COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT – I
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER NETWORK

ARPANET - the First Network

ARPANET − Advanced Research Projects Agency Network −
the granddad of Internet was a network established by the US
Department of Defense (DOD). The work for establishing the
network started in the early 1960s and DOD sponsored major
research work, which resulted in development on initial protocols,
languages and frameworks for network communication.

It had four nodes at University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA),

Stanford Research Institute (SRI), University of California at Santa
Barbara (UCSB) and University of Utah. On October 29, 1969, the
first message was exchanged between UCLA and SRI. E-mail was
created by Roy Tomlinson in 1972 at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.
(BBN) after UCLA was connected to BBN.

Internet
ARPANET expanded to connect DOD with those universities of the
US that were carrying out defense-related research. It covered most
of the major universities across the country. The concept of
networking got a boost when University College of London (UK) and
Royal Radar Network (Norway) connected to the ARPANET and a
network of networks was formed.

The term Internet was coined by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl
Sunshine of Stanford University to describe this network of
networks. Together they also developed protocols to facilitate
information exchange over the Internet. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) still forms the backbone of networking.
Telenet
Telenet was the first commercial adaptation of ARPANET introduced
in 1974. With this the concept of Internet Service Provider (ISP) was
also introduced. The main function of an ISP is to provide
uninterrupted Internet connection to its customers at affordable
rates.

World Wide Web

With commercialization of internet, more and more networks were
developed in different part of the world. Each network used different
protocols for communicating over the network. This prevented
different networks from connecting together seamlessly. In the
1980s, Tim Berners-Lee led a group of Computer scientists at CERN,
Switzerland, to create a seamless network of varied networks, called
the World Wide Web (WWW).

World Wide Web is a complex web of websites and web pages

connected together through hypertexts. Hypertext is a word or
group of words linking to another web page of the same or different
website. When the hypertext is clicked, another web page opens.
The evolution from ARPANET to WWW was possible due to many
new achievements by researchers and computer scientists all over
the world. Here are some of those developments −

Year Milestone

1957 Advanced Research Project Agency formed by US

1969 ARPANET became functional

1970 ARPANET connected to BBNs

Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or E-

1972
mail. Symbol @ comes to mean "at"

APRANET connected to Royal Radar Network of

1973
Norway

Term Internet coined

1974 First commercial use of ARPANET, Telenet, is
approved

TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on

1982
ARPANET

1983 Domain Name System introduced

National Science Foundation brings connectivity

1986
to more people with its NSFNET program

ARPANET decommissioned
1990 First web browser Nexus developed
HTML developed

2002-2004 Web 2.0 is born

Channel
Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is
called channel. Transmission channel may be analog or digital. As
the name suggests, analog channels transmit data using analog
signals while digital channels transmit data using digital signals.
In popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or
received is called data channel. This data channel may be a
tangible medium like copper wire cables or broadcast medium
like radio waves.

Data Transfer Rate

The speed of data transferred or received over transmission
channel, measured per unit time, is called data transfer rate. The
smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps). 1 bps means
1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.

Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −

 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
 1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps

Bandwidth
Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its
bandwidth. It is measured in bits per second (bps). Modern day
networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps and Gbps. Some of the
factors affecting a network’s bandwidth include −

 Network devices used

 Protocols used
 Number of users connected
 Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.

Throughput
Throughput is the actual speed with which data gets transferred
over the network. Besides transmitting the actual data, network
bandwidth is used for transmitting error messages,
acknowledgement frames, etc.

Throughput is a better measurement of network speed, efficiency

and capacity utilization rather than bandwidth.
Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to
communicate over the network. Just like humans, computers also
need rules to ensure successful communication. If two people start
speaking at the same time or in different languages when no
interpreter is present, no meaningful exchange of information can
occur.

Similarly, devices connected on the network need to follow rules

defining situations like when and how to transmit data, when to
receive data, how to give error-free message, etc.

Some common protocols used over the Internet are −

 Transmission Control Protocol

 Internet Protocol
 Point to Point Protocol
 File Transfer Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Internet Message Access Protocol
Kickstart Your

The first computers were devices designed to do repeated numerical operations

previously performed by hand. While computers continued to progress, they
were largely utilized for mathematical and scientific computations, message
encoding, and decoding. When the first-word processor was invented in the
1970s, computer technology was finally applied to printed communication.
Simultaneously, computers became faster, more powerful, and smaller, and
computer networks were established to connect them.

The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States

Department of Defense, in collaboration with researchers working on military
projects at research centers and universities across the country, created the
ARPANET in 1960 to share data and processing time of uniform computer
connections over specially equipped telephone lines and satellite links. Any
digital signal, including video pictures, sounds, graphics, animations, and text,
can be carried via the Internet. As a result, it has grown in popularity as a
communication medium.

What is the history of the Internet?

The Internet's history may be traced back to 1957 when the former Soviet Union
launched its first satellite, Sputnik I, forcing US President Dwight Eisenhower to
establish the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to reclaim
the technical lead. The objective of DARPA was to improve science and
technology for military purposes. In 18 months, DARPA created its first
successful satellite.

As part of its broader objective, it began to focus on computer networking and

communication technologies by the end of 1960, primarily to develop
communication linkages between research centers and universities around the
country. ARPANET was launched in 1969, with 15 nodes and 23 hosts by 1971.
Ray Torplinson devised e-mail in 1972 to convey communications across a
dispersed network.

The University College of London and the Royal Radar Establishment made the
first international link to the developing Internet in 1973. (Norway). DARPA
launched a research program the same year to examine strategies and
technologies for interconnecting various types of packet networks. The goal was
to create communication protocols based on 'packet-switching' that would allow
networked computers to interact across many geographically scattered sites in
real time. The 'packet-switching' method would divide the data to be conveyed
into small packets that might travel multiple paths to their destination -. A
network like this may resist a partial nuclear assault, as was anticipated during
the Cold War.

Furthermore, intercepting data traveling on the internet in packets would be

challenging. This was known as the (Internetting project, and the network
system that resulted from the study was known as the 'Internet.' After the two
primary protocols were produced: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP), the set of protocols built during this research endeavor
became known as the TCPIIP Protocol Suite (IP).

In 1975, the Defence Communication Agency (DCA) took over operating

management of the nascent Internet. The Unix to Unix Copy Program (UUCP)
was created in 1976 at Bell Labs (AT & T). The year 1977 saw the evolution of
postal standards (RFC 733). Usenet was founded the same year by Duke and the
University of North Carolina using UUCP (Unix to Unix Copy Program) (UNC). In
1977, DARPA also formed the Internet Configuration Control Board (ICCB).
CSNET (Computer Science Network) was founded in 1981 by a group of colleges
and businesses in the United States. The National Science Foundation funded
CSNET to provide networking services. CSNET pioneered the use of TCPIIP over
X.2S across commercial, public data networks, as well as the Phonenet MMDF
protocol for telephone-based electronic mail relaying.

