APPENDIX

C
CD Drag coefficient
CL Lift coefficient
CLmax Maximum Lift Coefficient
CAS Calibrated Air Speed
CDL Configuration Deviation List
CG Center of gravity
CI Cost Index
CL Climb throttle position
CS Certification Specifications (EASA)
CWY Clearway

D
DA Drift Angle (for GS computation)
DA Decision Altitude (for approach)
DA/H Decision Altitude or Height
DGAC Direction Générale de l’Aviation Civile
DH Decision Height
DOC Direct Operating Cost
DOW Dry operating weight

E
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
ECON Economic (minimum cost) speed
EFB Electronic Flight Bag
EFP Engine Failure Procedure
ERA En Route Alternate
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
EO Engine Out
EOSID Engine Out Standard Instrument Departure
EOP Engine Out Procedure
EPR Engine Pressure Ratio
ETOPS Extended range with Twin engine aircraft OPerationS

F
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
FCOM Flight Crew Operating Manual
FCTM Flight Crew Techniques Manual
FF Fuel Flow (hourly consumption)
FG Flight Guidance
FL Flight Level
FLD Factored Landing Distance
FMS Flight Management System
FRF Final Reserve Fuel
FMGS Flight Management and Guidance System

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 258​ APPENDIX

G
g Gravitational acceleration
GDS Green Dot speed
GS Ground Speed

H
hPa hecto Pascal

I
in Hg Inches of mercury
IA Indicated Altitude
IAS Indicated Air Speed
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFP In Flight Performance (program)
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
IOSA IATA Operational Safety Audit
ISA International Standard Atmosphere

J
JAA Joint Aviation Authority
JAR Joint Airworthiness Requirements

K
Ki Instrumental correction (Antenna error)

L
LDA Landing Distance Available
LDTA Landing Distance at the time of Arrival
LRC Long Range Cruise speed
LW Landing Weight

M
m Aircraft’s mass
M Mach number
MECON Economic Mach number
MLRC Mach of Long Range Cruise
MMR Mach of Maximum Range
MMO Maximum Operating Mach number
MAA Missed Approach Altitude
MCA Minimum Crossing Altitude
MCDL Master Configuration Deviation List
MCDU Multipurpose Control and Display Unit
MCT Maximum Continuous Thrust
MEA Minimum safe En route Altitude

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 259​ APPENDIX

MEL Minimum Equipment List
MEW Manufacturer Empty Weight
MGA Minimum safe Grid Altitude
MLW Maximum Landing Weight
Depending on the context, MLW means either:
-​ The maximum weight limited by performance,
-​ The maximum weight limited by structure,
-​ The minimum between both limitations above.
MMEL Master Minimum Equipment List
MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MORA Minimum Off Route Altitude
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
MSL Mean Sea Level
MTOW Maximum TakeOff Weight
Depending on the context, MTOW means either:
-​ The maximum weight limited by performance,
-​ The maximum weight limited by structure,
-​ The minimum between both limitations above.
MTW Maximum Taxi Weight
MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

N
n Load factor
nz Load factor on Aircraft Z-axis
nzw Load factor normal to flight path at VCLmax
N All engines operating
N1 Speed rotation of the fan
N-1 One engine inoperative
N-2 Two engines inoperative
NOTAM NOtice To AirMen

O
OAA Obstacle Accountability Area
OAT Outside Air Temperature
OCTOPUS Operational and Certified Takeoff and landing Universal Softw
OEI One Engine Inoperative
OEW Operational Empty Weight

P
P Pressure
P0 Standard pressure at Mean Sea Level
Pforce Force power
Ps Static pressure
Pt Total pressure
PEP Performance Engineering Programs
PFD Primary Flight Display
PPM Performance Program Manual
PNR Point of No Return

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 260​ APPENDIX

Q
q Dynamic pressure
QFE Pressure at the airport reference point
QNH Mean Sea Level pressure

R
R Universal gas constant
RC Rate of Climb
RCAM Runway Condition Assessment Matrix
RCF Reduced Contingency Fuel
RESA Runway End Safety Area
RD Rate of Descent
RLD Required Landing Distance
RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minima
RWYCC Runway Condition Code

S
S Wing area
SAT Static Air Temperature
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SOC Start of Climb
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SR Specific Range
SRS Speed Reference System
STAR STandard ARrival procedure
STD Standard
SWY Stopway

T
T Temperature
T0 Standard temperature at Mean Seal Level
TISA Standard temperature
TREF Flat Rating Temperature or reference temperature
T/C Top of Climb
T/D Top of Descent
TA True Altitude
TAS True Air Speed
TAT Total Air Temperature
THR RED Thrust Reduction altitude
TLO TakeOff and Landing Optimization (program)
TO TakeOff
TOD TakeOff Distance
TODA TakeOff Distance Available
TOGA TakeOff / Go-Around thrust
TOR TakeOff Run
TORA TakeOff Run Available
TOW TakeOff Weight

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 261​ APPENDIX

V
V Velocity
V1 Takeoff decision speed
V2 Takeoff climb speed
V2 GA See VAC
V2 MIN Minimum takeoff climb speed
VAC Approach climb speed
VAPP Final approach speed
VCLmax See VS1G
VEF Engine failure speed
VFE Maximum flap extended speed
VGA Climb Speed for Go Around
VLE Landing gear extended speed
VLO Landing gear operating speed
VLO RET Landing gear operating speed : retraction
VLO EXT Landing gear operating speed : extension
VLOF Lift Off speed
VLS Lowest selectable speed
VMBE Maximum brake energy speed
VMCA Minimum control speed in the air
VMCG Minimum control speed on ground
VMCL Minimum control speed during approach and landing
VMCL-2 VMCL two engines inoperative
VMO Maximum Operating speed
VMU Minimum Unstick speed
VR Rotation speed
VREF Reference landing speed
VS Stalling speed
VS1G Stalling speed at one g or VCLmax
VSR Reference stalling speed
VTIRE Maximum tire speed

W
W Weight
Wa Apparent weight

Z
Zp Pressure Altitude
ZFW Zero Fuel Weight

Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance​ 262​ APPENDIX