UNIT-II

Overview of energy systems

Energy system is a well-defined system in which energy flows enter the system to
perform certain activities. It can be converted into multiple forms (energy output)
and according to the second law of thermodynamics, a fraction of it is always lost in
the conversion process. It may represent, for example, a car engine, a house, a
machine or the country’s energy system. In any energy system, we have some
energy conversion process, which is the process of changing one form of energy to
another.The metric that measures the energy conversion efficiency is called the
system efficiency. It is the ratio between the Energy Output over the Energy Input.

1.2.0.1 First law Efficiency

The first law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be converted
from one form to another.

Energy Efficiency μ� (as %):

Energy conversion efficiency μ� is the ratio between the useful output of an energy
conversion machine and the input.

μ=(energyoutput/energyinput)×100

1.2.1 Reference Energy System

It is a representation of all of the technical activities required to supply various forms

of energy to end-use activities. An accounting framework for the compilation of data
on all energy products entering, exiting and used within a system (e.g. the national
territory of a given country) during a reference period.

The below diagram represents activities and the technologies and energy flows from
primary energy supply to final energy use and eventually (though not as common)
useful energy flows and energy services.
The reference energy system is a framework that helps to describe an energy system
by describing the energy flows, the energy conversion technologies and the energy
outputs. In practice, the reference energy system is a diagram that represents
technologies and processes and the energy flows between these.

In particular, there are three new concepts: the primary, final and useful energy. The
breakdown of primary to final to useful energy is very relevant, because with each
conversion step some energy is always lost.

The design of an efficient energy system consists of avoiding unnecessary losses, we

always aim at eliminating unnecessary steps in the flow of energy.

Primary energy is the energy embodied in natural resources which involve extraction,
(e.g. oil and coal, but also wind and solar). Primary energy refers to energy sources as
found in nature.

Final energy is the result of the transformation of primary energy sources the energy
embodied in commodities which involve human transformation (e.g. electricity or
gasoline or LPG) and it is usually, energy that is available at the consumer level.

Useful energy is the energy really spent at the end-use technologies. The portion of
final energy which is actually available after final conversion to the consumer for the
respective use (service). For example, depending on the technology conversion,
electricity becomes (e.g. light, mechanical energy or heat).

Energy service Service that is provided by useful energy (E.g. light, mechanical
energy or heat)
In the reference energy system, we can observe that on the left side we have the
technologies and activities that enable us to collect primary energy (the primary energy
supply area), like oil extraction, coal mining, biomass collection, etc. Then, the second
area refers to conversion technologies from primary to final energy supply and its
transportation, like electricity generation on power plants or oil refining. In some
cases, like biomass or natural gas, the primary energy is consumed directly as a
commodity (it means final energy) and there is no conversion process.

We have a second level of technologies which are the end-use technologies that allow
us to change the final energy into a form of useful energy to perform different
activities, like heating, mechanical movement or light, and these activities, which are
not energy nor technologies, are the energy services. So, we present here the first
definition of energy service that describes an activity that can be performed by means
of useful energy.

Energy Sources

There are mainly two different sources of energy. They are renewable
and nonrenewable energy sources.

Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used as primary energy sources
to produce useful energy such as heat, or they can be used to produce secondary
energy sources such as electricity and hydrogen.

There are five major renewable energy sources:

• Solar energy from the sun

• Geothermal energy from heat inside the earth

• Wind energy

• Biomass from plants

• Hydropower from flowing water

Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Day after day, the sun shines,
plants grow, wind blows, and rivers flow.

Renewable energy was the main energy source for most of human history

Throughout most of human history, biomass from plants was the main energy source.
Biomass was burned for warmth and light, to cook food, and to feed the animals
people used for transportation and plowing. Nonrenewable energy began replacing
most renewable energy in the United States in the early 1800s, and by the early-
1900s, fossil fuels were the main source of energy. Biomass continued to be used for
heating homes primarily in rural areas and, to a lesser extent, for supplemental heat
in urban areas. In the mid-1980s, use of biomass and other forms of renewable energy
began increasing largely because of incentives for their use, especially for electricity
generation. Many countries are working to increase renewable energy use as a way to
help reduce and avoid carbon dioxide emissions.

Nonrenewable energy sources

In all countries, most energy sources used for doing work are nonrenewable energy
sources:

• Petroleum

• Hydrocarbon gas liquids

• Natural gas

• Coal

• Nuclear energy

These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited to
the amounts that we can mine or extract from the earth. Coal, natural gas, and
petroleum formed over thousands of years from the buried remains of ancient sea
plants and animals that lived millions of years ago, which is why we also call those
energy sources fossil fuels.

