Multimedia and Computer Vision

UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER VISION

Overview to Computer Vision

Computer vision means the extraction of information from images, text, videos, etc. Sometimes
computer vision tries to mimic human vision. It’s a subset of computer-based intelligence or
Artificial intelligence which collects information from digital images or videos and analyze
them to define the attributes.

The entire process involves image acquiring, screening, analyzing, identifying, and extracting
information. This extensive processing helps computers to understand any visual content and
act on it accordingly. Computer vision projects translate digital visual content into precise
descriptions to gather multi-dimensional data. This data is then turned into a computer-readable
language to aid the decision-making process. The main objective of this branch of Artificial
intelligence is to teach machines to collect information from images.
Applications of Computer Vision
• Medical Imaging: Computer vision helps in MRI reconstruction, automatic pathology,
diagnosis, and computer aided surgeries and more.
• AR/VR: Object occlusion, outside-in tracking, and inside-out tracking for virtual and
augmented reality.
• Smartphones: All the photo filters (including animation filters on social media), QR
code scanners, panorama construction, Computational photography, face detectors,
 image detectors like (Google Lens, Night Sight) that we use are computer vision
applications.
• Oil and natural gas -The oil and natural gas companies produce millions of barrels
of oil and billions of cubic feet of gas every day but for this to happen, first, the
geologists have to find a feasible location from where oil and gas can be extracted.

• Video surveillance -The Concept of video tagging is used to tag videos with
keywords based on the objects that appear in each scene. Now imagine being that
security company who’s asking to look for a suspect in a blue van amongst hours and
hours of footage

• Internet: Image search, Mapping, photo captioning, Ariel imaging for maps, video
categorization and more.

OpenCV (Open Source Computer Vision), a cross-platform and free to use library of
functions is based on real-time Computer Vision which supports Deep Learning frameworks
that aids in image and video processing. In Computer Vision, the principal element is to extract
the pixels from the image to study the objects and thus understand what it contains. Below are
a few key aspects that Computer Vision seeks to recognize in the photographs:
• Object Detection: The location of the object.
• Object Recognition: The objects in the image, and their positions.
• Object Classification: The broad category that the object lies in.
• Object Segmentation: The pixels belonging to that object.
Need of Computer Vision
From selfies to landscape images, we are flooded with all kinds of photos today. A report by
Internet Trends says people upload more than 1.8 billion photos daily, and that’s just the number
of uploaded images. Consider what the number would come to if you count the images stored
in phones. We consume more than 4, 146, 600 videos on YouTube and send 103, 447, 520 spam
mails daily. Again, that’s just a part of it – communication, media, and entertainment, the IoT
are all actively contributing to this number. This abundantly available visual content demands
analyzing and understanding and Computer vision helps in doing that by way of teaching
machines to “see” these images and videos.

Computer Imaging Systems in Computer Vision

Computer imaging systems are the hardware and software that enable computers to "see" and
interpret images, using techniques like pattern recognition and image processing to extract
information and performComputer Imaging Systems: The Hardware and Software
Computer imaging is the process of capturing an operating system image (AKA golden image)
from a reference computer and deploying it to one or more devices — along with apps, device
drivers, and settings.
In this rollicking guide, we explore two common ways to image computers using sector-based
and file-based imaging software, the key benefits of computer imaging, and how you can
deploy your operating system images — plus some useful tips on choosing the right computer
imaging software for your business

• Hardware:
• Image Acquisition: This involves capturing images using devices like cameras
(still or video), medical imaging devices, or other sensors.
• Processing: This requires powerful processors (CPUs, GPUs) and memory to
handle the large amounts of image data.
• Display: Monitors or other output devices are needed to visualize the captured
and processed images.
• Software:
• Image Processing Algorithms: These algorithms are used to enhance, filter,
and manipulate images.
• Pattern Recognition Algorithms: These algorithms identify patterns and
features in images, enabling object recognition and other tasks.
• Machine Learning Models: These models, often trained on large datasets of
images, are used to make predictions and inferences about images.
tasks like object recognition or facial recognition.