The CSNET server was an early example of a white pages directory service, and
its software is still in use at many sites. CSNET had over 200 participant sites
and international connections to about fifteen countries at its peak. Another
significant breakthrough that year was the establishment of BITNET (Because it
is a time network). BITNET began as a cooperative network at the City University
of New York, with the initial link to the University of Yale. BITNET used the IBM
RSCS protocol suite to connect participant sites through leased lines of the initial
BITNET connections linked IBM mainframes at university data centers.

BITNET has always been multidisciplinary, having users from many academic
disciplines. It has also supplied its consumers with various unique services (e.g.,
LISTSERV). BITNET and its sister networks in other regions of the world (for
example, EARN in Europe) already have thousands of participant sites. BITNET
has recently created a backbone that leverages the TCPIIP protocols with RSCS-
based applications operating atop TCP.

The Growth of the Internet

The year 1982 was pivotal in the establishment and development of the
Internet. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (lP) suite
(often known as TCPIIP) was approved as the official protocol suite for ARPANET
by the Defense Communication Agency (DCA) and DARPA. This resulted in one
of the first definitions of the Internet as a networked system employing TCPIIP.
The Eunet (European UNIX Network) was established the same year to provide
e-mail and Usenet services in Europe.

In the same year, the External Gateway Protocol (EGP) was established, which
provides methods for connecting non-TCP/IP networks to the Internet. In 1982,
the University of Wisconsin created a 'Name Server,' which enabled the
translation of names into strings of numbers. This advancement resulted in the
practice of giving domain names to websites, which is still in use today. Another
notable event in 1982 was the division of ARPANET into ARPANET and MILNET.
The MlLNET was eventually linked to the Defence Data Network, established in
1981.

The introduction of desktop computers in 1982 significantly changed from

having a single, huge mainframe computer connected to the Internet at each
location to have the complete local area network connected to the Internet. The
Internet Activities Board (IAB) was established in the same year to manage the
TCP/IP protocol suite's growth and give research recommendations to the
Internet community. Domain Name 'Servers' as distributed databases were
created in 1984 to assist domain name-to-IP address conversion. The transition
from numeric addresses to naming conventions was extremely beneficial in
popularising the Internet. For example, www.yahoo.com is far easier to
remember than its numerical equivalent.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) of the United States launched the
creation of the NSFNET in 1986, which currently serves as a primary backbone
communication service for the Internet. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the United States Department of Energy (DOE) each
donated additional backbone infrastructure in the shape of the NSFNET and
ESNET. The Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was created to improve
news performance via TCP/IP.

The NSF signed a collaboration arrangement with Merit Networks, Inc. in 1987 to
administer the NSFNet backbone. Later, Merit, IBM, and MCI formed Advanced
Network and Services, Inc. (ANS). BITNET and CSNET combined the next year to
become the Corporation for Research and Educational Networking (CREN).
CSNET service was discontinued in the fall of 1991, having played an essential
early role in providing academic networking services. CREN's operational
expenditures are covered by dues paid by its member organizations, which is
crucial. In 1988, a computer virus impacted around 6,000 of the total 60,000
hosts on the Internet for the first time. The Internet's vulnerability and the need
for increased security were recognized for the first time. In response, DARPA
established the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT). The Department
of Defense adopted Open Systems Interconnection in the same year (OSI).

In 1989, the total number of hosts on the Internet reached 100,000. In addition,
the year saw the first relays between a commercial electronic mail carrier and
the Internet. MCI Mail was linked via the Corporation for the National Research
Initiative (CNRI) and CompuServe via Ohio State University. The merging of
CSNET and BITNET resulted in the formation of the Corporation for Research and
Education Networking (CREN). In 1989, the lAB established the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).

Several additional nations joined the NSFNet in the same year, including
Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Puerto Rico, and the United Kingdom. In Europe, important international
backbones such as NORDUNET and others connect over 100,000 computers
across many networks. The Internet system began to include support for
different protocol suites into its core networking architecture over its expansion,
notably after 1989. The system's current emphasis is on multi-protocol
internetworking, integrating the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols
into the architecture.

Recent Developments
OSI protocol implementations became available in the early 1990s. By the end
of 1991, the Internet had expanded to encompass over 5,000 networks in over a
dozen countries, serving over 700,000 host computers utilized by over
4,000,000 people. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Commercial
network operators in the United States and Europe began to offer Internet
backbone and access support to interested parties on a competitive basis.
'World' (world.std.com) provided commercial Internet connection for the first
time, becoming the first Internet Service Provider (ISP) providing Internet dial-up
access. Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Greece, India, Ireland, South
Korea, Spain, and Switzerland were among the nations connected to the Internet
in 1990.
Brewster Kahle created Wide Area Information Servers (WAISs), which Thinking
Machines Corporation commercialized in 1991. These servers served as the
foundation for indexes of material available on the Internet. These engines'
indexing and search capabilities enable Internet users to discover information
using keywords across massive resources available on the internet. The creation
of the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Bemers-Lee at the CERN Laboratory in
1991 was the most significant advance in the history of the Internet. Mosaic, the
original web browser, was introduced in 1993 and quickly took the Internet by
storm. In 1993, several other nations were linked to the Internet. InterNIC was
established in 1993 to provide particular Internet services such as a directory of
database services, ii) registration services, and iii) information services.

The Internet (ARPANET) celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1994. Internet

shopping and e-commerce first appeared on the internet. The growth of Internet
traffic became geometric, with NSFNet traffic exceeding 10 trillion bytes per
month in 1994. WWW surpassed FTP to become the second most popular
service on the internet, with Telnet falling to third place. Based on packet count,
the WWW surpassed FTP as the service with the most traffic on NSFNet in March
1995.

Several classic dial-up systems in the United States, such as CompuServe,

America Online, and Prodigy, began to provide Internet connectivity for services
other than e-mail, such as WWW, Gopher, and FTP. WWW and search engines
were the decade's technology. In the late 1990s, new technologies such as
client-based code loaded from web servers such as Java, JavaScript, and ActiveX
developed. Research and development on the Internet and associated
technologies are ongoing.
 Computer - Networking
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files
from the other computer(s) connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer
within the network and let other computers of the network use
the machines available over the network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer

network.

