Department of Mathematics

LINEAR ALGEBRA - I

Topic Learning Objectives:

Upon Completion of this unit, students will be able to:
• Understand the concept of vector spaces and subspaces, basis and dimension of these
vector spaces and subspaces.
• Find the four fundamental subspaces w.r.t. a given matrix, find the rank and nullity
w.r.t. the given matrix and hence verify the rank-nullity theorem.
• Study Linear transformations, with projection, rotation and reflection matrices as spe-
cial cases.
• Obtain the matrix representation, Kernel and image of a linear transformation.
Introduction:
This unit deals with the vectors, which are functions arising in engineering systems. We
study the linear combination of these vectors that is the combination of addition of two vec-
tors and multiplication of a vector by a scalar. In applications of linear algebra, subspaces
usually arise in one of two ways-the set of all solutions to a system of homogeneous linear
equations or as the set of all linear combinations of certain specified vectors. We study null
spaces and column spaces which describe these situations. Next we study the transforma-
tion of vectors from one vector space to another, whose applications can be seen in computer
graphics and signal processing.

Vector Spaces:
Let F be a field , V be a non-empty set. For every ordered pair α, β ∈ V , let there be
defined uniquely a sum α + β and for every α ∈ V , and c in F a scalar product c.α ∈ V .
The set V is called a vector space over the field F , if the following axioms are satisfied for
every α, β, γ ∈ V and for every c, c0 ∈ F .
(i) α + β ∈ V ,
(ii) (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ),
(iii) Identity element w.r.t addition exists.
i.e, ∃ e ∈ V s.t. α + e = e + α = α,
(iv) Inverse element w.r.t addition exists.
i.e, ∃ α−1 ∈ V s.t. α + α−1 = e = α−1 + α,
(v) α + β = β + α,
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.α + c.β,
(vii) (c + c0 ).α = c.α + c0 .α,
(viii) (c.c0 ).α = c.(c0 .α)
(ix) 1.α = α, ∀α ∈ V , where 1 is the unit element of F .

Examples:
1. Let F be a field and n be a positive integer. Let Vn (F ) be the set of all ordered n tupples
of the elements of the field F . i.e, Vn (F ) = {(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )/xi ∈ F }.
Define addition and scalar multiplication as below:
(a) α + β = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (y1 , y2 , ..., yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn )
(b) c.α = c.(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = (c.x1 , c.x2 , ..., c.xn ), ∀c ∈ F .
Solution:
(i) α + β = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn ) ∈ Vn (F )
(ii) (α + β) + γ
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn ) + (z1 , z2 , ..., zn )
= ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 , ..., (xn + yn ) + zn )

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= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ), ..., xn + (yn + zn ))

(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , ..., yn + zn )
= α + (β + γ)
(iii) α + 0 = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (0, 0, ..., 0)
= (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= (0, 0, ..., 0) + (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
=0+α
∴ 0 = (0, 0, ..., 0) is the identity.
(iv) α + (−α) = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (−x1 , −x2 , ..., −xn )
= (x1 − x1 , x2 − x2 , ..., xn − xn )
= (0, 0, ..., 0)
=0
∴ −α = (−x1 , −x2 , ..., −xn ) is the additive inverse of α = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
(v) α + β = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + (y1 , y2 , ..., yn )
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn )
= (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 , ..., yn + xn )
= (y1 , y2 , ..., yn ) + (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
=β+α
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xn + yn )
= (c.(x1 + y1 ), c.(x2 + y2 ), ..., c.(xn + yn ))
= (c.x1 , c.x2 , ..., c.xn ) + (c.y1 , c.y2 , ..., c.yn )
= c.(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + c.(y1 , y2 , ..., yn )
= c.α + c.β
(vii) (c + c0 )α = (c + c0 )(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= ((c + c0 )x1 , (c + c0 )x2 , ..., (c + c0 )xn )
= (cx1 + c0 x1 , cx2 + c0 x2 , ..., cxn + c0 xn )
= (c.x1 , c.x2 , ..., c.xn ) + (c0 .x1 , c0 .x2 , ..., c0 .xn )
= c.(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) + c0 .(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= cα + c0 α
(viii) (c.c0 ).α = (c.c0 ).(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= ((c.c0 ).x1 , (c.c0 ).x2 , ..., (c.c0 ).xn )
= (c.(c0 .x1 ), c.(c0 .x2 ), ..., c.(c0 .xn ))
= c.(c0 .x1 , c0 .x2 , ..., c0 .xn )
= c.(c0 .(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= c.(c0 .α)
(ix) 1.α = 1.(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= (1.x1 , 1.x2 , ..., 1.xn )
= (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
=α
Thus Vn (F ) is a vector space over the field F .

Note:
(i) With F = R, V1 (R), V2 (R), V3 (R) are all vector spaces. They are also denoted as R1 , R2 , R3
respectively. The elements of R1 , R2 , R3 are real numbers, plane vectors and space vectors
respectively.
(ii) If F = R, Vn (R) is denoted as Rn .
If F = C, Vn (C) is denoted as Cn .
√
2. Show that V = {a + b 2/a, b ∈ Q}, where Q is the set of all rationals, is a vector

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space under usual addition and scalar multiplication.

Solution: √ √ √
Let α = a1 + b1 2, √ β = a2 + b2 2,√γ = a3 + b3 2 ∈ V and c, c0 ∈ Q
(i) α + β = (a1 + b1 2) + (a √2 + b2 2) ∈ V√ √
(ii) (α + β) + γ = ((a1 + b1 2) + (a2 + b2 2)) + (a3 + b3 2) = α + (β + γ)
(iii) 0 is the additive√identity, as 0 + α = α = α + 0.
(iv) −α = −a1 − b1 √2 is the additive √ inverse of α as α + (−α) = 0 = (−α) + α.
(v) α + β = (a1 + b1 2) + √ (a2 + b2 2) = √β + α.
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.((a1 + b1 2) + √ (a2 + b2 2))0 = c.α + c.β.
(vii) (c + c0 )α = (c + c0 )(a1 + b
√ 1 2) = 0c.α + c α.
0 0
√ 1 + b1 2) =√c.(c .α).
(viii) (c.c )α = (c.c )(a
(ix)1.α = 1.(a1 + b1 2) = a1 + b1 2 = α.
Thus V is a vector space over Q .

3. Let V be the set of all polynomials of degree ≤ n, with coefficients in the field
F , together with zero polynomial. Then show that V is a vector space under addition
of polynomials and scalar multiplication of polynomials with the scalar c ∈ F defined by
c(a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn ) = ca0 + ca1 x + ... + can xn .
Solution:
(i) Sum of polynomials is again a polynomial
(ii) Sum of polynomials will be associative.
(iii) 0 is the additive identity.
(iv) If α = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn then −α = −a0 − a1 x − ... − an xn is the additive inverse.
(v) Sum of polynomials is commutative.
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.α + c.β will hold.
(vii) (c + c0 ).α = c.α + c0 .α will hold.
(viii) (c.c0 ).α = c.(c0 .α) will hold.
(ix) 1.α = 1.(a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn ) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn = α.
Thus V is a vector space over F .
 
x y
4. Let V = { /x, y ∈ C} under usual addition and scalar multiplication, with
−y x
field C of complex numbers. Show that V is a vector space.
Solution:      
x1 y 1 x2 y 2 x3 y 3
Let α = ,β= ,γ= ∈V
−y1 x1 −y2 x2 −y3 x3
and c1 = a1 + b1 i, c2 = a2 + b2 i ∈ C.
(i) α + β ∈ V ,
(ii) (α + β) + γ = α + (β  + γ),
0 0 0 0
(iii) α + =α= + α.
  0 0 0 0
0 0
∴ is the additive identity.
0 0  
−x1 −y1
(iv) −α = is the additive inverse.
y1 −x1
(v) α + β = β + α will hold.
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.α + c.β will hold.
(vii) (c + c0 ).α = c.α + c0 .α will hold.
(viii) (c.c0 ).α = c.(c0 .α) will hold.

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x1 y 1 x1 y 1
(ix) 1.α = 1. = = α.
−y1 x1 −y1 x1
Thus V is a vector space over C.