How Computer Vision Works

• Image Acquisition:
An image is captured by a sensing device (e.g., camera).
 • Image Processing:
The image is pre-processed to enhance its quality and make it suitable for analysis.
• Feature Extraction:
Algorithms identify relevant features in the image, such as edges, corners, or textures.
• Pattern Recognition:
The extracted features are compared against known patterns or models to identify objects or
scenes.
• Interpretation and Action:
The system provides information about the image, such as object identification or scene
classification, or takes actions based on the analysis.

What are the benefits of computer imaging?

For sysadmins managing devices across their organization, computer imaging has many
advantages — from ensuring clean, bloatware-free devices to more efficient resolution of
operating system issues. We break down the benefits below.
1. Consistency across endpoints
Computer imaging is a way to achieve better consistency and quality control across your
endpoint environment — by applying your master image to user devices so that they start from
the same known, clean state. Perhaps the only thing more satisfying is successfully decluttering
your inbox in one go.
2. A bloatware-free environment
Computer imaging helps get rid of pesky OEM-installed bloatware, which can contain security
vulnerabilities, interfere with business applications, and impact the user experience (even if we
agree that a round or two of Microsoft Mahjong can take the edge off a stressful day).
3. Help desk efficiency
Help desk teams dealing with tricky operating system issues can save hours of troubleshooting
by reimaging the problem device, allowing users to get back to work more quickly. And if that
user happens to be your boss, feel free to flex at your next performance review.
4. Cleaner operating system migrations
When moving user devices to new operating systems, using computer imaging to do clean
installs — instead of in-place upgrades — can reduce the risk of compatibility issues that
impact device performance.
5. Better compliance management
For heavily regulated industries, like banking and finance, computer imaging can be a useful
and efficient way to meet strict security and compliance requirements. To meet stringent
regulations, New York investment firm Brean Capital uses computer imaging to sanitize
devices whenever an employee leaves the organization.
Lenses in Computer Vision
lenses are crucial optical components that focus light onto a camera sensor, enabling image
capture and analysis, with different types offering specific functionalities like adjustable
magnification or perspective correction.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Types of Lenses Used in Computer Vision:
• Fixed Focal Length Lenses:
These lenses have a specific focal length, offering high optical performance and are ideal for
consistent applications.
• Varifocal Lenses:
These lenses allow for adjusting the focal length over a range, providing flexibility in field of
view and magnification.
• Telecentric Lenses:
These lenses are designed to eliminate perspective errors, making them essential for precision
measurement applications.
• Specialty Lenses:
These lenses cater to unique and demanding applications, addressing specific challenges that
conventional lenses cannot handle.
• Imaging Lenses:
These are imaging components used in imaging systems to focus an image of an examined
object onto a camera sensor.
Key Considerations for Choosing a Lens:
• Application: The specific application (e.g., precision measurement, general
inspection) dictates the type of lens needed.
• Working Distance: The distance between the lens and the object being imaged.
• Field of View: The area captured by the lens.
• Magnification: The extent to which the image is enlarged.
• Resolution: The ability of the lens to capture fine details.
• Distortion: The degree to which the image is distorted.

Image Formation and Sensing in Computer Vision

Fundamentals of Image Formation
Image formation is an analog to digital conversion of an image with the help of 2D Sampling
and Quantization techniques that is done by the capturing devices like cameras. In general, we
see a 2D view of the 3D world.
In the same way, the formation of the analog image took place. It is basically a conversion of
the 3D world that is our analog image to a 2D world that is our Digital image.
Generally, a frame grabber or a digitizer is used for sampling and quantizing the analog signals.
Optical Systems
The lenses and mirrors are crucial in focusing the light coming from the 3D scene to produce
the image on the image plane. These systems define how light is collected and where it is
directed and consequently affects the sharpness and quality of the image produced.
Image Sensors
The goals of image sensors like the CCD or the CMOS sensors are to simply transform the
optical image into an electronic signal. These sensors differ by sensitivity, the resolution that
they deliver affecting the image as a whole.
Resolution and Sampling
Resolution is defined as the sharpness of an image and it occurs technically as the number of
pixels an image can hold. Sampling is the act of taking samples or discretizing a digital signal
and representing a continuous analog signal as a grouping of discrete values. It can be seen that
higher resolution and appropriative sampling rates are required in order to provide detailed and
accurate images.
Image Processing
Image processing can be described as act of modifying and enhancing digital images by using
algorithms. Pre-processing includes activities like filtering, noise reduction and color
correction that enhance image quality and information extraction.