 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards

Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly
used cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.
Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if
we need to connect many computers to produce a network, this
serial connection will not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which other computers,

printers, scanners, etc. can be connected and then this body will
manage or distribute network traffic.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among
computers and other devices that are a part of the network. It is
equipped with holes called ports. Computers and other devices are
connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router
comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected
without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without
which a computer cannot be connected over a network. It is also
known as the network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC). Most
branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards
are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be

inserted. Internal network cards are of two types in which the first
type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection,
while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
Network cables are required to provide network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based.
Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard,
however no network cable is required to connect to the network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers
automatically detect USB card and can install the drivers required to
support the USB network card automatically.
Network Topologies
In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different
components are connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that
defines the structure, and how these components are connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network
topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of

the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes,
in which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point
provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These
channels are known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various
internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels.
This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft
navigation systems.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology .
Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet
LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of

connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
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 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office
where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used
in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access
point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and
a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In
Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by
LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are
connected to the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also
used in cable television networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and
Disadvantages of Bus Topology .

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the
last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol
is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology
Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a
ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility
for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission
is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed
token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from
the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology .
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.
 Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the
central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e.
devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization.
At the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments
or divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own
hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The
team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to
their respective managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology .
Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of

topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are
free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star
topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.
Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen
it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The
network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected
to the backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be
a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless
access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid
topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while
providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.
 Layering in Computer Network
Layering means decomposing the problem into more manageable components
(layers).
Advantages:
 Iit provide more modular design
 Easy to troubleshoot

Protocols in computer network

 It is a set of rules thata governs data communication.

 The protocol in each layer governs the activities of the data
communication.

OSI MODEL
OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by
International Standards Organization (ISO). It gives a layered networking
framework that conceptualizes how communications should be done
between heterogeneous systems. It has seven interconnected layers. The
seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link
layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation
layer, and application layer, as shown in the following diagram –
The physical layer, data link layer and the network layer are the network
support layers. The layers manage a physical transfer of data from one device to
another. Session layer, presentation layer, and application layer are the user
support layers. These layers allow communication among unrelated software in
dissimilar environments. Transport layer links the two groups.

The main functions of each of the layers are as follows −

 Physical Layer − Its function is to transmit individual bits from one node
to another over a physical medium.
 Data Link Layer − It is responsible for the reliable transfer of data
frames from one node to another connected by the physical layer.
 Network Layer − It manages the delivery of individual data packets from
source to destination through appropriate addressing and routing.
 Transport Layer −It is responsible for delivery of the entire message
from the source host to destination host.
 Session Layer − It establishes sessions between users and offers
services like dialog control and synchronization.
 Presentation Layer − It monitors syntax and semantics of transmitted
information through translation, compression, and encryption.
  Application Layer − It provides high-level APIs (application program
interface) to the users.
Physical Layer in OSI Model
The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical representation
of the system. It consists of various network components such as power plugs,
connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends data bits from
one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s). The physical Layer defines
the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are encoded in a signal). The
physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the unstructured raw
data streams over a physical medium.

