Digital Electronics

Module 1: Number Systems and Codes, Signed Numbers, Logic Gates, and Logic Families

• Binary (Base 2): Uses only two digits: 0 and 1.

• Octal (Base 8): Uses digits 0-7. Each octal digit represents 3 binary bits.
• Decimal (Base 10): Uses digits 0-9.
• Hexadecimal (Base 16): Uses digits 0-9 and letters A-F. Each hexadecimal digit
represents 4 binary bits.
❖ Conversions:
• Binary to decimal conversion involves summing the powers of 2 corresponding to
the '1' bits.
• Decimal to binary conversion can be done using repeated division by 2.
• Hexadecimal to binary, and binary to hexadecimal are very simple conversions,
because each hexadecimal number represents 4 binary bits.
o For example: (3A5)₁₆ = (0011 1010 0101)₂

• To convert an octal number to binary, you translate each octal digit into its 3-bit
binary equivalent.
o For example: (56)₈ = (101 110)₂

o
• Each octal digit corresponds to a 3-bit binary value.
❖ Codes:
▪ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): A 7-bit code (or 8-
bit extended) used to represent alphanumeric characters. Widely used in
computers and communication systems.
▪ Excess-3 Code: A non-weighted BCD code where each decimal digit is
represented by its BCD equivalent.
▪ Gray Code: A binary code where only one bit changes between successive values.
In pure binary coding or 8421 BCD then counting from 7 (0111) to 8 (1000)
 requires 4 bits to be changed simultaneously. Gray coding avoids this since
only one bit changes between subsequent numbers.

▪ BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal): A code where each decimal digit is represented by

its 4-bit binary equivalent.

❖ Parity Method: A method to detect errors in data transmission. Parity bits are added
to data to make the total number of '1' bits either even or odd.
❖ Signed Numbers: The leftmost bit represents the sign (0 for positive, 1 for negative).
The remaining bits represent the magnitude.
❖ 1's Complement: Example: Binary: 1010100; 1's complement: 0101011
❖ 2’s Complement: To find the 2's complement of a binary number, you first find
the 1's complement and then add 1 to the result. Example: Binary: 1000100;
1's complement: 0111011
2's complement: 0111100
❖ Basic Logic Gates:
 o AND: Output is 1 only if all inputs are 1.
o OR: Output is 1 if any input is 1.
o NOT: Inverts the input.
o NAND: Inverted AND.
o NOR: Inverted OR.
o XOR (Exclusive OR): Output is 1 if inputs are different.
o XNOR (Exclusive NOR): Inverted XOR.

Universal Gates: NAND and NOR gates are universal gates, meaning any logic function can
be implemented using only NAND or only NOR gates.

TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic):

o Uses bipolar transistors.

o Historically popular but now largely replaced by CMOS.
o Known for its speed.

CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor):

o Uses MOSFETs (both NMOS and PMOS).

o Low power consumption.
o High noise immunity.
o The dominant logic family in modern digital circuits.

Comparison of CMOS and TTL Performance:

• CMOS:
❖ Lower power consumption.
❖ Higher noise immunity.
❖ Lower static power dissipation.
❖ Slower switching speed at low frequencies, but faster at high frequencies.
 • TTL:
❖ Higher power consumption.
❖ Lower noise immunity.
❖ Higher static power dissipation.
❖ Faster switching speed in some specific applications.

Module 2: Boolean laws and theorems, Combinational circuits

There are two canonical forms for Boolean expressions: Sum-Of-Products (SOP) and
Product-Of-Sums (POS).

• In the Sum-Of-Products form, ANDed variables are ORed together.

For example:1 F(x, y, z) = xy + xz + yz
• In the Product-Of-Sums form, ORed variables are ANDed together:
For example: F(x, y, z) = (x+y) (x+z) (y+z)

Example

If a circuit is designed so that a particular set of inputs can never happen, we call this set of
inputs a don’t care condition.
HALF ADDER
 FULL ADDER

HALF SUBTRACTOR

FULL SUBTRACTOR

Module 3: Comparator, Parity generator, encoder, Decoder, ALU, Multiplexer

• A magnitude digital Comparator is a combinational circuit that compares two digital

or binary numbers in order to find out whether one binary number is equal, less than
or greater than the other binary number.
 1-Bit Magnitude Comparator

• Parity Code Method: A parity bit is an extra bit included in binary message to make
total number of 1’s either odd or even. Parity word denotes number of 1’s in a binary
string.

• Multiplexer: A Multiplexer or Mux is a device that has many inputs and a single
output. It selects a single input to the output from several inputs.

✓ Also called data selector

✓ Used in computer
memory, telephone
networks etc.