Color and Pixelation

In digital Imaging, a frame grabber is placed at the image plane which is like a sensor. It aims
to focus the light on it and the continuous image is pixelated via the reflected light by the 3D
object. The light that is focused on the sensor generates an electronic signal.
Each pixel that is formed may be colored or grey depending on the intensity of the sampling
and quantization of the light that is reflected and the electronic signal that is generated via them.
All these pixels form a digital image. The density of these pixels determines the image quality.
The more the density the more the clear and high-resolution image we will get.
Forming a Digital Image
In order to form or create an image that is digital in nature, we need to have a continuous
conversion of data into a digital form. Thus, we require two main steps to do so:
• Sampling (2D): Sampling is a spatial resolution of the digital image. And the rate of
sampling determines the quality of the digitized image. The magnitude of the sampled
image is determined as a value in image processing. It is related to the coordinates
values of the image.
• Quantization: Quantization is the number of grey levels in the digital image. The
transition of the continuous values from the image function to its digital equivalent is
called quantization. It is related to the intensity values of the image.
• The normal human being acquires a high level of quantization levels to get the fine
shading details of the image. The more quantization levels will result in the more clear
image.

Advantages
• 1) Improved Accuracy: Digital imaging is less susceptible to human factors and gives
accurate output of the object with high detailed capture.
• 2) Enhanced Flexibility: Digital images are easy to manipulate, edit or analyse as per
the requirements through different software hence they provide flexibility of post
processing.
• 3) High Storage Capacity: Data in any digital format such as in one or more digital
images can still be stored in large amount with very high resolution and quality and will
not suffer physical wear and tear.
 • 4) Easy Sharing and Distribution: The use of digital images allows them to be quickly
duplicated and transmitted across various channels and to various gadgets, helping to
speed up the work.
• 5) Advanced Analysis Capabilities: Digital imaging enables the application of
analytical tools, including image recognition and machine learning, which can provide
better insights and increase productivity.
Disadvantages
• 1) Data Size: Large-structured digital image could occupy large storage space and
computational power hence may be expensive.
• 2) Image Noise: Digital images may be compromised by noise and artifacts, which
degrades the image quality mainly when photographed at night or using low image
sensors.
• 3) Dependency on Technology: Digital imaging entails the use of sophisticated
technology and equipment that may be costly and there may be constant need to service
or replace the equipment.
• 4) Privacy Concerns: The ability to take and circulate photographs digitally also poses
concern because personal information can be photographed without the subject’s
permission.
• 5) Data Loss Risks: Digital image repositories, however, are prone to data loss caused
by hardware failures, corrupting software, or unintentional erasure.
Applications
• 1) Medical Imaging: Digital imaging is employed in the medical fields in the diagnostic
process such as X-ray pictures, MRI scans, and CT scans, for internal body reflections.
• 2) Surveillance and Security: Digital cameras and imaging systems are greatly needed
for various security or surveillance purposes as they offer live feed and are also useful
in acquiring data for investigations.
• 3) Remote Sensing: Digital imaging plays an important role in remote sensing
applications in terms of monitoring and mapping of environment and disasters and
involve data captured from satellite and aerial systems.
• 4) Entertainment and Media: The entertainment industry involves the use of digital
imaging in films, video games, and virtual reality to deliver improved visual impact.
• 5) Scientific Research: Digital imaging helps in scientific studies through providing
best picture at research fields like astronomy, biology, and material science.
Image Analysis in Computer Vision
image analysis involves using algorithms to extract meaningful information and insights from
digital images, encompassing tasks like object recognition, segmentation, and feature
extraction.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
 • What is Image Analysis?
Image analysis is a core component of computer vision, focusing on enabling computers to
"see" and understand images, much like humans do.
• Key Tasks in Image Analysis:
• Object Recognition: Identifying and classifying specific objects within an
image.
• Image Segmentation: Dividing an image into distinct regions or segments based
on characteristics like color, texture, or edges.
• Feature Extraction: Identifying and extracting relevant features from an image,
such as edges, corners, or shapes, to facilitate further analysis.
• Motion Detection: Identifying and tracking moving objects or changes in an
image sequence.
• Image Enhancement: Improving the quality of an image, for example, by
reducing noise or increasing contrast.
• Image Restoration: Reconstructing images that have been degraded or
damaged.
• Color Image Processing: Analyzing and manipulating images with color
information.
• Applications of Image Analysis:
• Medical Imaging: Analyzing medical scans (X-rays, CT scans, MRIs) to detect
diseases or abnormalities.
• Autonomous Vehicles: Enabling self-driving cars to "see" and navigate their
environment.
• Security Systems: Detecting intruders or unusual activity in surveillance
footage.
• Quality Control: Inspecting products for defects or inconsistencies.
• Document Analysis: Extracting text or data from scanned documents.
• Techniques Used in Image Analysis:
• Digital Image Processing: Techniques for manipulating and enhancing images.
• Pattern Recognition: Identifying patterns and structures in images.
• Machine Learning: Training algorithms to recognize objects and classify
images.
• Deep Learning: Using artificial neural networks to perform complex image
analysis tasks.