5. Let R+ be the set of all positive integers. Define the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as below:
α + β = αβ, ∀ α, β ∈ R+
c.α = αc , α ∈ R+ and c ∈ R
Show that R+ is a vector space over the real field.
Solution:
(i) α + β = αβ ∈ R+ .
(ii) (α + β) + γ = (αβ) + γ = (αβ)γ = α(βγ) = α + βγ = α + (β + γ).
(iii) α + 1 = α.1 = α = 1.α = 1 + α.
1 1 1 1
(iv) α + = α. = 1 = .α = + α.
α α α α
1
∴ is the additive inverse of α.
α
(v) α + β = α.β = β.α = β + α.
(vi) c.(α + β) = c.(αβ) = (αβ)c = αc β c = αc + β c = c.α + c.β.
0 0
(vii) (c + c0 )α = α(c+c ) = αc αc = αc + αc0 = c.α + c0 .α.
0 0 0 0
(viii) (c.c0 ).α = α(c.c ) = α(c .c) = (αc )c = c(αc ) = c.(c0 α)
(ix) 1.α = α1 = α, where 1 is the unit element of R+ .

Exercise:
1. If R is the field of real numbers and V is the set of vectors in a plane, further if addition
of vectors is the internal binary composition in V and the multiplication of elements of R
with those of V as the external composition, prove that V (R) is a vector space.
2. Let R be the field of real numbers and let P3 be the set of all polynomials of degree at
most 3, over the field R. Prove that P3 is a vector space over the field R.

Subspaces:
A non empty subset W of a vector space V over a field F is called a subspace of V , if W is
itself a vector space over F , under the same operations of addition and scalar multiplication
as defined in V .
Note:
(i) The set {0} consisting of zero vector of V is a subspace of V .
(ii) The whole vector space V , itself is a subspace of V .
These two subspaces are called trivial or improper subspaces of V .
Any subspace W of V different from {0} and V is called a proper subspace of V .

Theorem: A non empty subset W of a vector space V over a field F is a subspace of

V , if and only if (i) ∀α, β ∈ W , α + β ∈ W (ii) ∀c ∈ F, α ∈ W, c.α ∈ W .

Examples:
1. Verify whether W = {f (x)/2f (0) = f (1)} over 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, is a subspace of V =
{all functions} over the field R.
Solution:
Let f1 , f2 ∈ W .
Thus 2f1 (0) = f1 (1) and 2f2 (0) = f2 (1)
Consider, 2(f1 + f2 )(0) = 2[f1 (0) + f2 (0)]

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= 2f1 (0) + 2f2 (0)

= f1 (1) + f2 (1)
= (f1 + f2 )(1)
Thus, f1 + f2 ∈ W . i.e., W is closed under vector addition.
Consider, 2(cf1 )(0) = (2c)f1 (0)
= c.2f1 (0)
= c.f1 (1)
= (cf1 )(1).
Thus cf1 ∈ W i.e., W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Hence W is a subspace.

2. Is the subset W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 )/x21 + x22 + x33 ≤ 1} of V3 (R) a subspace of V3 (R)?

Solution:
Let α = (1, 0, 0), where 12 + 02 + 02 = 1 and β = (0, 1, 0), where 02 + 12 + 02 = 1 be two
vectors in W .
Consider α + β = (1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0), where, 12 + 12 + 02 = 2  1.
Hence α + β 6∈ W . ∴ W is not a subspace.

3. Show that the subset W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 )/x1 + x2 + x3 = 0} of the vector space V3 (R)
is a subspace of V3 (R).
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), β = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) be any two elements of W .
Then, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 and y1 + y2 + y3 = 0.
Consider, c1 α + c2 β = c1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) + c2 (y1 , y2 , y3 )
= (c1 x1 , c1 x2 , c1 x3 ) + (c2 y1 , c2 y2 , c2 y3 )
= (c1 x1 + c2 y1 , c1 x2 + c2 y2 , c1 x3 + c2 y3 )
To show that c1 α + c2 β ∈ W , we have to show that the sum of the components of c1 α + c2 β
is zero.
∴ consider c1 x1 + c2 y1 + c1 x2 + c2 y2 + c1 x3 + c2 y3
= c1 (x1 + x2 + x3 ) + c2 (y1 + y2 + y3 )
= c1 .0 + c2 .0
=0
∴ c1 α + c2 β ∈ W , hence W ia a subspace of V3 (R).

4. Verify whether W = { Polynomial of degreee three } defined on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is a

subspace of the vector space V = { all polynomials } over R.
Solution:
The set of all polynomials of degree three is not a subspace, as the sum of two polynomials
of degree three need not be of degree three.
∵ f1 (x) = 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 1, f2 (x) = −3x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 5
=⇒ f1 (x) + f2 (x) = −x2 + 4x + 6 which is not a polynomial of degree three.
Hence W is not a subspace of V

5. Let V = R3 , the vector space of all ordered triplets of real numbers, over the field of
real numbers. Show that the subset W = {(x, 0, 0)/x ∈ R} is a subspace of V = R3 .
Solution:
The element 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ W .
Thus W is non-empty.
Let α1 = (x1 , 0, 0) and α2 + (x2 , 0, 0) be any two elements of W .

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Then α1 + α2 = (x1 , 0, 0) + (x2 , 0, 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0, 0) ∈ W .

∴ W is closed under addition.
Again, for any scalar c ∈ R,
c.α1 = c.(x1 , 0, 0) = (cx1 , 0, 0) ∈ W
∴ W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Hence W is a subspace of R3 .

Exercise:
1. Let H = {a−3b, b−a, a, b} where a and b are arbitrary scalars. Show that H is a subspace
of R4 .
2. Let V be a vector space of all 2 x 2 matrices over reals. Determine whether W is a
sub-space of V or not, where
(i) W consists of all matrices with non-zero determinant.
2
(ii) W consists
 of all
 matrices A such that A = A.
a 0
(iii) W = { , where a, b ∈ R}.
0 b
Answer: (i) W is not a subspace. (ii) W is not a subspace. (iii) W is a subspace.

Linear Combination
Let V be a vector space over the field F and α1 , α2 , ..., αn be any n vectors of V . The vector
of the form, c1 α1 + c2 α2 + ... + cn αn , where c1 , c2 , ..., cn ∈ F , is called a linear combination
of the vectors α1 , α2 , ..., αn .
Linear Span of S
Let S be a non empty subset of a vector space V (F ). The set of all linear combinations of
finite number of elements of S is called the linear span of S and is denoted by L[S].
i.e, L[S] = {c1 α1 +c2 α2 +...+cn αn /ci ∈ F, αi ∈ S, i = 1, 2, ..., n and n is any positive integer}
If α ∈ L[S], then α is of the form, α = c1 α1 + c2 α2 + ... + cn αn , for some scalars c1 , c2 , ..., cn
∈ F.
Theorem: Let S be a non-empty subset of a vector space V [F ]. Then
(i) L[S] is a subspace of V
(ii) S ⊆ L[S]
(iii) L[S] is the smallest subspace of V containing S.
Linear Dependence and Independence
A set {α1 , α2 , ..., αn } of vectors of a vector space V [F ] is said to be linearly dependent if
there exists scalars c1 , c2 , ..., cn ∈ F , not all zero such that c1 α1 + c2 α2 + ... + cn αn = 0.
A set {α1 , α2 , ..., αn } of vectors of a vector space V [F ] is said to be linearly independent if
c1 α1 + c2 α2 + ... + cn αn = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = ... = cn = 0.

Examples:
1. Show that the vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, ...0), ...en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 1) of the
vector space Vn (R) are linearly independent.
Solution:
Let c1 , c2 , ..., cn ∈ R
Consider c1 e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en = 0
=⇒ c1 (1, 0, 0, ..., 0) + c2 (0, 1, 0, ...0) + ... + cn (0, 0, 0, ..., 1) = (0, 0, 0, ..., 0)
=⇒ (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ) = (0, 0, 0, ..., 0)
=⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0, ..., cn = 0
i.e., e1 , e2 , e3 , ..., en are linearly independent.

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2. Show that the set S = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (−1, 0, −1)} is linearly dependent in V3 (R).
Solution:
Consider c1 (1, 0, 1) + c2 (1, 1, 0) + c3 (−1, 0, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (c1 + c2 − c3 , c2 , c1 − c3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ c1 + c2 − c3 = 0, c2 = 0, c1 − c3 = 0
=⇒ c1 = 1, c2 = 0, c3 = 1
Thus there exists, not all zeros, scalars, such that c1 (1, 0, 1) + c2 (1, 1, 0) + c3 (−1, 0, −1) =
(0, 0, 0)
∴ S is linearly dependent.

Note:
1.The set {(x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 ), (z1 , z2 , z3 )} of vectors of the vector space V3 (R) is linearly
x1 x2 x3
dependent iff y1 y2 y3 = 0
z1 z2 z3
2. Two vectors α, β ∈ V2 (R) are linearly dependent iff α = kβ for some non zero k ∈ R
3. A set of vectors of V , containing the zero vector is linearly dependent.
4. The set consisting of a single vector α of V is linearly independent iff α 6= 0.