Most of the petroleum products consumed in the United States are made from crude
oil, but petroleum liquids can also be made from natural gas and coal.

Nuclear energy is produced from uranium, a nonrenewable energy source whose

atoms are split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and,
eventually, electricity. Scientists think uranium was created billions of years ago when
stars formed. Uranium is found throughout the earth’s crust, but most of it is too
difficult or too expensive to mine and process into fuel for nuclear power plants.

Energy Conversion

Energy conversion, also termed as energy transformation, is the process of changing

one form of energy into another. Energy conversion occurs everywhere and every
minute of the day. There are numerous forms of energy like thermal energy, electrical
energy, nuclear energy, electromagnetic energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy,
sound energy, etc.

On the other hand, the term Energy Transformation is used when energy changes
forms from one form to another. Whether the energy is transferred or transformed, the
total amount of energy doesn’t change, and this is known as the law of conservation of
Energy.
The diagram shows how different forms of energy can be converted to another form of
energy.

Thermodynamics is the study of how energy gets converted from one form to another.
Details on how the laws of thermodynamics apply to the conversion of energy are given
below.

The first law of thermodynamics states that

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from
one form to another.”

This is also known as the law of conservation of energy or the law of energy
conversion.

There are various types and forms of energy. Some examples of everyday energy
conversions are provided below.

Scenario Energy conversions involved

Rubbing both hands together for Kinetic Energy to Thermal Energy

warmth
A falling object speeding up Gravitational Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy

Using battery-powered torchlight In the battery: Chemical to Electrical Energy

In the bulb: Electrical to Radiant Energy

In Geothermal Power Plant Heat Energy to Electrical Energy

In Thermocouple Heat Energy to Electrical Energy

In Hydroelectric Dams Gravitational potential energy to Electric Energy

In Electric Generator Kinetic energy / Mechanical Energy to Electric

Energy

In Windmills Wind Energy to Mechanical Energy or Electric

Energy

In OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Heat Energy to Electric Energy or Mechanical

Conversion) Energy

Using Microphone Sound Energy to Electric Energy

Photosynthesis in Plants Solar Energy to Chemical Energy

In Piezoelectrics Strain Energy to Electric Energy

In Electric lamp Electric Energy to Heat Energy and Light

Energy

Burning of wood Chemical energy to Heat and Light Energy

In Fuel cells Chemical Energy to Electric Energy

In steam engine The heat energy to Mechanical Energy

In Electric heater Electric Energy to Heat

Energy Transfer vs Energy Transformation vs Energy Conservation

Energy Transfer- The movement of energy from one location to another.

Energy Transformation- The process of changing the energy from one type to
another.
Energy Conservation- It means that the total amount of energy remains the same.

Energy Storage

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time to
reduce imbalances between energy demand and energy production. A device that
stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery. Energy comes in multiple
forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential,
electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves
converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or
economically storable forms.

Some technologies provide short-term energy storage, while others can endure for
much longer. Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams, both
conventional as well as pumped.

Grid energy storage is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large
scale within an electrical power grid.

Common examples of energy storage are

• the rechargeable battery, which stores chemical energy readily convertible to

electricity to operate a mobile phone;
• the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir as
gravitational potential energy; and ice storage tanks, which store ice frozen by
cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling.
• Green hydrogen, from the electrolysis of water, is a more economical means of
long-term renewable energy storage in terms of capital
expenditures than pumped-storage hydroelectricity or batteries.
• Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from
sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then
converted into these form fuels.
• Food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy
stored in chemical .

Some of the prominent types of energy storage are as follows:

• Mechanical Storage

This involves the usage of entities such as heat, wind, water, and other renewable
sources, along with equipment such as turbines and compressors, to convert energy
sources into electricity and vice versa. Some of these mechanical systems are:

• Pumped Hydro Storage

Pumped hydro storage is the highest capacity energy storage method worldwide. In
this method, surplus electricity is used to pump water from a reservoir in a lower area
to a reservoir in a higher area. This way, the electricity is converted into potential
energy. Whenever there is a need for electricity, the water moves from the higher
reservoir to a lower reservoir, and the potential energy is converted into electricity.

• Flywheel Energy Storage

Flywheel is stored for quick backup power in case of an outage. Here, the setup
involves a rotor in a vacuum enclosure. When energy needs to be stored, the flywheel
is accelerated to high speeds using surplus electricity, and the energy is stored as
kinetic energy. This rotor is connected to a motor/generator type of setup. When
electricity is required, the rotor loses speed and discharges with the help of a
generator that provides electricity.