Functions Performed by Physical Layer

The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the
Physical Layer of the OSI Model –
1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send
per second).
2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology
through which we can connect the devices with each other).
5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-
Point configuration.
7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and
transmission medium.
8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.
9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
10. This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the
hardware layer is responsible for all the physical connection establishment
and processing too).
11. It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of
converting the data into radio waves by adding the information to an
electrical or optical nerve signal.
12. It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be
forwarded from one port (sender port) to the leading destination port.
Physical Topologies
Physical Topology or Network Topology is the Geographical Representation of
Linking devices. Following are the four types of physical topology-
1. Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, each and every device should have a
dedicated point-to-point connection with each and every other device in the
 network. Here there is more security of data because there is a dedicated
point-to-point connection between two devices. Mesh Topology is difficult to
install because it is more complex.
2. Star Topology: In star topology, the device should have a dedicated point-
to-point connection with a central controller or hub. Star Topology is easy to
install and reconnect as compared to Mesh Topology. Star Topology doesn’t
have Fault Tolerance Technique.
3. Bus Topology: In a bus topology, multiple devices are connected through a
single cable that is known as backbone cable with the help of tap and drop
lines. It is less costly as compared to Mesh Topology and Star Topology. Re-
connection and Re-installation are difficult.
4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device is connected with repeaters
in a circle-like ring that’s why it is called Ring Topology. In Ring Topology, a
device can send the data only when it has a token, without a token no device
can send the data, and a token is placed by Monitor in Ring Topology.
Line Configuration
 Point-to-Point configuration: In Point-to-Point configuration, there is a line
(link) that is fully dedicated to carrying the data between two devices.
 Multi-Point configuration: In a Multi-Point configuration, there is a line
(link) through which multiple devices are connected.
Modes of Transmission Medium
1. Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can
transmit the data, and the other device can only receive the data. Example-
Input from keyboards, monitors, TV broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, etc.
2. Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can send
and receive the data but only one at a time not simultaneously. Examples-
Walkie-Talkie, Railway Track, etc.
3. Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the
data simultaneously. Examples- Telephone Systems, Chatting applications,
etc.
Physical Layer Protocols Examples
Typically, a combination of hardware and software programming makes up the
physical layer. It consists of several protocols that control data transmissions on
a network. The following are some examples of Layer 1 protocols:
 Ethernet with 1000BASE-T.
 Ethernet with 1000BASE-SX.
 Ethernet at 100BaseT.
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy/Optical Synchronisation.
 Physical-layer variations in 802.11.
 Bluetooth.
 Networking for controllers.
 U.S. Serial Bus.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open
System Interconnection) network architecture model. It is responsible for the
node-to-node delivery of data. Its major role is to ensure error-free transmission
of information. DLL is also responsible for encoding, decode and organizing the
outgoing and incoming data. This is considered the most complex layer of the
OSI model as it hides all the underlying complexities of the hardware from the
other above layers.
Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data
among applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing
error messages and acknowledgments as well.
Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing
frames, and also controls physical media access.
The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets from the
Network layer, it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit
to the underlying physical layer.
Functions of the Data-link Layer
There are various benefits of data link layer s let’s look into it.
Framing
The packet received from the Network layer is known as a frame in the Data
link layer. At the sender’s side, DLL receives packets from the Network layer
and divides them into small frames, then, sends each frame bit-by-bit to
the physical layer. It also attaches some special bits (for error control and
addressing) at the header and end of the frame. At the receiver’s end, DLL
takes bits from the Physical layer organizes them into the frame, and sends
them to the Network layer.
Addressing
The data link layer encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/
physical address in the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery.
MAC address is the unique hardware address that is assigned to the device
while manufacturing.
Error Control
Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise, attenuation, etc. So, it
is the responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the error in the transmitted
data and correct it using error detection and correction techniques respectively.
DLL adds error detection bits into the frame’s header, so that receiver can
check received data is correct or not.
Flow Control
If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s sending speed, then
this can lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some frames may get
lost. So, it’s the responsibility of DLL to synchronize the sender’s and receiver’s
speeds and establish flow control between them.
Access Control
When multiple devices share the same communication channel there is a high
probability of collision, so it’s the responsibility of DLL to check which device
has control over the channel and CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA can be used to
avoid collisions and loss of frames in the channel.
Protocols in Data link layer
There are various protocols in the data link layer , which are as follows:
1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)
2. High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)
3. Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) for encoding
4. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
5. Link Access Procedure (LAP)
6. Link Control Protocol (LCP)
7. Network Control Protocol (NCP)
Session Layer
Introduction :
The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
model. This layer allows users on different machines to establish active
communications sessions between them. It is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, synchronizing, terminating sessions between end-user
applications. In Session Layer, streams of data are received and further
marked, which is then resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the
messages are not cut initially and further data loss is avoided. This layer
basically establishes a connection between the session entities. This layer
handles and manipulates data which it receives from the Session Layer as well
as from the Presentation Layer.
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Present Layer=> Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Layer
Physical Layer
Working of Session Layer :
Session Layer, which is the 5th layer in the OSI model, uses the services
provided by The transport layer, enables applications to establish and maintain
sessions and to synchronize the sessions.
Now, in order to establish a session connection, several things should be
followed.
First thing is we should map the session address to the shipping address. The
second thing is that we need to select the required transport quality of service
(also referred as QoS) parameters. Next thing is we need to take care of the
negotiations which should happen between session parameters. Then we
further need to transmit limited transparent user data. Then at last, we need to
monitor Data Transfer phase properly. The ability to send larger amount of data
files is extremely important and a necessary thing too.
Functions of Session Layer :
The session layer being the fifth layer in the OSI model performs several
different as well as important functions which are need for establishing as well
as maintaining a safe and secure connection.
Data from Presentation Layer <=> Session layer <=> Data from
Transport Layer
Following are some of the functions which are performed by Session Layer –
 Session Layer works as a dialog controller through which it allows systems
to communicate in either half-duplex mode or full duplex mode of
communication.
 This layer is also responsible for token management, through which it
prevents two users to simultaneously access or attempting the same critical
operation.
 This layer allows synchronization by allowing the process of adding
checkpoints, which are considered as synchronization points to the streams
of data.
 This layer is also responsible for session checkpointing and recovery.
 This layer basically provides a mechanism of opening, closing and managing
a session between the end-user application processes.
 The services offered by Session Layer are generally implemented in
application environments using remote procedure calls (RPCs).
 The Session Layer is also responsible for synchronizing information from
different sources.
 This layer also controls single or multiple connections for each-end user
application and directly communicates with both Presentation and transport
layers.
 Session Layer creates procedures for checkpointing followed by
adjournment, restart and termination.
 Session Layer uses checkpoints to enable communication sessions which
are to be resumed from that particular checkpoint at which communication
failure has occurred.
 The session Layer is responsible for fetching or receiving data information
from its previous layer (transport layer) and further sends data to the layer
after it (presentation layer).
Session Layer Protocols :
Session Layer uses some protocols which are required for safe, secure and
accurate communication which exists between two-ender user applications.
Following are some of the protocols provided or used by the Session Layer –
 AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP): ADSP is that type of protocol
which was developed by Apple Inc. and it includes a number of features that
allow local area networks to be connected with no prior setup. This protocol
was released in 1985.
This protocol rigorously followed the OSI model of protocol layering. ADSP
itself has two protocols named: AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol
(AARP) and Name Binding Protocol (NBP), both aimed at making system
self-configuring.
 Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP): RTCP is a protocol which
provides out-of-band statistics and control information for an RTP (Real-time
 Transport Protocol) session. RTCP’s primary function is to provide feedback
on the quality of service (QoS) in media distribution by periodically sending
statistical information such as transmitted octet and packet counts or packet
loss to the participants in the streaming multimedia session.
 Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP): PPTP is a protocol which
provides a method for implementing virtual private networks. PPTP uses a
TCP control channel and a Generic Routing Encapsulation tunnel to
encapsulate PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) packets This protocol provides
security levels and remote access levels comparable with typical VPN
(Virtual Private Network) products.
 Password Authentication Protocol (PAP): Password Authentication
Protocol is a password-based authentication protocol used by Point to Point
Protocol (PPP) to validate users. Almost all network operating systems,
remote servers support PAP. PAP authentication is done at the time of the
initial link establishment and verifies the identity of the client using a two-way
handshake (Client-sends data and server in return sends Authentication-
ACK (Acknowledgement) after the data sent by client is verified completely).
 Remote Procedure Call Protocol (RPCP): Remote Procedure Call Protocol
(RPCP) is a protocol that is used when a computer program causes a
procedure (or a sub-routine) to execute in a different address space without
the programmer explicitly coding the details for the remote interaction. This
is basically the form of client-server interaction, typically implemented via a
request-response message-passing system.
 Sockets Direct Protocol (SDP): Sockets Direct Protocol (SDP) is a protocol
that supports streams of sockets over Remote Direct Memory Access
(RDMA) network fabrics.
The purpose of SDP is to provide an RDMA-accelerated alternative to the
TCP protocol. The primary goal is to perform one particular thing in such a
manner which is transparent to the application.