Exercise:
1. Determine
 if the following
 sets of vectors
 are linearly
 independent or linearly dependent.
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
v1 = , v2 = , v1 = .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Answer: Linearly independent.
2.
 Check
  forthe  linear
 independence/dependence of the column vectors
1 2 1
 2 ,  6 ,  3 
0 2 5
Answer: Linearly independent.
3. Let V be a vector space of real valued derivable functions on (0, ∞), then show that the
set S = {x2 ex , xex , (x2 + x − 1)ex } is linearly independent.
4. In a P2 let v1 = 2t2 + t + 2; v2 = t2 − 2t; v3 = 5t2 − 5t + 2; v4 = −t2 − 3t − 2. Determine
if the vector u = t2 + t + 2 belongs to the span{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }. (Here P2 is the vector space
of all polynomials of degree at the most n over the field of real numbers).
Answer: Yes, u = t2 + t + 2 belongs to the span{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }.

Basis
A subset B of a vector space V [F ] is called a basis of V if
(i) B is a linearly independent set
(ii) L[B] = V
i.e., a basis of a vector space V [F ] is linearly independent subset which spans the whole space.

Note: The zero vector cannot be an element of a basis of a vector space because a set
of vectors with zero vector is always linearly dependent.

Examples:
1. Show that the vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, ...0), ...en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 1) of the
vector space Vn (R) form a basis of Vn (R).
Solution:

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Consider S = {e1 , e2 , ..., en }

c1 e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en = 0
=⇒ c1 (1, 0, ..., 0) + c2 (0, 1, ..., 0) + ... + cn (0, 0, ..., 1) = (0, 0, ..., 0)
=⇒ (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ) = (0, 0, ..., 0)
c1 = 0, c2 = 0, ..., cn = 0
Hence S is linearly independent.
Further, any vector (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) ∈ Vn (R) can be expressed as a linear combination of the
elements of S, as (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + ... + xn en . Hence L[S] = Vn (R)
∴ S is a basis of Vn (R).

Standard Basis
The basis S = {e1 , e2 , ..., en } of the vector space Vn (R) is called the standard basis.
example: The vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1) of V3 (R) form a basis of V3 (R),
and is called the standard basis.

2. Show that the set B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)} is a basis of the vector space V3 (R).
Solution:
Let B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)}
Consider, c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (1, 0, 1) + c3 (0, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (c1 + c2 , c + 1 + c3 , c2 + c3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ c1 + c2 = 0, c1 + c3 = 0, c2 + c3 = 0
=⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0
∴ B is linearly independent.
Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ V3 (R) be arbitrary.
Let c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R, such that
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (1, 0, 1) + c3 (0, 1, 1)
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (c1 + c2 , c1 + c3 , c2 + c3 )
=⇒ x1 = c1 + c2 , x2 = c1 + c3 , x3 = c2 + c3
x1 + x2 − x3 x1 − x2 + x3 −x1 + x2 + x3
=⇒ c1 = , c2 = , c3 =
2 2 2
x1 + x2 − x3 x1 − x2 + x3 −x1 + x2 + x3
∴ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 1) + (0, 1, 1)
2 2 2
∴ L[B] = V3 (R)

Exercise:
1. Let W be a subspace of R4 spanned by the vectors α1 = (1, 2, 2, 1); α2 = (0, 2, 0, 1);
α3 = (−2, 0, −4, 3). Prove that α1 , α2 , α3 form a basis for W.
2. Find the basis for the subspace spanned by the vectors
 T  T  T  T
v1 = 1 0 0 −1 , v2 = 1 0 −1 0 , v3 = 1 −1 0 0 , v4 = 0 1 −1 0 ,
 T  T
v5 = 0 0 1 −1 , v6 = 0 1 0 −1 .
Answer: Basis= {v1 , v2 , v3 }.
3. Show that the vectors α1 = (1, 0, −1), α2 = (1, 2, 1), α3 = (0, −3, 2) form a basis for R3 .
Express each of the standard basis vector as a linear combination of α1 , α2 , α3 .
Answer: e1 = 0.7α1 +0.3α2 +0.2α3 , e2 = −0.2α1 +0.2α2 −0.2α3 , e1 = −0.3α1 +0.3α2 +0.2α3 .

Dimension of a vector space V

The dimension of a finite dimensional vector space V over F is the number of elements in
any basis of V and is denoted by d[V ].
example: Vn (R) is a n dimensional space.
V3 (R) is a 3 dimensional space.

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 Department of Mathematics

Finite dimensional space

A vector space V [F ] is said to be a finite dimensional space if it has a finite basis.

Note:
(i) Any two bases of a finite dimensional vector space V have the same finite number of
elements.
(ii) A vector space which is not finitely generated may be called an infinite dimensional
space.
(iii) In an n dimensional vector space V (F )
(a) any n + 1 elements of V are linearly dependent.
(b) no set of n − 1 elements can span V .
(iv) In an n dimensional vector space V (F ) any set of n linearly independent vectors is a
basis.
(v) Any linearly independent set of elememts of a finite dimensional vector space V is a part
of a basis.
(vi) For n vectors of n−dimensional vector space V , to be a basis, it is sufficient that they
span V or that they are Linearly independent.

Examples:
1. Let A = {(1, −2, 5), (2, 3, 1)} be a linearly independent subset of V3 (R). Extend this to a
basis of V3 (R).
Solution:
Let α1 = (1, −2, 5), α2 = (2, 3, 1)
Let S be the subspace spanned by {α1 , α2 }
∴ S = {c1 α1 + c2 α2 /c1 , c2 ∈ R}
c1 α1 + c2 α2 = c1 (1, −2, 5) + c2 (2, 3, 1)
= (c1 + 2c2 , −2c1 + 3c2 , 5c1 + c2 )
∴ S = {(c1 + 2c2 , −2c1 + 3c2 , 5c1 + c2 )/c1 , c2 ∈ R}
Chose a vector of V3 (R), outside of S.
(1, 0, 0) 6∈ S
∴ the set A = {(1, −2, 5), (2, 3, 1), (1, 0, 0)} is a basis of V3 (R).

2. Given two linearly independent vectors (2, 1, 4, 3)&(2, 1, 2, 0), find a basis of V4 (R)
that includes these two vectors.
Solution:
α1 = (2, 1, 4, 3), α2 = (2, 1, 2, 0)
S = {c1 α1 + c2 α2 /c1 , c2 ∈ R}
Choose α3 = (1, 0, 0, 0) & α4 = (0, 1, 0, 0) 6∈ S
∴ {α1 , α2 , α3 , α4 } is a basis of V4 (R).

The non-zero rows of a row-reduced echelon form of a matrix are linearly independent.

3. Test the following set of vectors for linear dependence in V3 (R).

{(1, 0, 1), (0, 2, 2), (3, 7, 1)}. Do they form a basis?
Solution:  
1 0 1
Consider the matrix A = 0 2 2
3 7 1

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 Department of Mathematics

|A| = 1(2 − 14) − 0(0 − 6) + 1(0 − 6) = −18 6= 0.

Therefore the given set in linearly independent.
Any three vectors in V3 (R) which are linearly independent is a basis of V3 (R).

4. Does the set S = {(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 0), (−2, 1, 3)} form a basis of R3 .
Solution:  
1 2 3
Consider A =  3 1 0
−2 1 3
|A| = 1(3 − 0) − 2(9 + 0) + 3(3 + 2) = 0.
∴ S is linearly dependent and hence is not a basis of R3 .

5. Show that the vectors (1, 1, 2, 4), (2, −1, −5, 2), (1, −1, −4, 0), (2, 1, 1, 6) are linearly
dependent in R4 and extract a linearly independent subset. Also find the dimension and a
basis of the subspace spanned by them.
Solution:  
1 1 2 4
2 −1 −5 2
Consider A =  1 −1 −4 0


2 1 1 6
R2 =R2 − 2R1 ; R3 = R  − R1 ; R4 = R4 − 2R1 =⇒
3
1 1 2 4
0 −3 −9 −6
A= 0 −2 −6 −4


0 −1 −3 −2
R2 =R2 ÷ (−3) =⇒ 
1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
A= 0 −2 −6 −4


0 −1 −3 −2
R3 =R3 + 2R2 ; R4 = R4 + R2 =⇒
1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
A= 0 0 0 0


0 0 0 0
The final matrix is in echelon form and the rank of A is 2. Therefore the given vectors are
linearly dependent.
The corresponding non-zero rows of the initial matrix are (1, 1, 2, 4) &(2, −1, −5, 2), which
are linearly independent.
The dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors is 2. These two vectors form a basis
of the subspace.