• Compressed Air Energy Storage

When there is an overproduction of energy, power plants sometimes use compressed

air energy storage methods to convert this surplus energy into the air stored in an
underground chamber. Then, when electricity is required, this air is heated, and the
hot air passes through turbines which rotate and convert this heat into electricity.

• Electrochemical Storage

Electrochemical storage involves various kinds of battery energy storage systems.

These batteries convert chemical energy into electricity and vice versa, and their power
ranges from a few watts to hundreds of kiloWatts based on your requirement. While
there are multiple types of batteries, two of the most common ones are:

• Rechargeable Battery

A rechargeable battery is also known as a secondary battery. It stores energy and is

connected to a load which refers to any system that requires electricity. Whenever the
load requires electricity, the battery is discharged with the help of a chemical reaction.
This reaction can be reversed to charge the battery again.

In essence, these batteries can be used multiple times, thus making them one of the
most cost-effective ways of storage. A few examples of rechargeable batteries areLead-
acid, Lithium-ion, Nickel-cadmium, and Nickel-metal hydride.

Rechargeable batteries like Lead-acid and Lithium-ion are used in data centers,
telecom sites, and other industrial facilities for their UPS which acts as a backup
power source in case of a power interruption.

• Flow Battery

A flow battery is a variation of the rechargeable battery but is more scalable.

Furthermore, unlike the latter, flow batteries have a very low self-discharge quotient,
which means more energy is saved.
Electric vehicles mainly use these batteries because they charge and discharge quickly
and require a lot of energy. Besides this, they are also used in Original Equipment
Manufacturers (OEMs) and grid energy storage, where the energy capacity required is
high. As a result, there needs to be a stable, uninterrupted power supply.

These types of energy storage work efficiently independently, but emerging next-
generation companies are moving towards integrated systems with battery storage and
monitoring technology.

• Battery Monitoring System

The battery monitoring technology works with storage systems by enhancing their
capabilities. These capabilities include remotely monitoring the battery performance
and optimizing it with the help of analytics and intelligence systems.

These can proactively help companies predict disasters and threats beforehand,
change the supply and demand on the go based on live data and provide more insights
into the complete system.

• Electrochemical Storage

Electromagnetic storage involves the usage of electric and magnetic properties of

equipment such as capacitors, supercapacitors, and superconducting magnets to
store energy.

• Capacitor

A capacitor is comprised of two plates and an insulator in the middle. This stores
energy in the form of electrostatic charges. Usually, these are connected to a charging
circuit. When it is disconnected, it stores the energy and can be used when there is a
change of batteries. Thus, it helps provide electricity to maintain the power supply
during the battery change.

Super capacitor

A super capacitor bridges the gap between capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It
has a higher energy density than capacitors and has a lower time period for charging
and discharging cycles.

While these are a few significant types of storage, there are others, such as fossil fuel
storage, thermal, biological, and chemical storage. These have varied importance
across different sectors. So let’s have a look at how they are important and their
benefits.

Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals. These fuels are found in
Earth’s crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for
energy. Coal, oil, and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.
Coal:Coal is a material usually found in sedimentary rock deposits where rock and
dead plant and animal matter are piled up in layers. More than 50 percent of a piece
of coal’s weight must be from fossilized plants. Coal is formed when dead plant matter
submerged in swamp environments is subjected to the geological forces of heat and
pressure over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the plant matter transforms
from moist, low-carbon peat, to coal, an energy- and carbon-dense black or brownish-
black sedimentary rock

Oil: Oil is originally found as a solid material between layers of sedimentary rock, like
shale. This material is heated in order to produce the thick oil that can be used to
make gasoline. Natural gas is usually found in pockets above oil deposits. It can also
be found in sedimentary rock layers that don’t contain oil. Natural gas is primarily
made up of methane.

Oil bearing shale: Oil-bearing shales are underground rock formations that contain
trapped petroleum. The petroleum trapped within the rocks is known as “tight oil” and
is difficult to extract. Companies extracting tight oil often use hydraulic fracturing
(fracking), while companies extracting shale oil most often use heat.

Oil shale is a type of sedimentary rock that is rich in kerogen. Kerogen is a part of
rock that breaks down and releases hydrocarbons when heated. Hydrocarbons are
substances made entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Petroleum and natural gas are
probably the most familiar hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons in oil shale can be used
as an alternative to petroleum or natural gas.