Presentation Layer
Introduction : Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer is also known as Translation layer, as
this layer serves as a data translator for the network. The data which this layer
receives from the Application Layer is extracted and manipulated here as per
the required format to transmit over the network. The main responsibility of this
layer is to provide or define the data format and encryption. The presentation
layer is also called as Syntax layer since it is responsible for maintaining the
proper syntax of the data which it either receives or transmits to other layer(s).
Application Layer
Present Layer=> Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Layer
Physical Layer
Functions of Presentation Layer :
Data from Application Layer <=> Presentation layer <=> Data
from Session Layer
The presentation layer, being the 6th layer in the OSI model, performs several
types of functions, which are described below-
 Presentation layer format and encrypts data to be sent across the network.
 This layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data efficiently
and effectively.
 This layer manages the abstract data structures and allows high-level data
structures (example- banking records), which are to be defined or
exchanged.
 This layer carries out the encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the
receiver.
 This layer carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data
to be transmitted (the primary goal of data compression is to reduce the
number of bits which is to be transmitted).
 This layer is responsible for interoperability (ability of computers to exchange
and make use of information) between encoding methods as different
computers use different encoding methods.
 This layer basically deals with the presentation part of the data.
 Presentation layer, carries out the data compression (number of bits
reduction while transmission), which in return improves the data throughput.
 This layer also deals with the issues of string representation.
 The presentation layer is also responsible for integrating all the formats into
a standardized format for efficient and effective communication.
 This layer encodes the message from the user-dependent format to the
common format and vice-versa for communication between dissimilar
systems.
 This layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the messages.
 This layer also ensures that the messages which are to be presented to the
upper as well as the lower layer should be standardized as well as in an
accurate format too.
 Presentation layer is also responsible for translation, formatting, and delivery
of information for processing or display.
 This layer also performs serialization (process of translating a data structure
or an object into a format that can be stored or transmitted easily).
Features of Presentation Layer in the OSI model: Presentation layer, being
the 6th layer in the OSI model, plays a vital role while communication is taking
place between two devices in a network.
List of features which are provided by the presentation layer are:
 Presentation layer could apply certain sophisticated compression
techniques, so fewer bytes of data are required to represent the information
when it is sent over the network.
 If two or more devices are communicating over an encrypted connection,
then this presentation layer is responsible for adding encryption on the
sender’s end as well as the decoding the encryption on the receiver’s end so
that it can represent the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
 This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent over a network, providing
freedom from compatibility problems.
 This presentation layer also negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
 This presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives
from the application layer before delivering it to the session layer (which is
the 5th layer in the OSI model) and thus improves the speed as well as the
efficiency of communication by minimizing the amount of the data to be
transferred.
Working of Presentation Layer in the OSI model :
Presentation layer in the OSI model, as a translator, converts the data sent by
the application layer of the transmitting node into an acceptable and compatible
data format based on the applicable network protocol and architecture. Upon
arrival at the receiving computer, the presentation layer translates data into an
acceptable format usable by the application layer. Basically, in other words, this
layer takes care of any issues occurring when transmitted data must be viewed
in a format different from the original format. Being the functional part of the OSI
mode, the presentation layer performs a multitude (large number of) data
conversion algorithms and character translation functions. Mainly, this layer is
responsible for managing two network characteristics: protocol (set of rules)
and architecture.
Presentation Layer Protocols :
Presentation layer being the 6th layer, but the most important layer in the OSI
model performs several types of functionalities, which makes sure that data
which is being transferred or received should be accurate or clear to all the
devices which are there in a closed network.
Presentation Layer, for performing translations or other specified functions,
needs to use certain protocols which are defined below –
 Apple Filing Protocol (AFP): Apple Filing Protocol is the proprietary
network protocol (communications protocol) that offers services to macOS or
the classic macOS. This is basically the network file control protocol
specifically designed for Mac-based platforms.
 Lightweight Presentation Protocol (LPP): Lightweight Presentation
Protocol is that protocol which is used to provide ISO presentation services
on the top of TCP/IP based protocol stacks.
 NetWare Core Protocol (NCP): NetWare Core Protocol is the network
protocol which is used to access file, print, directory, clock synchronization,
messaging, remote command execution and other network service functions.
 Network Data Representation (NDR): Network Data Representation is
basically the implementation of the presentation layer in the OSI model,
which provides or defines various primitive data types, constructed data
types and also several types of data representations.
 External Data Representation (XDR): External Data Representation (XDR)
is the standard for the description and encoding of data. It is useful for
transferring data between computer architectures and has been used to
communicate data between very diverse machines. Converting from local
representation to XDR is called encoding, whereas converting XDR into local
representation is called decoding.
 Secure Socket Layer (SSL): The Secure Socket Layer protocol provides
security to the data that is being transferred between the web browser and
the server. SSL encrypts the link between a web server and a browser,
which ensures that all data passed between them remains private and free
from attacks.

Application Layer
Introduction :
The Application Layer is topmost layer in the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model. This layer provides several ways for manipulating the data
(information) which actually enables any type of user to access network with
ease. This layer also makes a request to its bottom layer, which is presentation
layer for receiving various types of information from it. The Application Layer
interface directly interacts with application and provides common web
application services. This layer is basically highest level of open system, which
provides services directly for application process.
Present Layer=> Application Layer
Presentation Layer
 Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Layer
Physical Layer
Functions of Application Layer :
The Application Layer, as discussed above, being topmost layer in OSI model,
performs several kinds of functions which are requirement in any kind of
application or communication process.
Following are list of functions which are performed by Application Layer of OSI
Model –
Data from User <=> Application layer <=> Data from Presentation
Layer
 Application Layer provides a facility by which users can forward several
emails and it also provides a storage facility.
 This layer allows users to access, retrieve and manage files in a remote
computer.
 It allows users to log on as a remote host.
 This layer provides access to global information about various services.
 This layer provides services which include: e-mail, transferring files,
distributing results to the user, directory services, network resources and so
on.
 It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and
present meaningful data to users.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation and so
on.
 This layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network services.
 Application Layer is basically not a function, but it performs application layer
functions.
 The application layer is actually an abstraction layer that specifies the
shared protocols and interface methods used by hosts in a communication
network.
 Application Layer helps us to identify communication partners, and
synchronizing communication.
 This layer allows users to interact with other software applications.
 In this layer, data is in visual form, which makes users truly understand data
rather than remembering or visualize the data in the binary format (0’s or
1’s).
 This application layer basically interacts with Operating System (OS) and
thus further preserves the data in a suitable manner.
 This layer also receives and preserves data from it’s previous layer, which is
Presentation Layer (which carries in itself the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted).
 The protocols which are used in this application layer depend upon what
information users wish to send or receive.
 This application layer, in general, performs host initialization followed by
remote login to hosts.
Working of Application Layer in the OSI model :
In the OSI model, this application layer is narrower in scope.
The application layer in the OSI model generally acts only like the interface
which is responsible for communicating with host-based and user-facing
applications. This is in contrast with TCP/IP protocol, wherein the layers below
the application layer, which is Session Layer and Presentation layer, are
clubbed together and form a simple single layer which is responsible for
performing the functions, which includes controlling the dialogues between
computers, establishing as well as maintaining as well as ending a particular
session, providing data compression and data encryption and so on.
At first, client sends a command to server and when server receives that
command, it allocates port number to client. Thereafter, the client sends an
initiation connection request to server and when server receives request, it
gives acknowledgement (ACK) to client through client has successfully
established a connection with the server and, therefore, now client has access
to server through which it may either ask server to send any types of files or
other documents or it may upload some files or documents on server itself.
Features provided by Application Layer Protocols :
To ensure smooth communication, application layer protocols are implemented
the same on source host and destination host.
The following are some of the features which are provided by Application layer
protocols-
 The Application Layer protocol defines process for both parties which are
involved in communication.
 These protocols define the type of message being sent or received from any
side (either source host or destination host).
 These protocols also define basic syntax of the message being forwarded or
retrieved.
 These protocols define the way to send a message and the expected
response.
 These protocols also define interaction with the next level.
Application Layer Protocols: The application layer provides several protocols
which allow any software to easily send and receive information and present
meaningful data to its users.
The following are some of the protocols which are provided by the application
layer.
 TELNET: Telnet stands for Telecommunications Network. This protocol is
used for managing files over the Internet. It allows the Telnet clients to
access the resources of Telnet server. Telnet uses port number 23.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service translates
the domain name (selected by user) into the corresponding IP address. For
example- If you choose the domain name as www.abcd.com, then DNS must
translate it as 192.36.20.8 (random IP address written just for understanding
purposes). DNS protocol uses the port number 53.
 DHCP: DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. It provides IP
addresses to hosts. Whenever a host tries to register for an IP address with
the DHCP server, DHCP server provides lots of information to the
corresponding host. DHCP uses port numbers 67 and 68.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol helps to transfer
different files from one device to another. FTP promotes sharing of files via
remote computer devices with reliable, efficient data transfer. FTP uses port
number 20 for data access and port number 21 for data control.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used to transfer
electronic mail from one user to another user. SMTP is used by end users to
send emails with ease. SMTP uses port numbers 25 and 587.
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the foundation of
the World Wide Web (WWW). HTTP works on the client server model. This
protocol is used for transmitting hypermedia documents like HTML. This
protocol was designed particularly for the communications between the web
browsers and web servers, but this protocol can also be used for several
other purposes. HTTP is a stateless protocol (network protocol in which a
client sends requests to server and server responses back as per the given
state), which means the server is not responsible for maintaining the
previous client’s requests. HTTP uses port number 80.
 NFS: NFS stands for Network File System. This protocol allows remote
hosts to mount files over a network and interact with those file systems as
though they are mounted locally. NFS uses the port number 2049.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. This
protocol gathers data by polling the devices from the network to the
management station at fixed or random intervals, requiring them to disclose
certain information. SNMP uses port numbers 161 (TCP) and 162 (UDP).
Network Layer
The network Layer is the third layer in the OSI model of computer networks. Its
main function is to transfer network packets from the source to the destination.
It is involved both the source host and the destination host. At the source, it
accepts a packet from the transport layer, encapsulates it in a datagram, and
then delivers the packet to the data link layer so that it can further be sent to the
receiver. At the destination, the datagram is decapsulated, and the packet is
extracted and delivered to the corresponding transport layer.