6. Let S be the subspace of R3 defined by S = {(a, b, c)/a + b + c = 0}. Find a basis and
dimension of S.
Solution:
S 6= R3 [∵ (1, 2, 3) ∈ R3 but(1, 2, 3) 6∈ S]
α = (1, 0, −1) & β = (1, −1, 0) ∈ S and further they are independent.
∴ d[S] = 2 and hence {α, β} forms a basis of S.

7. Show that the field C of complex numbers is a vector space over the field R of reals.

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 Department of Mathematics

What is its dimension?

Solution:
C = {a + ib/a, b ∈ R}
C is closed under 0 +0 .
C is associative under 0 +0 .
0 + i0 is the identity w.r.t 0 +0 .
−a − ib is the inverse of a + ib.
C is commutative.
Hence (C, +) is an abelian group.
c.((a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 )) = c.(a1 + ib1 ) + c.(a2 + ib2 ) ∈ C
(c1 + c2 ).(a1 + ib1 ) = c1 .(a1 + ib1 ) + c2 .(a1 + ib1 ) ∈ C
0 0
(c.c ).(a1 + ib1 ) = c.(c .(a1 + ib1 )) ∈ C
0 0
1 is the unity
Therefore C is a vector space over R
Let α ∈ C, α = a + ib s.t. a, b ∈ R
∴ α = 1.a + i.b = a.1 + b.i
i.e., every element of C is a linear combination of the elements 1, i. That is {1, i} generates
C.
Further c1 .1 + c2 .i = 0 =⇒ c1 = 0&c2 = 0
∴ {1, i} is linearly independent.
∴ {1, i} is a basis of C and d[C] = 2.

8. Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 symmetric matrices over the field F . Show that
d[V ] = 3.
Solution:  
a b
Let A = ∈ V, a, b, c ∈ F .
b c
Set a = 1, b = 0, c = 0; a = 0,b = 1,  c = 0; a = 0,b = 0, c =  1 
1 0 0 1 0 0
We get three matrices E1 = , E2 = , E3 =
0 0 1 0 0 1
We shall showthat these elements of V form a basis.
a b
Let A = ∈ V be arbitrary.
b c       
a b 1 0 0 1 0 0
Then, A = =a +b +c
b c 0 0 1 0 0 1
Thus {E1 , E2 , E3 } generates V .
Suppose c1 E1+ c2 E2 + c 3 E3 = 0, c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ F 
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
=⇒ c1 + c2 + c3 =
 0 0  1  0 0 1 0 0
c1 c2 0 0
=⇒ = =⇒ c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.
c2 c3 0 0
∴ {E1 , E2 , E3 } is linearly independent.
Hence {E1 , E2 , E3 } is a basis of V and d[V ] = 3.

9. Find thebasis
 anddimension
 of the subspace
 spanned by the subset
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7
S={ , , , } of the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1
over R.
Solution:
Let α, β, γ, δ are the matrices of S.

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Then the coordinates of α, β, γ, δ w.r.t standard basis are

(1, −5, −4,2), (1, 1, −1, 5),(2, −4, −5, 7), (1, −7, −5, 1).
1 −5 −4 2
1 1 −1 5
Consider 2 −4 −5 7


1 −7 −5 1
R2 = R2 − R1 , R3 = R3 − 2R1 , R4 = R4 − R1 =⇒
 
1 −5 −4 2
0 6 3 3
 
0 6 3 3
0 −2 −1 −1
R3 = R3 − R2 , R4 = 3R4 + R2 =⇒
 
1 −5 −4 2
0 6 3 3
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
The final matrix has two non-zero rows.
∴ d(subspace) = 2.    
1 −5 0 6
Further the matrices corresponding to the non-zero rows in the final matrix are , .
−4 2 3 3
10. In a vector space V3 (R), let α = (1, 2, 1), β = (3, 1, 5) & γ = (−1, 3, −3). Show that
the subspace spanned by {α, β} & {α, β, γ} are the same.
Solution:  
1 2 1
Consider, A =  3 1 5 
−1 3 −3
1 2 1
|A| = 3 1 5 = 1(−3 − 15) − 2(−9 + 5) + 1(9 + 1) = −18 + 8 + 10 = 0
−1 3 −3
∴ {α, β, γ} is linearly dependent.
Let γ = c1 α + c2 β
(−1, 3, −3) = c1 (1, 2, 1) + c2 (3, 1, 5)
=⇒ (−1, 3, −3) = (c1 + 3c2 , 2c1 + c2 , c1 + 5c2 )
=⇒ c1 + 3c2 = −1, 2c1 + c2 = 3, c1 + 5c2 = −3
Solving these equations, we get c1 = 2, c2 = −1.
∴ γ ∈ subspace spanned by {α, β}.
∴ the subspace spanned by {α, β} & {α, β, γ} are the same.

Exercise:
1. Let V be
  a space of  2 x 2 matrices
 over
 R and let W be the sub-space
 generated
  by 
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7 1 −5 0 2
, , and . Show that (i) { , }
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1 −4 2 1 1
forms a basis set. (ii) dimW = 2.

Four Fundamental Subspaces

Null Space

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 Department of Mathematics

The null space of a m × n matrix A, written as Nul A, is the set of all solutions to the
homogrneous equation Ax = 0.
Theorem:
The null space of a m × n matrix A, is a subspace of Rn . Equivalently, the set of all solutions
to a system Ax = 0 of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns is a subspace of Rn .
Examples:  
  5
1 −3 −2
1. Let A = and u = 3 

−5 9 1
−2
Determine if u belongs to the null space of A.
Solution:  
  5    
1 −3 −2   5−9+4 0
Au = 3 = =
−5 9 1 −25 + 27 − 2 0
−2
∴ u is in Nul A.  
−3 6 −1 1 −7
2. Find a spanning set for the null space of the matrix  1 −2 2 3 −1
2 −4 5 8 −4
Solution:
Consider Ax = 0.
Reducing
 A to echelon form
−3 6 −1 1 −7
A =  1 −2 2 3 −1,
2 −4 5 8 −4
3R
 2 + R 1 , 3R3 + 2R1 =⇒

−3 6 −1 1 −7
 0 0 5 10 −10
0 0 13 26 −26
 2 ÷ 5, R3 ÷ 13 =⇒
R
−3 6 −1 1 −7
 0 0 1 2 −2
0 (0 0 0 0 (
−3x1 + 6x2 − x3 + x4 − 7x5 = 0 x1 = 2x2 − 13 x3 + 13 x4 − 73 x5
=⇒ =⇒
x3 + 2x4 − 2x5 = 0 x3 = −2x4 + 2x5
1 1 7
=⇒ x1 = 2x2 − 3 (−2x4 + 2x5 ) + 3 x4 − 3 x5
=⇒  x  2 + x4 − 3x5 , with
1 = 2x  x2 , 
x4 , x5 as free
 variables.
    
x1 2x2 + x4 − 3x5 x1 2 1 −3
x2   x x 1 0
2  2 0
        
       
∴ x3  =  −2x4 + 2x5  =⇒ x3  = x2 0 + x4 −2 + x5  2 
          

x4   x4  x4  0 1 0
x5 x5 x5 0 0 1
= x2 u + x4 v + x5 w.
Every linear combination of u, v, w is an element of NulA. Thus {u, v, w} is a spanning set
for NulA.
Column Space:
The Column space of an m×n matrix A, written as ColA, is the set of all linear combinations
of the columns of A.
If A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ], then ColA = span{a1 , a2 , ..., an }.
Theorem: The column space of a m × n matrix A is a subspace of Rm .

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 Department of Mathematics

Examples:
1. Find a matrix
 A such that W = ColA.
6a − b
W = { a + b  : a, b ∈ R}
−7a
Solution:
W can be written
 as
     
6 −1 6 −1
W = {a 1 + b 1 : a, b ∈ R} = span { 1 , 1 }
      
−7 0 −7 0  
6 −1
Using the vectors in the spanning set as the columns of A, we get A =  1 1 .
−7 0
Then W = ColA as desired.
Note: The column space of an m × n matrix A is all of Rm iff the equation Ax = b has a
solution for each b in Rm .
 