8 = 23

• Demultiplexer: A Demultiplexer or Demux is a circuit which can distribute or deliver

multiple outputs from a single input. The output lines of demultiplexer are ‘N’ in
number, select line number is ‘M’ and N = 2M.
 o Demux are widely used in microprocessor, computers and digital
electronics.
• Decoder is a combinational logic circuit whose purpose is to decode the information.
It is comprised of n number of input lines and 2n number of output lines.
o It is used to convert the data from one form to another form. Generally, these
are frequently used in the communication systems like telecommunication,
networking, and transfer the data from one end to the other end.
• 7-segment display

IC 7447

• Encoder:

• ALU: In computing, an arithmetic logic unit is a combinational digital circuit that

performs arithmetic and bitwise operations on integer binary numbers.

Module 4: Sequential circuit

A combinational circuit is a digital circuit type where

the output is only a pure function of the present
input. Eg. Adder, Subtractor, Comparator

The sequential circuit is a digital circuit type whose

output relies not just on the current values of the
input signals it has but it depends on the past
sequence of inputs as well.

Sequential circuits can be Asynchronous or Synchronous.

 • Asynchronous sequential circuits change their states and output values whenever a
change in input values occurs. Circuit output can change at any time (clock less).
• Synchronous sequential circuits change their states and output values at fixed points
of time. This type of circuits achieves synchronization by using a timing signal called
the clock.
• Latch: A latch is a memory element whose excitation signals control the state of the
device (based on enable function input). A latch has two stages set and reset. Set →
1; Reset → 0
o Also called level triggered flip-flops because the change on the outputs will
follow the changes of the inputs as long as the Enable input is set.
o This causes synchronization problems. Solution: use latches to create flip-flops
that can respond (update) only at specific times (instead of any time).
• Flip-flops: A flip-flop is a memory device that has clock signals to control the state of
the device.
o Flip-flops are Edge triggered that change their outputs only at the transition of
the clock signal.

S-RFlipflop
S-R Flipflop D Flipflop

In SR Flip Flop S=R=1 should be avoided. To overcome that JK Flip Flop was developed.

When J=1, K=1, Toggle i.e Q’n

For JK flip-flop if J, K and Clock are equal to 1 the state of flip-flop keeps on toggling which
leads to uncertainty in determining the output of the flipflop. This problem is called Race
around the condition.
This can be avoided by
❖ Using Edge triggering of JK Flip Flop A timing diagram is the graphical representation of
❖ Enhancing the propagation delay input and output signals as functions of time.
❖ Using Master-Slave Flip Flop
A flip flop is used to store single bit digital data. For storing a large number of bits, the storage capacity is
increased by grouping more than one flip flops. Register is a collection of flip flops. A register capable of
shifting its binary information in one or both direction is called a shift register. All flip-flops receive common
clock pulses, which activate the shift from one stage to the next.

▪ Modulus of a counter is the total number of states through which a counter can progress.
▪ Two types of counters:
❖ Synchronous (parallel) counters Up/Down counter
❖ Asynchronous (ripple) counters A binary counter can represent 2^N states, where N is the number of bits
(flip flops).

Whereas a straight ring counter can represent only N states.

Johnson counter can represent 2N states.

• A ring counter is a type of counter composed of flip flops working as shift register, with the
output of the last flip-flop fed to the input of the first, making a "circular" or "ring" structure.
• A twisted ring counter, also called switch-tail ring counter, Johnson counter connects the
complement of the output of the last shift register to the input of the first register and circulates
a stream of ones followed by zeros around the ring.
Module 5
• Moore Machine: In a Moore machine, outputs depend solely on the current internal
state.
• Mealy Machine: In a Mealy machine, outputs depend on both the current internal state
and the inputs
• Digital to Analog Converters (DAC): DACs convert digital code into a proportional analog
voltage or current.
o Types
▪ Weighted Resistor DAC: This type uses an op-amp with weighted resistors to sum the
contributions of each bit.
▪ R-2R Ladder DAC: This type uses a network of R and 2R resistors, simplifying the required
resistor values.
• Analog to Digital Converters (ADC): ADCs convert analog quantities into digital form. The
conversion involves sampling and holding the analog signal, then quantizing and encoding
it into a digital representation.
o Types:
▪ Flash ADC: This is a fast converter that uses comparators to compare the input voltage
with a set of reference voltages.
▪ Successive Approximation ADC: This type uses a comparator, DAC, and successive
approximation register (SAR) to iteratively approximate the analog input.

• Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs): PLDs are ICs that can be configured by the user to
implement various logic functions.
o Types
▪ PAL (Programmable Array Logic): A PLD with a programmable AND array and a fixed OR
array.
▪ PLA (Programmable Logic Array): A PLD with both programmable AND and OR arrays,
offering more flexibility.
▪ FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array): A more complex PLD with configurable logic
blocks and interconnects.

Verilog is a hardware description language used to model and design digital circuits.