Image Preprocessing and Binary Image Analysis

Image preprocessing involves preparing images for analysis by enhancing quality and
removing noise, while binary image analysis focuses on extracting information from images
with only two pixel values (black and white).
Image Preprocessing:
• Purpose:
To improve image quality, reduce noise, and prepare images for further analysis or processing.
• Techniques:
• Noise Reduction: Removing unwanted noise or artifacts.
• Contrast Enhancement: Adjusting brightness and contrast to improve visibility.
• Image Resizing: Changing the image dimensions to a suitable size.
• Color Correction: Adjusting color imbalances or inconsistencies.
• Segmentation: Separating objects or regions of interest from the background.
• Feature Extraction: Identifying and extracting relevant features from the image.
• Applications:
Medical imaging, object recognition, object detection, and satellite imagery.
Binary Image Analysis:
• Definition:
Images with only two pixel values (usually 0 and 1, or black and white).
• Purpose:
To analyze and extract information from images where objects are clearly separated from the
background.
• Techniques:
• Binarization (Thresholding): Converting grayscale or color images into binary
images by setting a threshold value.
• Morphological Operations: Using operations like erosion and dilation to modify
shapes and structures in binary images.
• Object Counting and Measurement: Determining the number and characteristics
of objects in the image.
• Applications:
Optical character recognition (OCR), image segmentation, and object detection.
What is Image Pre-processing Tool and how its work?