2 4 −2 1
2. Let A = −2 −5 7 3
3 7 −8 6
(a) If the column space of A is a subspace of Rk , what is k?
(b) If the null space of A is a subspace of Rk , what is k?
Solution:
(a) m = 3, ColA is a subspace of Rm , where m = 3. (b) n = 4, NullA is a subspace of Rn ,
where n = 4.  
2 4 −2 1
3. Let A = −2 −5 7 3, find a non-zero vector in ColA and a non-zero vector in
3 7 −8 6
NullA.
Solution:  
2
Any column of A belongs to ColA. eg. −2 ∈ ColA.
3
Consider
 Ax = 0 
2 4 −2 1 : 0
A = −2 −5 7 3 : 0
3 7 −8 6 : 0  
2 4 −2 1 : 0
R2 + R1 ; 2R3 − 3R1 =⇒ A = 0 −1 5 4 : 0
 0 2 −10  9 :0
2 4 −2 1 : 0
R3 + 2R2 =⇒ A = 0 −1 5 4 : 0

0 0 0 17 : 0
=⇒ 2x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 + x4 = 0; −x2 + 5x3 + 4x4 = 0; 17x4 = 0
=⇒ x4 = 0, x2 = 5x3 , x1 = −9x3 =⇒ x3 is a free variable.
Let x3 = 1, then x1 = −9, x2 = 5, x4 =0. The vector x = (−9, 5, 1, 0) ∈ NulA.
  3  
2 4 −2 1 −2 3
4. With A = −2 −5 7 3 , u =  , v = −1,
    
−1
3 7 −8 6 3
0
(a) Determine if u is in NulA. Could u be in ColA? (b) Determine if v is in ColA. Could v

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 Department of Mathematics

be in NulA?
solution:  
  3    
2 4 −2 1   0 0
−2    
(a) Consider Au = −2 −5 7 3  −1 = −3 6
= 0 .
3 7 −8 6 3 0
0
∴u∈ / NulA.
∵ u has 4 entries and ColA is subspace of R3 , u ∈ / ColA.
(b) Consider [A v]
 
2 4 −2 1 : 3
−2 −5 7 3 : −1
3 7 −8 6 : 3
 2 + R1 ; 2R3 − 3R1 =⇒
R 
2 4 −2 1 : 3
0 −1 5 4 : 2 
0 2 −10 9 : −6
R
 3 + 2R2 =⇒ 
2 4 −2 1 : 3
0 −1 5 4 : 2
0 0 0 17 : 0
=⇒ Ax = v is consistent.
∴ v is in ColA.
∵ v has 3 entries and NulA is a subspace of R4 , v ∈ / NulA.
Row Space:
If A is an m × n matrix, each row of A has n entries and this can be identified with a vector
in Rn . The set of all linear combinations of the row vectors is called the row space of A and
is denoted by RowA. Each row has n entries, so RowA is a subspace of Rn . Since the rows
of A are identified with the columns of AT , we could also write ColAT in place of RowA.
Examples:  
−2 −5 8 0 −17
1 3 −5 1 5 
1. Let A =   3 11 −19
.
7 1 
1 7 −13 5 − 3
Solution:
r1 = (−2, −5, 8, 0, 17)
r2 = (1, 3, −5, 1, 5)
r3 = (3, 11, −19, 7, 1)
r4 = (1, 7, −13, 5, −3)
The row space of A is the subspace of R5 spanned by {r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 }. That is RowA =
Span{r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 }.
Theorem:
If two matrices A and B are equivalent, then their row spaces are the same. If B is in eche-
lon form, then non-zero rows of B form a basis for the row space of A as well as for that of B.

2. Find the basis for the row space

 of
−2 −5 8 0 −17
1 3 −5 1 5 
A= 
 3 11 −19 7 1 
1 7 −13 5 − 3
Solution:

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 Department of Mathematics

To find
 the basis for the row space,  reduce A to echelon form.
−2 −5 8 0 −17
1 3 −5 1 5 
A=  3 11 −19

7 1 
1 7 −13 5 − 3
R
1 ←→ R 2 =⇒ 
1 3 −5 1 5
−2 −5 8 0 −17
 
 3 11 −19 7 1 
1 7 −13 5 − 3
 2 + 2R1 , R3 − 3R1 ,R4 − R1 =⇒
R
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7 
 
0 2 −4 4 −14
0 4 −8 4 −8
 3 − 2R2 , R4 − 4R2 =⇒
R
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −4 20
R3 ←→ R4 =⇒ 
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7
B= 0 0 0 −4 20 


0 0 0 0 0
The first three rows of B form a basis for the row space of A(as well as for the row space of
B).
Basis for RowA = {(1, 3, −5, 1, 5), (0, 1, −2, 2, −7), (0, 0, 0, −4, 20)}
3. Find
 the basis for the rowspace of
2 −3 6 2 5
−2 3 −3 −3 −4
A=  4 −6 9

5 9
−2 3 3 −4 1
Solution:
R2 +R1 , R3 − 2R1 , R4 + R1 =⇒
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
A= 0 0 −3 1 −1


0 0 9 −2 6
R3 +R2 , R4 − 3R2 =⇒
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
A= 0 0 0 0 0


0 0 0 1 3
 
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
R3 ←→ R4 =⇒ A =  0 0 0 1 3


0 0 0 0 0
The first three rows of B form the basis for the rowspace of A.
RowA = {(2, −3, 6, 2, 5), (0, 0, 3, −1, 1), (0, 0, 0, 1, 3)}

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 Department of Mathematics

Left null space

The left null space of an m × n matrix A written as Nul(AT ), is the set of all solutions to
the homogeneous equation AT y = 0.
Theorem
The left null space of an m × n matrix A is a subspace of Rm . Equivalently, the set of all
solutions to a system AT y = 0 n homogeneous linear equations in m unknowns is a subspace
of Rm .

Examples:
   
1 2 −3
1. Let A = and v = .
3 6 1
Determine if v belongs to the left null space of A.
Solution:
      
T −3 −3 −3 + 3 0
A v= = =
1 1 −6 + 6 0
∴ v is in NulAT .
 
1 0 0
2. Find a spanning set for the left null space of the matrix .
0 0 0
Solution:
 
1 0
AT = 0 0
0 0 

1 0    
y 0
A y = 0 0 1 =
T
y2 0
0 0
=⇒ y1 = 0, y2 is a free
  variable.
y1 0 0
= = y1 = y2 u.
y2 y2 1
∴ every linear combination of u is an element of NulAT . Thus {u} is a spanning set of NulAT .

Example:
1. Find the dimension
  and basis for the four fundamental subspaces of the matrix A =
1 3 3 2
2 6 9 7.
−1 −3 3 4
Solution:
R2 − 2R1 , R
 3 + R1 =⇒
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 3
0 0 6 6
 3 − 2R2 =⇒
R 
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 3
0 0 0 0
 2 ÷ 3 =⇒ 
R
1 3 3 2
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
Ax = 0 =⇒ x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 = 0, 3x3 + 3x4 = 0

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 Department of Mathematics

=⇒ x3 = −x4 , x1 = 3x2 + x4
x
2 , x4 are free variables.
    
x1 −3x2 + x4 −3 1
x2   x 1
2 0
    
 =
x3   −x4  = x2  0  + x4 −1
  

x4 x4 0 1
∴ {(−3, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, −1, 1)} forms a basis of NulA and dim(NulA) = 2.
{(1, 2, −1), (3, 9, 3)} forms a basis of ColA and dim(ColA) = 2.
{(1, 3, 3, 2), (2, 6, 
9, 7)} forms a basis of RowA and dim(Row)A = 2.
1 2 −1
3 6 −3
AT =  3 9 3 


2 7 4
R
 2 − 3R 3 − 3R1 , R4 − 2R1 =⇒
1, R
1 2 −1
0 0 0 
 
0 3 6 
0 0 0
R2 ←→ R3=⇒

1 2 −1
0 3 6 
 
0 0 0 
0 0 0
 
1 2 −1
0 1 2 
R2 ÷ 3 =⇒  0 0 0 


0 0 0
T
A
 y = 0 =⇒ 
1 2 −1    
0 1 2  y1 0
  y2  = 0
0 0 0 
y3 0
0 0 0
 y1 + 2y2 −y3 = 0,y2 +
=⇒  2y3 = 0 =⇒ y2 = −2y3 , y1 = −2y2 + y3 = 4y3 + y3 = 5y3
y1 5y3 5
y2  = −2y3  = y3 −2
y3 y3 1
∴ {(5, −2, 1)} forms a basis of Nul(AT ) and dimNul(AT ) = 1.
The dimension of the column space of A, is called the rank of A.
Since RowA is the same as ColAT , the dimension of the row space of A is the rank of AT .
The dimension of the null space is called the nullity of A.

Rank-Nullity Theorem:
For an m × n matrix A, rank A + nullity A = n.
Examples:
1. If A is a 7 × 9 matrix with two dimensional null space, what is the rank of A?
Solution:
rank + nullity = 9 =⇒ rank + 2 = 9 =⇒ rank = 7.
2. Could a 6 × 9 matrix have a two-dimensional null space?
Solution:
rank + nullity = 9 =⇒ rank + 2 = 9 =⇒ rank = 7, which contradicts that basis of ColA

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is a subspace of R6
∴ a 6 × 9 matrix cannot have a two-dimensional null space.