Features of Network Layer

1. The main responsibility of the Network layer is to carry the data packets from
the source to the destination without changing or using them.
2. If the packets are too large for delivery, they are fragmented i.e., broken
down into smaller packets.
3. It decides the route to be taken by the packets to travel from the source to
the destination among the multiple routes available in a network (also called
routing).
4. The source and destination addresses are added to the data packets inside
the network layer.
Services Offered by Network Layer
The services which are offered by the network layer protocol are as follows:
1. Packetizing
2. Routing
3. Forwarding
1. Packetizing
The process of encapsulating the data received from the upper layers of the
network (also called payload) in a network layer packet at the source and
decapsulating the payload from the network layer packet at the destination is
known as packetizing.
The source host adds a header that contains the source and destination
address and some other relevant information required by the network layer
protocol to the payload received from the upper layer protocol and delivers the
packet to the data link layer.
The destination host receives the network layer packet from its data link layer,
decapsulates the packet, and delivers the payload to the corresponding upper
layer protocol. The routers in the path are not allowed to change either the
source or the destination address. The routers in the path are not allowed to
decapsulate the packets they receive unless they need to be fragmented.
 Packetizing

2. Routing
Routing is the process of moving data from one device to another device.
These are two other services offered by the network layer. In a network, there
are a number of routes available from the source to the destination. The
network layer specifies some strategies which find out the best possible route.
This process is referred to as routing. There are a number of routing protocols
that are used in this process and they should be run to help the routers
coordinate with each other and help in establishing communication throughout
the network.
 Routing

3. Forwarding

Forwarding is simply defined as the action applied by each router when a

packet arrives at one of its interfaces. When a router receives a packet from
one of its attached networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached
network (unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in the case of multicast
routing). Routers are used on the network for forwarding a packet from the local
network to the remote network. So, the process of routing involves packet
forwarding from an entry interface out to an exit interface.
 Forwarding

Difference between Routing and Forwarding

Routing Forwarding

Forwarding is simply defined as the action

Routing is the process of moving data from
applied by each router when a packet
one device to another device.
arrives at one of its interfaces.

Operates on the Network Layer. Operates on the Network Layer.

Checks the forwarding table and work

Work is based on Forwarding Table.
according to that.

Works on protocols like Routing Works on protocols like UDP Encapsulating

Information Protocol (RIP) for Routing. Security Payloads

Other Services Expected from Network Layer

1. Error Control
2. Flow Control
3. Congestion Control
1. Error Control
Although it can be implemented in the network layer, it is usually not preferred
because the data packet in a network layer may be fragmented at each router,
which makes error-checking inefficient in the network layer.
2. Flow Control
It regulates the amount of data a source can send without overloading the
receiver. If the source produces data at a very faster rate than the receiver can
consume it, the receiver will be overloaded with data. To control the flow of
data, the receiver should send feedback to the sender to inform the latter that it
is overloaded with data.
There is a lack of flow control in the design of the network layer. It does not
directly provide any flow control. The datagrams are sent by the sender when
they are ready, without any attention to the readiness of the receiver.

3. Congestion Control
Congestion occurs when the number of datagrams sent by the source is beyond
the capacity of the network or routers. This is another issue in the network layer
protocol. If congestion continues, sometimes a situation may arrive where the
system collapses and no datagrams are delivered. Although congestion
control is indirectly implemented in the network layer, still there is a lack of
congestion control in the network layer.
Advantages of Network Layer Services
 Packetization service in the network layer provides ease of transportation of
the data packets.
 Packetization also eliminates single points of failure in data communication
systems.
 Routers present in the network layer reduce network traffic by creating
collision and broadcast domains.
 With the help of Forwarding, data packets are transferred from one place to
another in the network.
Disadvantages of Network Layer Services
 There is a lack of flow control in the design of the network layer.
 Congestion occurs sometimes due to the presence of too many datagrams
in a network that is beyond the capacity of the network or the routers. Due to
this, some routers may drop some of the datagrams, and some important
pieces of information may be lost.
 Although indirect error control is present in the network layer, there is a lack
of proper error control mechanisms as due to the presence of fragmented
data packets, error control becomes difficult to implement.
Transport Layer
The transport Layer is the second layer in the TCP/IP model and the fourth
layer in the OSI model. It is an end-to-end layer used to deliver messages to a
host. It is termed an end-to-end layer because it provides a point-to-point
connection rather than hop-to-hop, between the source host and destination
host to deliver the services reliably. The unit of data encapsulation in the
Transport Layer is a segment.
Working of Transport Layer
The transport layer takes services from the Application layer and provides
services to the Network layer.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives data (message) from the
Application layer and then performs Segmentation, divides the actual message
into segments, adds the source and destination’s port numbers into the header
of the segment, and transfers the message to the Network layer.