Introduction to Image Pre-Processing

As a Machine Learning Engineer, data pre-processing or data cleansing is a crucial step and
most of the ML engineers spend a good amount of time in data pre-processing before building
the model. Some examples for data pre-processing includes outlier detection, missing value
treatments and remove the unwanted or noisy data.
Similarly, Image pre-processing is the term for operations on images at the lowest level of
abstraction. These operations do not increase image information content but they decrease it if
entropy is an information measure. The aim of pre-processing is an improvement of the image
data that suppresses undesired distortions or enhances some image features relevant for further
processing and analysis task.
There are 4 different types of Image Pre-Processing techniques and they are listed below.
1. Pixel brightness transformations/ Brightness corrections
2. Geometric Transformations
3. Image Filtering and Segmentation
4. Fourier transform and Image restauration
Let’s discuss each type in detail.
Pixel brightness transformations(PBT)
Brightness transformations modify pixel brightness and the transformation depends on the
properties of a pixel itself. In PBT, output pixel’s value depends only on the corresponding
input pixel value. Examples of such operators include brightness and contrast adjustments as
well as colour correction and transformations.
Contrast enhancement is an important area in image processing for both human and computer
vision. It is widely used for medical image processing and as a pre-processing step in speech
recognition, texture synthesis, and many other image/video processing applications
There are two types of Brightness transformations and they are below.
1. Brightness corrections
2. Gray scale transformation
The most common Pixel brightness transforms operations are
1. Gamma correction or Power Law Transform
2. Sigmoid stretching
3. Histogram equalization
Two commonly used point processes are multiplication and addition with a constant.
g(x)=αf(x)+β
The parameters α>0 and β are called the gain and bias parameters and sometimes these
parameters are said to control contrast and brightness respectively.
cv.convertScaleAbs(image, alpha=alpha, beta=beta)
for different values of alpha and beta, the image brightness and contrast varies.
Gamma Correction
Gamma correction is a non-linear adjustment to individual pixel values. While in image
normalization we carried out linear operations on individual pixels, such as scalar
multiplication and addition/subtraction, gamma correction carries out a non-linear operation
on the source image pixels, and can cause saturation of the image being altered.
How To Apply Machine Learning to Recognise Handwriting
Histogram equalization
Histogram equalization is a well-known contrast enhancement technique due to its performance
on almost all types of image. Histogram equalization provides a sophisticated method for
modifying the dynamic range and contrast of an image by altering that image such that its
intensity histogram has the desired shape. Unlike contrast stretching, histogram modelling
operators may employ non-linear and non-monotonic transfer functions to map between pixel
intensity values in the input and output images.
The normalized histogram.
P(n) = number of pixels with intensity n/ total number of pixels
Sigmoid stretching
Sigmoid function is a continuous nonlinear activation function. The name, sigmoid, is obtained
from the fact that the function is “S” shaped. Statisticians call this function the logistic function.
g (x,y) is Enhanced pixel value
c is Contrast factor
th is Threshold value
fs(x,y) is original image
By adjusting the contrast factor ‘c’ and threshold value it is possible to tailor the amount of
lightening and darkening to control the overall contrast enhancement
Geometric Transformations
The earlier methods in this article deal with the colour and brightness/contrast. With geometric
transformation, positions of pixels in an image are modified but the colours are unchanged.
Geometric transforms permit the elimination of geometric distortion that occurs when an image
is captured. The normal Geometric transformation operations are rotation, scaling and
distortion (or undistortion!) of images.
There are two basic steps in geometric transformations:
1. Spatial transformation of the physical rearrangement of pixels in the image
2. Grey level interpolation, which assigns grey levels to the transformed image
change the perspective of a given image or video for getting better insights about the required
information. Here the points needs to be provided on the image from which want to gather
information by changing the perspective.
Interpolation Methods :
After the transformation methods, the new point co-ordinates (x’,y’) were obtained. Lets
suppose these new points do not in general fit the discrete raster of the output image. So Each
pixel value in the output image raster can be obtained by interpolation methods.
The brightness interpolation problem is usually expressed in a dual way. The brightness value
of the pixel (x’,y’) in the output image where x’ and y’ lie on the discrete raster and it is
Different types of Interpolation methods are
1. Nearest neighbor interpolation is the simplest technique that re samples the pixel values
present in the input vector or a matrix
2. Linear interpolation explores four points neighboring the point (x,y), and assumes that the
brightness function is linear in this neighborhood.
3. Bicubic interpolation improves the model of the brightness function by approximating it
locally by a bicubic polynomial surface.sixteen neighboring points are used for interpolation.
Image Filtering and Segmentation
The goal of using filters is to modify or enhance image properties and/or to extract valuable
information from the pictures such as edges, corners, and blobs. A filter is defined by a kernel,
which is a small array applied to each pixel and its neighbors within an image
Some of the basic filtering techniques are
1. Low Pass Filtering (Smoothing) : A low pass filter is the basis for most smoothing
methods. An image is smoothed by decreasing the disparity between pixel values by
averaging nearby pixels
2. High pass filters (Edge Detection, Sharpening) : High-pass filter can be used to make
an image appear sharper. These filters emphasize fine details in the image – the opposite
of the low-pass filter. High-pass filtering works in the same way as low-pass filtering;
it just uses a different convolution kernel.
3. Directional Filtering : Directional filter is an edge detector that can be used to compute
the first derivatives of an image. The first derivatives (or slopes) are most evident when
 a large change occurs between adjacent pixel values.Directional filters can be designed
for any direction within a given space
4. Laplacian Filtering : Laplacian filter is an edge detector used to compute the second
derivatives of an image, measuring the rate at which the first derivatives change. This
determines if a change in adjacent pixel values is from an edge or continuous
progression. Laplacian filter kernels usually contain negative values in a cross pattern,
centered within the array. The corners are either zero or positive values. The center
value can be either negative or positive.
Computer Vision: Low-level Vision
Image Segmentation
Image segmentation is a commonly used technique in digital image processing and analysis to
partition an image into multiple parts or regions, often based on the characteristics of the pixels
in the image. Image segmentation could involve separating foreground from background, or
clustering regions of pixels based on similarities in colour or shape.
Image Segmentation mainly used in
• Face detection
• Medical imaging
• Machine vision
• Autonomous Driving
There are two types of image segmentation techniques.
1. Non-contextual thresholding : Thresholding is the simplest non-contextual
segmentation technique. With a single threshold, it transforms a greyscale or colour
image into a binary image considered as a binary region map. The binary map contains
two possibly disjoint regions, one of them containing pixels with input data values
smaller than a threshold and another relating to the input values that are at or above the
threshold. The below are the types of thresholding techniques
1. Simple thresholding
2. Adaptive thresholding
3. Colour thresholding
1. Contextual segmentation : Non-contextual thresholding groups pixels with no account
of their relative locations in the image plane. Contextual segmentation can be more
successful in separating individual objects because it accounts for closeness of pixels
that belong to an individual object. Two basic approaches to contextual segmentation
are based on signal discontinuity or similarity. Discontinuity-based techniques attempt
to find complete boundaries enclosing relatively uniform regions assuming abrupt
signal changes across each boundary. Similarity-based techniques attempt to directly
create these uniform regions by grouping together connected pixels that satisfy certain
similarity criteria. Both the approaches mirror each other, in the sense that a complete
 boundary splits one region into two. The below ate the types of Contextual
segmentation.
1. Pixel connectivity
2. Region similarity
3. Region growing
4. Split-and-merge segmentation
1. Texture Segmentation : Texture is most important attribute in many image analysis or
computer vision applications. The procedures developed for texture problem can be
subdivided into four categories.
1. structural approach
2. statistical approach
3. model based approach
4. filter based approach
Fourier transform
The Fourier Transform is an important image processing tool which is used to decompose an
image into its sine and cosine components. The output of the transformation represents the
image in the Fourier or frequency domain, while the input image is the spatial domain
equivalent. In the Fourier domain image, each point represents a particular frequency contained
in the spatial domain image.
The Fourier Transform is used in a wide range of applications, such as image analysis, image
filtering, image reconstruction and image compression.
The DFT(Discrete Fourier Transform) is the sampled Fourier Transform and therefore does not
contain all frequencies forming an image, but only a set of samples which is large enough to
fully describe the spatial domain image. The number of frequencies corresponds to the number
of pixels in the spatial domain image, i.e. the image in the spatial and Fourier domain are of
the same size.