Exercise:    
1 3 −5 −3
1. Determine if u =  3  is in NulA, where A =  6 −2 0 
−4 −8 4 1
Answer: Yes, u is inNulA.   
5 5 21 19
2. Determine if v = −3 is in NulA, where A = 13 23 2 
2 8 14 1
Answer: Yes, v is in NulA.
3. Find an explicit description ofNulA, by listing vectors  that span the null space.
  1 5 −4 −3 1
1 3 5 0
(i) A = , (ii) A = 0 1 −2 1 0
0 1 4 −2
0 0 0 0 0
Answer: (i) NulA = {c1 u1 + c2 u2 }, where u1 = (7, −4, 1, 0), u2 = (−6, 2, 0, 1).
(ii) NulA = {c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 }, where u1 = (−6, 2, 1, 0, 0), u2 = (8, −1, 0, 1, 0), u3 =
(−1, 0, 0, 0, 1).
4. Find A such that the given set is ColA.  
2s + 3t b−c
r + s − 2t 2b + c + d
(i) A = {  4r + s  : r, s, t real}, (ii) A = { 5c − 4d  : b, c, d real}.
  

3r − s − t d
           
0 2 3 1 −1 0
1 1 −2 2 1 1
Answer: (i) r  4 + s  1  + t  0 , (ii) b 0 + c  5  + d −4
          

3 −1 −1 0 0 1
k k
5. Find
 (a) ksuch that
 NulA is asubspace of R , (b) k such that ColA is a subspace of R
2 −6 7 −2 0  
−1 3  −2 0 −5 4 5 −2 6 0  
(i) 
  , (ii) 
  , (iii) , (iv) 1 −3 9 0 −5
−4 12  0 −5 7  1 1 0 1 0
3 −9 −5 7 −2
Answer: (i) (a) k = 2, (b) k = 4, (ii) (a) k = 3, (b) k = 4, (iii) (a) k = 5, (b) k = 2, (iv)
(a) k = 5, (b) k = 1. 
2 −6  
−1 3  1 3 5 0
6. With (i) A =  −4 12 , (ii) A = 0 1 4 −2 , find a non-zero vector in NulA and a


3 −9
non-zero vector in ColA.
Answer: (i) (3, 1) ∈ NulA, (2, −1, −4, 3) ∈ ColA.
(ii) c1 (7, −4,1, 0) + c2 (−6, 2, 0, 1)
 ∈ NulA, c1 (1, 0) + c2 (3, 1) ∈ ColA.
−6 12 2
7. Let A = and u = . Determine if u is in ColA. Is u in NulA?
−3 6 1
Solution: u∈ ColA, u ∈ NulA.   
−8 −2 −9 2
8. Let A =  6 4 8  and v =  1 . Determine if v is in ColA. Is v in NulA?
4 0 4 −2
Answer: v ∈ ColA, v ∈ NulA.
9. Find a basis for the set of vectors in R3 in the plane x + 2y + z = 0.

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Answer: Basis = {(−2, 1, 0), (−1, 0, 1)}.

10. Find a basis for the set of vectors in R2 on the line y = 5x.
Answer: Basis = {(1, 5)}.
11. Find the basis for NulA and ColA.  Assumethat A is row equivalent to B.
−2 4 −2 −4 1 0 6 5
(i) A =  2 −6 −3 1 , B = 0 2 5 3
−3 8 2 −3 0 0 0 0
   
1 2 −5 11 −3 1 2 0 4 5
2 4 −5 15 2 
, B = 0 0 5 −7 8 
 
(ii) A = 1 2 0 4 5  0 0 0 0 −9
3 6 −5 19 −2 0 0 0 0 0
Answer: (i) Basis for NulA = {(−6, −5/2, 1, 0), (−5, −3/2, 0, 1)} and basis for ColA =
{(−2, 2, −3), (4, −6, 8)}.
(ii) Basis for NulA = {(−2, 1, 0, 0, 0), (−4, 0, 7/5, 1, 0)} and
basis for ColA = {(1, 2, 1, 3), (−5, −5, 0, −5), (−3, 2, 5, −2)}.
12. Find
 the basis for therow space and column space of the matrix
1 5 −2 3 5
 0 0 1 −1 0 
U =  0 0 0
.
0 1 
0 0 0 0 0
Answer: Basis for RowA = {(1, 5, −2, 3, 5), (0, 0, 1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)},
basis for ColA = {(1, 0, 0, 0), (−2, 1, 0, 0), (5, 0, 1, 0)}.
13. Determine
 a basis for the nullspace and left null space of the matrix,
2 −4 1 2 −2 −3
A =  −1 2 0 0 1 −1 .
10 −4 −2 4 −2 4
Answer: Basis of NulA = {(−1, −1/2, −2, 1, 0, 0), (0, −1/2, 0, 0, 1, 0), (1, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1)},
basis of AT = {}.
14. Find the bases for the null spaces of the matrices 
1 0 −3 2 1 0 −5 1 4
(i) A = 0 1 −5 4 , (ii) A = −2 1 6 −2 −2.
3 −2 1 −2 0 2 −8 1 9
Answer: (i) Basis of NulA = {(3, 5, 1, 0), (−2, −4, 0, 1)},
(ii) Basis of NulA = {(5, 4, 1, 0, 0), (−7, −6, 0, 3, 1)}  
−1 2 −1 5 6
 4 −4 −4 −12 −8 
15. Find a bases for the four fundamental sub-spaces of A =  .
 2 0 −6 −2 4 
−3 1 7 −2 12
Answer: Basis of NulA = {(3, 2, 1, 0, 0), (0, −8, 0, 2, 1)},
Basis of RowA = {(−1, 2, −1, 5, 6), (4, −4, −4, −12, −8), (−3, 1, 7, −2, 12)},
Basis of ColA = {(−1, 4, 2, −3), (2, −4, 0, 1), (5, −12, −2, −2)},
Basis of NulAT = {(−2, −1, 1, 0)}.
Transformation:
Consider the matrix equation Ax = b, where A is an m × n matrix, x ia an n × 1 matrix and
b is an m × 1 matrix.
In other words x is a vector in Rn and b is a vector in Rm .
Solving the equation Ax = b amounts to finding all vectors x in Rn that are transformed
into the vector b in Rm under the action of multiplication by A.
The correspondence from x to Ax is a function from one set of vectors to another.

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This concept generalizes the common notation of a function as a rule that transforms one
real number into another.
A transformation(or function or mapping) T from Rn to Rm is a rule that assigns to each
vector x in Rn a vector T (x) in Rm . The set Rn is called the domain of T and Rm is called
the co domain of T . The notation T : Rn −→ Rm indicates that the domain of T is Rn and
the co domain is Rm .
For x in Rn , the vector T (x) in Rm is called the image of x. The set of all images T (x) is
called the range of T .

Matrix Transformations:
For each x in Rn , T (x) is computed as Ax, where A is an m × n matrix. It is also denoted
by the matrix transformation x −→ Ax. Observe that the domain of T is Rn when A has n
columns and codomain of T is Rm when each column of A has m entries.
The range of T is the set of all linear combinations of the columns of A, because each image
T (x) is of the form Ax.
Example:      
1 −3   3 3
2
1. Let A =  3 5 ,u =
 ,b =  2 , c = 2 and define a transformation
 
−1
−1 7 −5  5   
1 −3   x1 − 3x2
x
T : R2 −→ R3 by T (x) = Ax, so that T (x) = Ax =  3 5  1 =  3x1 + 5x2 .
x2
−1 7 −x1 + 7x2
(a) Find T (u), the image of u under the transformation T .
(b) Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b.
(c) Is there more than one x whose image under T is b?
(d) Determine if c is in the range of the transformation T .
Solution:    
1 −3   5
2
(a) T (u) = Au = 3  5  = −1.

−1
−1 7  9   
1 −3   3
x1
(b) T (x) = b =⇒ Ax = b =⇒  3 5  = 2 , which can be written in the

x2
  −1 7 −5
1 −3 : 3
matrix form as  3 5 :2 
−1 7 : −5
Reducing to echelon form as below:
 2 = R2 − 3R1 ; R3= R3 + R1 =⇒
R
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7 
0 4 : −2
 3 = 14R3 − 4R2 =⇒
R
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7 
0 0 : 0  
3/2
=⇒ x1 − 3x2 = 3; 14x2 = −7 =⇒ x2 = −1/2, x1 = 3/2. Hence x = .
−1/2
(c) From (b) we can see that, the vector x is unique.