Oil sands: Oil sands, or tar sands, are sand and rock material that contain
crude bitumen—a dense, viscous form of crude oil. Bitumen is too thick to flow on its
own, so extraction methods are necessary

Coal gasification : Coal gasification means the complete conversion of coal into gas using
heterogeneous gas solid reactions. Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle is a new
technology for the generation of electricity. Gasification of coal is a process in which
coal is partially oxidated by air, oxygen, steam or carbon dioxide under controlled
conditions to produce a fuel gas. The hot fuel gas is cooled in heat exchangers, with
the production of steam, and cleaned before combustion in a gas turbine. The offgases
from the turbine are used in a boiler to produce additional steam for a steam turbine

Fossil fuels have been used throughout the world for more than 200 years. Their high
energy density, low cost and transportability have led to their increasing use as a
primary source of energy.

Fossil fuels have played a significant role in the past, continue to dominate the
present, but are facing increasing scrutiny and challenges for the future due to
environmental concerns and the need to transition to more sustainable energy
sources.
Past:

1. Discovery and Early Use: Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas,
have been used for centuries. Coal was the first to be widely used during the
Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, powering steam engines
and factories.

2. Oil Boom: The discovery of oil in the late 19th century led to the rapid
expansion of the petroleum industry. Oil became a crucial energy source for
transportation and industrial processes.

3. Rapid Industrialization: Fossil fuels played a pivotal role in driving global

industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth in the 20th century.

Present:

1. Dominant Energy Source: Fossil fuels currently dominate the global energy
mix. Coal, oil, and natural gas account for a significant percentage of the
world's energy consumption.

2. Energy Security and Economic Impacts: Many countries heavily rely on fossil
fuels for energy security and economic development. Oil, in particular, has
geopolitical implications, influencing international relations and conflicts.

3. Environmental Concerns: The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse

gases, contributing to climate change. Air and water pollution from extraction,
transportation, and combustion of fossil fuels have adverse environmental and
public health impacts.

Future:

1. Transition to Renewable Energy: Due to environmental concerns and the

finite nature of fossil fuel resources, there is a global push towards renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal.

2. Policy and Regulations: Governments and international organizations are

implementing policies and regulations to reduce dependence on fossil fuels,
encourage energy efficiency, and promote cleaner alternatives.

3. Technological Innovations: Ongoing research and development in clean

energy technologies aim to make alternative energy sources more efficient,
affordable, and accessible, facilitating the transition away from fossil fuels.

4. Challenges and Opposition: Despite the push for renewable energy, the
transition faces challenges such as the intermittent nature of some renewables,
infrastructure requirements, and resistance from vested interests in the fossil
fuel industry.
 5. Global Cooperation: Addressing climate change and transitioning from fossil
fuels require global cooperation. Agreements like the Paris Agreement aim to
unite nations in the effort to reduce carbon emissions and limit global
temperature rise.

In conclusion, while fossil fuels have been crucial for historical development and are
still prevalent today, the focus is shifting towards sustainable alternatives to mitigate
environmental impacts and secure a cleaner, more resilient future.

• Why should people look for alternative sources of fossil fuels?

One reason is that fossil fuels cause air pollution while other alternative fuels such as
solar energy and wind energy are eco friendly. Another reason is that fossil fuels are
conventional sources of energy and will soon get exhausted while other alternative
fuels are non conventional sources of energy which are renewable ,that is ,unlimited.

Fossil fuels are exhaustible or non renewable resources. Their amount is very limited.
This means that if we keep using these at this rate then their quantity will get
completely finished or exhausted and it takes millions of years to replenish. This is
why we need to look for alternative sources of energy other than fossil fuels.

Some measures to save and control the usage of fossil fuels are:

1. The first and important measure- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle(RRR).

2. Opting for public transportation to reduce the usage of petrol and diesel.

3. Afforestation and managing the emissions

4. Using energy star appliances to consume less electricity

5. Installing solar panels for electricity in houses.

6. Making efficient use of renewable energy sources.

7. Turning off all the electrical appliances when not in use.

8. Purifying the wastage from factories before releasing it into air, water and land.

9. Controlled use of plastic as it can affect the human life in the long run.

10. Creating awareness to the future generation about the importance of renewable
energy sources and the impact of fossil fuels on the environment.

• Best Alternatives for Fossil Fuels

The primary alternatives to fossil fuels are renewable energy, nuclear power, hydrogen,
biomass, and geothermal energy.