At the receiver’s side: The transport layer receives data from the Network
layer, reassembles the segmented data, reads its header, identifies the port
number, and forwards the message to the appropriate port in the Application
layer
Responsibilities of a Transport Layer
 The Process to Process Delivery
 End-to-End Connection between Hosts
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Congestion Control
 Data integrity and Error correction
 Flow control
1. The Process to Process Delivery
While Data Link Layer requires the MAC address (48 bits address contained
inside the Network Interface Card of every host machine) of source-destination
hosts to correctly deliver a frame and the Network layer requires the IP address
for appropriate routing of packets, in a similar way Transport Layer requires a
Port number to correctly deliver the segments of data to the correct process
amongst the multiple processes running on a particular host. A port number is a
16-bit address used to identify any client-server program uniquely.
 Process to Process Delivery

2. End-to-end Connection between Hosts

The transport layer is also responsible for creating the end-to-end Connection
between hosts for which it mainly uses TCP and UDP. TCP is a secure,
connection-orientated protocol that uses a handshake protocol to establish a
robust connection between two end hosts. TCP ensures the reliable delivery of
messages and is used in various applications. UDP, on the other hand, is a
stateless and unreliable protocol that ensures best-effort delivery. It is suitable
for applications that have little concern with flow or error control and requires
sending the bulk of data like video conferencing. It is often used in multicasting
protocols.
 End to End Connection.

3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Multiplexing(many to one) is when data is acquired from several processes from
the sender and merged into one packet along with headers and sent as a single
packet. Multiplexing allows the simultaneous use of different processes over a
network that is running on a host. The processes are differentiated by their port
numbers. Similarly, Demultiplexing(one to many is required at the receiver side
when the message is distributed into different processes. Transport receives
the segments of data from the network layer distributes and delivers it to the
appropriate process running on the receiver’s machine.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

4. Congestion Control
Congestion is a situation in which too many sources over a network attempt to
send data and the router buffers start overflowing due to which loss of packets
occurs. As a result, the retransmission of packets from the sources increases
the congestion further. In this situation, the Transport layer provides Congestion
Control in different ways. It uses open-loop congestion control to prevent
congestion and closed-loop congestion control to remove the congestion in a
network once it occurred. TCP provides AIMD – additive increases
multiplicative decrease and leaky bucket technique for congestion control.

s
Leaky Bucket Congestion Control Technique

5. Data integrity and Error Correction

The transport layer checks for errors in the messages coming from the
application layer by using error detection codes, and computing checksums, it
checks whether the received data is not corrupted and uses the ACK and NACK
services to inform the sender if the data has arrived or not and checks for the
integrity of data.
 Error Correction using Checksum

6. Flow Control
The transport layer provides a flow control mechanism between the adjacent
layers of the TCP/IP model. TCP also prevents data loss due to a fast sender
and slow receiver by imposing some flow control techniques. It uses the method
of sliding window protocol which is accomplished by the receiver by sending a
window back to the sender informing the size of data it can receive.

Protocols of Transport Layer

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)
 AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP)
 Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP)
 Reliable Data Protocol (RDP)
 Reliable User Data Protocol (RUDP)
 Structured Steam Transport (SST)
TCP/IP Model
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was
designed to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the
communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this
article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are
referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface
Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference
between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in
the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail
and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol,
which does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is required
by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP
model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this
layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way
at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking .
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

The diagramma tic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:
 TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on
behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link
layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols
which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire
network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in
the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that
most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with
information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing
packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does this by
assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device
and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns
an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the best
route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of
the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them
into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing
tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer,
it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they
were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that
resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole
transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible
for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols
present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers
and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser
needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to
maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the
presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server
can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error correction
and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost during transmission,
the host-to-host layer can request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure
that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
breaking up large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be
transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the data at the
destination. This allows data to be transmitted more efficiently and helps to
avoid overloading the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection,
and then demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple
devices to share the same network connection and helps to improve the
utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-
oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-
 end, without the need for intermediate devices to be involved in the
communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a
file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then transmit
the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will
receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file
has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will
acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments,
and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for
multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end
communication between the two hosts.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet
Protocols is how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some
Common Internet Protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers
and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent
over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive
data.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application
presentation layers.
layer itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.
 TCP/IP OSI

In the OSI model, the transport layer

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not
provides assurance delivery of
provide assurance delivery of packets.
packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
are better covered and are easy to
TCP/IP model.
replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP) services.
oriented services are provided by the
The transport layer (TCP) provides
network layer in the OSI model.
connections.

Basics of Packet
A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin of computer or device to another on
the Internet or any other packet-switched network. When any file (e-mail message, HTML file,
Graphics Interchange Format file, Uniform Resource Locator request, and so forth) is sent from
one place of network to another place of network on the Internet, the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) layer of TCP/IP of network.

What is in a packet?

Divides the file into “chunks” of an efficient size for routing. Each of these packets is
separately numbered, data size, and other useful information and includes the Internet
address of the destination. The individual packets for a given file may travel different
routes through the Internet. When they have all arrived, they are reassembled into the
original file (by the TCP layer at the receiving end).
A packet-switching scheme is an efficient way to handle transmissions on a
connectionless networking such as the Internet. An alternative scheme, circuit-
switched, is used for networks allocated for voice connections. In circuit-switching,
lines in the network are shared among many users as with packet-switching, but each
connection requires the dedication of a particular path for the duration of the
connection.
Structure of a Data Packet

The structure of a Data Packet depends on the protocol it used. The header section of
packet keeps overhead information, the service, and other transmission related data.
• Source address: which is the IP address of sender.
• Destination address: which is the IP address of recipient.
• Sequence number: A packet number that puts in order such that when they are reassembled
on the destination.
 Circuit Switching in Computer Network
In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and
bit delay is constant during a connection. The dedicated path/circuit established
between sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data rate. Data can be
transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.
Telephone system network is one of the example of Circuit switching. TDM
(Time Division Multiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single
carrier.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing : Divides into multiple bands

Frequency Division Multiplexing or FDM is used when multiple data signals
are combined for simultaneous transmission via a shared communication
medium.It is a technique by which the total bandwidth is divided into a series
of non-overlapping frequency sub-bands,where each sub-band carry
different signal. Practical use in radio spectrum & optical fibre to share
multiple independent signals.