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     
1 −3   3 1 −3 : 3
x
(d) Let T (x) = c =⇒ Ax = c =⇒  3 5  1 = 2 =⇒  3 5 :2 
x2
−1 7 5 −1 7 : 5
 2 = R2 − 3R1 ; R3 = R3 + R1 =⇒
R
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7 
0 4 : 8
 3 = 14R3 − 4R2 =⇒
R 
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7 
0 0 : 140
Third row shows that 0 = 140(which is invalid). Hence the system is inconsistent.
Hence c is not in the range of the transformation.
 
2 0
2. Let A = , define T : R2 −→ R2 by T (x) = Ax. Find the images under T of
  0 2
 
1 a
u= and v = .
−3 b
Solution:    
2 0 1 2
T (u) = =
 0 2  −3   −6 
2 0 a 2a
T (v) = = .
0 2 b 2b
 
1 3
3. Let A = . Then the transformation T (x) = Ax, transforms the square with
0 1
vertices
  (0,
 0),(2,0),
 (2, 2),
 (0, 2) to
           
1 3 0 0 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 8 1 3 0 6
= , = , = , = .
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 2
Sketching the above transformation, we see

that the square has been transformed to a parallelogram(In other words, the square has been
stretched toa parallelogram,
  keeping the base intact).
5 −2
4. Let u = ,v= .
2 4
−1 0
(i) With A = ,
 0 −1       
−1 0 5 −5 −1 0 −2 2
Au = = , Av = =
0 −1 2 −2 0 −1 4 −4

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Reflected about
 origin.

0 1
(ii) With A = ,
   1 0      
0 1 5 2 0 1 −2 4
Au = = , Av = =
1 0 2 5 1 0 4 −2

Reflected about the line

 y = x.
2 0
(iii) With A = ,
   0 2      
2 0 5 10 2 0 −2 −4
Au = = , Av = =
0 2 2 4 0 2 4 8

Stretches the vector.

 
0 0
(iv) With A = ,
   0 2      
0 0 5 0 0 0 −2 0
Au = = , Av = =
0 2 2 4 0 2 4 8

Rotates about origin and projects onto y axis.

If A is an m × n matrix, then the transformation x −→ Ax has the properties A(u + v) =
Au + Av and A(cu) = cA(u) for all u, v in Rn and all scalars c.
These properties, written in function notation, identify the most important class of trans-
formations in Linear Algebra.

Linear transformation:

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Let U and V be two vector spaces over the same field F . The mapping T : U −→ V is said
to be a linear transformation, if
(i) T (α + β) = T (α) + T (β) ∀ α, β ∈ U
(ii) T (c.α) = c.T (α) ∀ c ∈ F, α ∈ U.
A Linear transformation T : U −→ V is also called a linear map on U .
Note:
(i) Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation.
(ii) Linear transformations preserve the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplica-
tion.
Theorem:
A mapping T : U −→ V from the vector space U (F ) into V (F ) is a linear transformation iff
T (c1 α + c2 β) = c1 T (α) + c2 T (β) ∀ c1 , c2 ∈ F and α, β ∈ U .

Stretch, Rotation, Reflection, Projection

Suppose x is an n-dimensional vector. When A multiplies x, it transforms that vector into
a new vector Ax. This happens at every point x of the n-dimensional space Rn . The whole
space is transformed or ’mapped into itself” by the matrix A.

Stretch:  
c 0
A multiple of the identity matrix A = cI = stretches every vector by the same factor
0 c
c. The whole space expands or contracts(or goes through the origin and out the opposite
side when c is negative).
    
c 0 x cx
α = (x, y), then Aα = = = (cx, cy)
0 c y cy

(cx,cy)

(x,y)

Rotation:
A rotation
 matrix
 turns the whole space around the origin.
0 −1
A= turns all vectors through 90◦ transforming every point (x, y) to (−y, x)
1 0

(x,y)
(-y,x)

Reflection:
A reflection
 matrix transforms every vector into its image on the opposite side of a mirror.
0 −1
A= gives the reflection through y = x.
1 0

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(y,x)

(x,y)

 
1 0
A= gives the reflection through x−axis.
0 −1
(x,y)

(x,-y)
 
−1 0
A= gives the reflection through y−axis.
0 1 
0 −1
A= gives the reflection through y = −x.
−1 0
−1 0
A= gives the reflection through the origin.
0 −1
Projection:
A projection
  matrix takes the whole space onto a lower-dimensional subspace(not invertible).
1 0
A = transforms each vector (x, y) in the plane to the nearest point (x, 0) on the
0 0
horizontal axis.

(x,y)

(x,0)
 
0 0
A= transforms each vector (x, y) in the plane to the nearest point (0, y) on the
0 1
vertical axis.

(0,y) (x,y)

Rotation Q, Projection P, Reflection H

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0 −1
Q= Rotation about 90◦
 1 0
1 0
P = Projection onto the x−axis.
 0 0 
0 1
H= Reflection about 45◦
1 0
Rotation:
The family of rotations can be represented in matrix form as
   
cos θ − sin θ c −s
Qθ = =
sin θ cos θ s c
   
cos θ sin θ c s
Q−θ = =
− sin θ cos θ −s c
Rotation in backwards through θ, Q−θ = [Qθ ]T
    
c −s c s 1 0
Qθ .Q−θ = = =I
s c −s c 0 1
    
c −s c −s cos 2θ − sin 2θ
Qθ .Qθ = = = Q2θ
s c s c sin 2θ cos 2θ
   
−1 1 c s c s
Qθ = 2 = = QTθ
c + s2 −s c −s c
    
cos θ − sin θ cos φ − sin φ cos(θ + φ) − sin(θ + φ)
Qθ .Qφ = =
sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ sin(θ + φ) cos(θ + φ)
Qθ .Qφ = Qθ+φ . If φ = −θ then Qθ .Q−θ = Qθ−θ = Q0 = I. Inverse exists.

Projections:

The family of rotations can be represented in matrix form as

   2 
cos2 θ sin θ cos θ c cs
P = =
sin θ cos θ sin2 θ cs s2
|P | = c2 s2 − c2 s2 = 0 =⇒ inverse doesn’t exist.
 2    2 
2 c cs c2 cs c cs
P = = =P
cs s2 cs s2 cs s2
Projection twice on the θ−line is the same as projecting once on θ−line.
Points on the y−axis is projected to (0, 0)
Points on θ− line is projected onto itself.
Reflection:
The family of reflection can be represented in matrix form as
 
cos 2θ sin 2θ
H=
sin 2θ − cos 2θ
H 2 = (2P − I)2 = 4P 2 − 4P + I = 4P − 4P + I(∵ P 2 = P ) =⇒ H 2 = I
Two reflections bring back the original. Reflection of Reflection = Original.

H −1 = H, H = 2P − I =⇒ 2P = H + I

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.
Problems:
1. If T is a mapping from V3 (R) into V3 (R) defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, x2 , x3 ). Show that
T is a linear transformation.
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), β = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ V3 (R)
Consider, T (α + β) = T ((x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ))
= T (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )
= T (0, x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )
= (0, x2 , x3 ) + (0, y2 , y3 )
= T (α) + T (β)
Consider, T (cα) = T (c(x1 , x2 , x3 ))
= T (cx1 , cx2 , cx3 )
= (0, cx2 , cx3 )
= c(0, x2 , x3 )
= cT (x1 , x2 , x3 )
= cT (α)
∴ T is a linear transformation.

2. Find the linear transformation T : R2 −→ R3 such that T (1, 1) = (0, 1, 2), T (−1, 1) =
(2, 1, 0).
Solution:
{(1, 1), (−1, 1)} forms a basis of R2 .
Let α = (x, y) ∈ R2
(x, y) = c1 (1, 1) + c2 (−1, 1) =⇒ (x, y) = (c1 − c2 , c1 + c2 )
x+y y−x
=⇒ x = c1 − c2 , y = c1 + c2 =⇒ c1 = , c2 =
2 2
x+y y−x
∴ (x, y) = (1, 1) + (−1, 1)
2 2
∴ the required transformation is
x+y y−x
T (x, y) = (0, 1, 2) + (2, 1, 0)
2 2
T (x, y) = (y − x, y, x + y)

3. Is there a linear map T : R2 −→ R2 for which T (2, 2) = (4, −6) and T (5, 5) =
(2, −3)?
Solution:
5
The vectors (2, 2) and (5, 5) ∈ R2 are linearly dependent as (5, 5) = (2, 2)
2
5 5 5
If T is linear, T (5, 5) = T ( (2, 2)) = T (2, 2) = (4, −6) = (10, −15)
2 2 2
But T (5, 5) = (2, −3) 6= (10, −15).
∴ a linear map with the given data doesn’t exist.