• Solar Energy
Solar energy is definitely the most popular alternative energy source from fossil fuels.
It was one of the first leading new energy sources in recent research. Solar power is
the converting of energy from the sun into reliable electricity. This is possible thanks
to the use of solar panels. The PV glass and cells the panels are made out of are what
convert the sunlight into energy. This energy can then be used to power housing and
businesses. This could be a very viable option for anyone looking for an alternative
energy source. If your utilities are not quite suitable for your business, the likes
of Utility Bidder can help fix that issue.

• Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy is a great natural source of power. It's made possible by using the
energy in moving water. For many years water was used to help produce mechanical
energy. But now, following extensive research, it is a leading source of naturally
generated energy. Hydroelectric energy relies on the water cycle. The amount of water
that is drained into rivers and streams is a determining factor of how much energy can
be accessed. This means that in the case of such climate patterns, such as drought,
hydroelectric power will be poorly affected.

• Biofuels

Biofuels have been around for a long time. It was only when the introduction of cheap
gasoline and diesel came into play that it became seemingly irrelevant. It is still a great
form of energy, however, due to its natural and unlimited origins. Biofuels can be
made in a number of different ways. They are usually a product of certain chemical
reactions, sugars, fermentation, or other molecules in plants. This can then result in a
fuel that has the power to power cars and other vehicles.

• Wind Energy

Wind energy is made possible thanks to the development of wind turbines. Its process
is very simple. The energy the wind carries will turn the propellers of the turbine. The
rotor within the main shaft will then spin a generator. This generator is then able to
create electricity. A singular wind turbine has a capacity of 2-3 megawatts, which can
then produce over 6 million kilowatt-hours of energy per year. This is enough to power
roughly 1,500 homes. The faster the wind, the more energy the turbine can produce.
However, strong winds can force the turbine to shut down. This is to help prevent any
potential damage issues by the strong winds.

• Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is simply heat from the earth. If you were to dig into the earth’s
surface, the further you go down, the warmer it would get. The world is full of heat,
and the energy that comes from it is one of many renewable energy sources.
Both geothermal power plants and geothermal heat pumps use the earth’s heat to
make electricity or generate heat for buildings. People have used this heat for various
purposes, whether for bathing, cooking or staying warm.

Typically, the wells dug for geothermal heat need to be at least a mile deep.
Geothermal power plants can consistently produce energy, 24 hours per day, seven
days per week. With proper management of the wells, geothermal energy is a
renewable source and is an excellent alternative to fossil fuels.

• Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made
up of protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two ways:
fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse
together. The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity
is through nuclear fission

Nuclear power has proved to be a zero-emission renewable energy source. It generates

power through the process of fission, in which uranium atoms are split to produce
energy. The heat released during the fission process creates steam that spins a
turbine to generate electricity without releasing any harmful by-products emitted by
fossil fuel energy sources. The production method of nuclear energy is also
sustainable.

• Biomass Energy:

Biomass is an organic source of energy generation. It is produced of material such as

decayed living organisms, plants, and animals. The most commonly used biomass
energy sources are plants, wood, and organic waste, known as biomass feedstocks.

Biomass is a clean energy source that produces no harmful by-products while being
used to create direct heat and is further converted into electricity or processed into
biofuel. Currently, biomass fuel is being used in various industries and businesses for
several purposes, such as space heating, hot water heating, and electricity generation.
For instance, many industrial facilities, such as lumber mills, naturally produce
organic waste.

• Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic resources with the potential for
near-zero greenhouse gas emissions. Once produced, hydrogen generates electrical
power in a fuel cell, emitting only water vapor and warm air. It holds promise for
growth in both the stationary and transportation energy sectors.

• Tidal energy

Tidal energy is a form of power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by
the gravitational interaction between Earth, the sun, and the moon. Tidal currents
with sufficient energy for harvesting occur when water passes through a constriction,
causing the water to move faster. Tidal turbines are similar to wind turbines in that
they have blades that turn a rotor to power a generator. They can be placed on the sea
floor where there is strong tidal flow.

• Wave energy

Ocean waves generated ocean energy emits a low amount of carbon emissions in the
environment whereas, traditional energy of fossil fuels emit a high level of carbon
emissions. As the energy emits a low amount of carbon in the environment it can be
considered as an eco-friendly alternative for traditional fuels of fossils. Ocean
energy has a low carbon footprint on the environment making it an eco-friendly
substitute for fossil fuels. The energy is dependent on tides, lunar cycles, weather, and
winds as these are factors contributing to ocean waves. Ocean waves roll across an
ocean and generate kinetic energy due to their movement. Movements of waves are
utilized for powering turbines that in return generate energy converting into power and
electricity. Wave energy can be gathered with the help of different technologies such as
attenuators, absorbers, and other devices.