 Time Division Multiplexing : Divides into frames

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving
independent signals over a common signal path by means of synchronized
switches at each end of the transmission line. TDM is used for long-distance
communication links and bears heavy data traffic loads from end user.
Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switched.

drawbacks:

Inefficient use of resources: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a

dedicated communication path between two nodes, which means that the
resources along that path, such as bandwidth and switch ports, are reserved for
the duration of the communication. This can result in inefficient use of
resources, as the resources may remain unused during periods of low or no
communication.
In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and
bit delay is constant during a connection. The dedicated path/circuit established
between sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data rate. Data can be
transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.
Telephone system network is one of the example of Circuit switching. TDM
(Time Division Multiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single
carrier.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing : Divides into multiple bands

Frequency Division Multiplexing or FDM is used when multiple data signals
are combined for simultaneous transmission via a shared communication
medium.It is a technique by which the total bandwidth is divided into a series
of non-overlapping frequency sub-bands,where each sub-band carry
different signal. Practical use in radio spectrum & optical fibre to share
multiple independent signals.

 Time Division Multiplexing : Divides into frames

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving
independent signals over a common signal path by means of synchronized
switches at each end of the transmission line. TDM is used for long-distance
communication links and bears heavy data traffic loads from end user.
Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switched.

drawbacks:

Inefficient use of resources: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a

dedicated communication path between two nodes, which means that the
resources along that path, such as bandwidth and switch ports, are reserved for
the duration of the communication. This can result in inefficient use of
resources, as the resources may remain unused during periods of low or no
communication.
Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale networks
with many nodes, as it requires a dedicated communication path between each
pair of nodes. This can result in a high degree of complexity and difficulty in
managing the network.
Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated
communication path, which can make the network vulnerable to failures, such
as cable cuts or switch failures. In the event of a failure, the communication
path must be re-established, which can result in delays or loss of data.
Delay and latency: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated
communication path, which can result in delay and latency in establishing the
path and transmitting data. This can impact the real-time performance of
applications, such as voice and video.
High cost: Circuit switching requires the reservation of resources, which can
result in a high cost, particularly in large-scale networks. This can make circuit
switching less practical for some applications.
Lack of flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it only allows one type of
communication at a time, such as voice or data. This can limit the ability of
users to perform multiple tasks simultaneously.
Limited mobility: Circuit switching is not well-suited for mobile devices or
nodes that move frequently, as it requires the establishment of a dedicated
communication path. This can result in communication disruptions or dropped
calls.
Limited capacity: Circuit switching can have limited capacity as it requires the
establishment of a dedicated communication path between two nodes. This can
limit the number of simultaneous communications that can occur.
High setup time: Circuit switching requires a significant setup time to establish
the dedicated communication path between two nodes. This can result in delays
in initiating communication.
No prioritization: Circuit switching does not provide any mechanism for
prioritizing certain types of traffic over others. This can result in delays or poor
performance for time-critical applications, such as voice or video.
Advantages of Circuit Switching:
It has the following advantages :

1. The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission

channel is established between the computers which give a guaranteed data
rate.
2. In-circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated
transmission path.
3. Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the
dedicated communication path is reserved for the entire duration of the
communication. This ensures that the data will be transmitted without any
loss or corruption.
4. Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of
service, which means that the network can prioritize certain types of traffic,
such as voice and video, over other types of traffic, such as email and web
browsing.
5. Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to
packet switching since the dedicated communication path is only accessible
to the two communicating parties. This can help prevent unauthorized
access and data breaches.
6. Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since
the communication path is pre-established and dedicated to a specific
communication. This can help simplify network management and reduce the
risk of errors.
7. Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices
and protocols, which means that it can be used with different types of
 networks and applications. This makes it a versatile technology for various
industries and use cases.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
It has the following disadvantages :

1. It takes a long time to establish a connection.

2. More bandwidth is required in setting up dedicated channels.
3. It cannot be used to transmit any other data even if the channel is free as the
connection is dedicated to circuit switching.
4. Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated
circuit between the communicating devices. The circuit cannot be used
Waste of Resources for any other purpose until the communication is
complete, which limits the flexibility of the network.
5. Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network
resources for the duration of the communication, even if there is no data
being transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and inefficient
use of the network.
6. Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires
dedicated communication paths, which can be costly to set up and maintain.
This makes it less feasible for small-scale networks and applications.
7. Susceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies
on a dedicated communication path. If the path fails, the entire
communication is disrupted. This makes it less reliable than other networking
technologies, such as packet switching.
8. Not suitable for bursty traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for bursty
traffic, where data is transmitted intermittently at irregular intervals. This is
because a dedicated circuit needs to be established for each
communication, which can result in delays and inefficient use of resources.
Formulas in Circuit Switching :

Transmission rate = Link Rate or Bit rate /

no. of slots = R/h bps
Transmission time = size of file /
transmission rate
= x / (R/h) = (x*h)/R second
Total time to send packet to destination =
Transmission time + circuit setup time
Virtual Circuit in Computer Network
Virtual Circuit is the computer network providing connection-oriented service.
It is a connection-oriented network. In virtual circuit resource are reserve for the
time interval of data transmission between two nodes. This network is a highly
reliable medium of transfer. Virtual circuits are costly to implement.

Working of Virtual Circuit:

 In the first step a medium is set up between the two end nodes.
 Resources are reserved for the transmission of packets.
 Then a signal is sent to sender to tell the medium is set up and transmission
can be started.
 It ensures the transmission of all packets.
 A global header is used in the first packet of the connection.
 Whenever data is to be transmitted a new connection is set up.
Congestion Control in Virtual Circuit:
Once the congestion is detected in virtual circuit network, closed-loop
techniques is used. There are different approaches in this technique:
 No new connection –
No new connections are established when the congestion is detected. This
approach is used in telephone networks where no new calls are established
when the exchange is overloaded.
 Participation of congested router invalid –
Another approach to control congestion is allow all new connections but
 route these new connections in such a way that congested router is not part
of this route.
 Negotiation –
To negotiate different parameters between sender and receiver of the
network, when the connection is established. During the set up time, host
specifies the shape and volume of the traffic, quality of service and other
parameters.
Advantages of Virtual Circuit:
1. Packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order sent by the sender.
2. Virtual circuit is a reliable network circuit.
3. There is no need for overhead in each packet.
4. Single global packet overhead is used in virtual circuit.
Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit:
1. Virtual circuit is costly to implement.
2. It provides only connection-oriented service.
3. Always a new connection set up is required for transmission.
Types of Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified
into the following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission

media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway
by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is
split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely
use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable
television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and
receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications:
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in
designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium
invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in
the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a
conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz.
AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.