4. Let M (R) be the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices over R and B be a fixed
non-zero element of M (R). Show that the mapping T : M (R) −→ M (R) defined by
T (A) = AB − BA, ∀A ∈ M (R) is a linear map.
Solution:
Let A and C ∈ M (R) be arbitrary.
Consider, T (A+C) = (A+C)B −B(A+C) = AB +CB −BA−BC = AB −BA+CB −BC
= T (A) + T (C)

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Let c ∈ R be any scalar.

Consider, T (c.A) = (c.A)B − B(c.A) = c.(AB − BA) = c.T (A)
∴ T is a linear transformation.

5. If T : R2 −→ R2 is a linear transformation such that T (1, 0) = (1, 1) & T (0, 1) =

(−1, 2), show that T maps the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1) into a parallel-
ogram.
Solution:
{(1, 0), (0, 1)} forms a basis of R2
(x, y) = x(1, 0) + y(0, 1)
∴ T (x, y) = xT (1, 0) + yT (0, 1) = x(1, 1) + y(−1, 2) = (x − y, x + 2y)
Now, T (0, 0) = (0, 0) = A, T (1, 0) = (1, 1) = B, T (1, 1) = (0, 3) = C, T (0, 1) = (−1, 2) = D.
To show that A, B, C, D are vertices of a parallelogram, we shall show that the diagonals
AC and BD bisect each other.
3 3
Midpoint of AC = (0, ), Midpoint of BD = (0, )
2 2
Diagonals bisect each other. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.

6. If T : V1 (R) −→ V3 (R) is defined by T (x) = (x, x2 , x3 ), verify whether T is linear or

not.
Solution:
Let x, y ∈ V1 (R)
Consider, T (x + y) = (x + y, (x + y)2 , (x + y)3 )
T (x) + T (y) = (x, x2 , x3 ) + (y, y 2 , y 3 )) = (x + y, x2 + y 2 , x3 + y 3 )
We can see that, T (x + y) 6= T (x) + T (y)
∴ T is not a linear transformation.

7. Find the linear transformation f : R2 −→ R2 such that f (1, 0) = (1, 1) and

f (0, 1) = (−1, 2).
Soln: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 . Then (x, y) = x(1, 0) + y(0, 1)
Define f : R2 −→ R2 by f (x, y) = xf (1, 0) + yf (0, 1) = x(1, 1) + y(−1, 2)
Hence f (x, y) = (x − y, x + 2y) ∀ (x, y) ∈ R2

8. Find the linear transformation f : R2 −→ R2 such that f (1, 1) = (0, 1) and

f (−1, 1) = (3, 2).
Solution:
(1, 1), (−1, 1) of R2 forms a basis of R2
Let α = (x, y) ∈ R2 be arbitrary.
Let(x, y) = c1 (1, 1) + c2 (−1, 1) = (c1 − c2 , c1 + c2 )
x+y y−x
=⇒ c1 − c2 = x, c1 + c2 = y =⇒ c1 = , c2 =
2 2
x+y y−x
∴ (x, y) = (1, 1) + (−1, 1)
2 2
x+y y−x
Hence the required transformation is f (x, y) = f (1, 1) + f (−1, 1)
2 2
x+y y−x
= (0, 1) + (3, 2)
2 2
3y−3x 3y−x
∴ f (x, y) = ( 2 , 2 ).

9. f : V3 (R) −→ V2 (R) is defined by f (x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z), show that f is a linear

transformation.

Third Semester MAIML(MAT231ET)

 Department of Mathematics

Solution:
Let α = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and β = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two elements of V3 (R).
Consider, f (α + β) = f (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= (x1 + x2 + y1 + y2 , y1 + y2 + z1 + z2 ) = ((x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ), (y1 + z1 ) + (y2 + z2 ))
= (x1 + y1 , y1 + z1 ) + (x2 + y2 , y2 + z2 ) = f (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + f (x2 , y2 , z2 )
∴ f (α + β) = f (α) + f (β).
Consider, f (c.α) = f (cx1 , cy2 , cz2 )
= (cx1 + cy1 , cy1 + cz2 ) = c(x1 + y1 , y1 + z1 ) = cf (x1 , y1 , z1 )
∴ f (c.α) = cf (α)
Hence f is a linear transformation.

10. If T is a mapping from V2 (R) into V2 (R) defined by T (x, y) = (x cos θ−y sin θ, x sin θ+
y cos θ), show that T is a linear transformation.
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 ), β = (y1 , y2 ) ∈ V2 (R)
Consider, T (α + β) = T (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= ((x1 + y2 ) cos θ − (x2 + y2 ) sin θ, (x1 + y2 ) sin θ − (x2 + y2 ) cos θ)
= ((x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ) + (y1 cos θ − y2 sin θ), (x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ) + (y1 sin θ + y2 cos θ))
= (x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ, x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ) + (y1 cos θ − y2 sin θ, y1 sin θ + y2 cos θ)
= T (x1 , x2 ) + T (y1 , y2 ) ∴ T (α + β) = T (α) + T (β)
Consider, T (c.α) = T (cx1 , cx2 )
= (cx1 cos θ − cx2 sin θ, cx1 sin θ + cx2 cos θ) = c(x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ, x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)
= cT (x1 , x2 )
∴ T (c.α) = cT (α)
Hence T is a linear transformation.

Range and Kernel of a Linear transformation

Definition:
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. The range of T is the set R(T ) = {T (α)/α ∈ V }
Definition:
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. The kernel(or null space) of T is the set
N (T ) = {α ∈ V /T (α) = 0}, where 0 is the zero vector of W .

Note:
(i) For the identity map I : V −→ V the range is the entire space V and the kernel is the
zero subspace.
(ii) For the zero linear map T : V −→ W defined by T (α) = 0∀α ∈ V , the range
R(T ) = {0} = zero space of V and the null space N (T ) = V .

Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation.
Then (a) R(T ) is a subspace of W .
(b) N (T ) is a subspace of V .
(c) T is one-one iff N (T ) = {0}, where 0 is the zero vector of W .

Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. The dimension of the range space R(T ) is
called the rank of the linear transformation T and is denoted by r(T ). The dimension of the
null space N (T ) is called the nullity of the linear transformation T and is denoted by n(T ).

Third Semester MAIML(MAT231ET)

 Department of Mathematics

Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. If the vectors α1 , α2 , ..., αn generate V , then
the vectors T (α1 ), T (α2 ), ..., T (αn ) generates R(T ).
Theorem(Rank-Nullity theorem)
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation and V be a finite dimensional vector space.
Then r(T ) + n(T ) = d[V ](d[R(T )] + d[N (T )] = d[V ])

Problems:
1. Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z).
Find the range, null space, rank, nullity and hence verify the rank-nullity theorem.
Solution:

T (e1 ) = T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 2) = α1

T (e2 ) = T (0, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 0) = α2
T (e3 ) = T (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1) = α3
{α1 , α2 , α3 } generates
 R(T)
1 1 2
Consider A = 1 −1 0 |A| = −2 6= 0
0 0 1
∴ {α1 , α2 , α3 } is linearly independent. Thus it is a basis of R(T ).
d[R(T )] = 3.
Let α ∈ R(T )
Then
α = c1 (α1 ) + c2 (α2 ) + c3 (α3 )
= c1 (1, 1, 2) + c2 (1, −1, 0) + c3 (0, 0, 1)
= (c1 + c2 , c1 − c2 , 2c1 + c3 )
∴ R(T ) = {(c1 + c2 , c1 − c2 , 2c1 + c3 )/c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R}
Suppose
T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (x + y, x − y, 2x + z) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ x + y = 0, x − y = 0, 2x + z = 0
=⇒ x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
∴ N (T ) = {(0, 0, 0)}
d[N (T )] = 0
rank + nullity = 3 + 0 = 3 = d[V3 (R)].
Exercise:
1. Find the range space, null space, rank and nullity of T and verify the rank-nullity theorem
for, T : R3 −→ R3 , defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z).
Answer: Range space = {(1, 1, 2), (1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}, rank = 3, Null space = {(0, 0, 0)},
nullity = 0. rank + nullity = 3 + 0 = 3 = dimension of domain.
2. Find the range space, null space, rank and nullity of T and verify the rank-nullity the-
orem for, T : V3 (R) −→ V4 (R), defined by T (e1 ) = (0, 1, 0, 2), T (e2 ) = (0, 1, 1, 0), T (e3 ) =
(0, 1, −1, 4).

Third Semester MAIML(MAT231ET)

 Department of Mathematics

Answer: Range space = {(0, 1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 1, 0)}, rank = 2, Null space = {(−2, 1, 1)}, nullity
= 1. rank + nullity = 2 + 1 = 3 = dimension of domain.

Third Semester MAIML(MAT231ET)