Feature detection and matching

Feature detection is the process of checking the important features of the image in this case
features of the image can be edges, corners, ridges, and blobs in the images.
 In
OpenCV, there are a number of methods to detect the features of the image and each technique has
its own perks and flaws.

Note: The images we give into these algorithms should be in black and white. This helps the
algorithms to focus on the features more.

What is Feature Matching?

Feature matching is a fundamental technique in computer vision that involves identifying and
aligning corresponding features across multiple images. Features refer to distinctive elements
in an image, such as edges, corners, or blobs, that can be consistently detected and described.
By matching these features, computer vision systems can recognize objects, track movement,
create panoramic images, and reconstruct 3D scenes from 2D images.
Key Aspects of Feature Matching
1. Feature Detection
• The process begins by detecting key features in each image. These features are typically
points of interest that are easy to distinguish, such as corners or edges.
• Common feature detectors include Harris Corner Detector, Laplacian of Gaussian for
blob detection, and Canny Edge Detector.
2. Feature Description
• Once features are detected, they are described using feature descriptors, which provide
a numerical representation of the feature's characteristics.
• Popular feature descriptors include SIFT (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform), SURF
(Speeded Up Robust Features), ORB (Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF), and BRIEF
(Binary Robust Independent Elementary Features).
3. Feature Matching
 • The core step involves comparing the feature descriptors from different images to find
matches.
• Techniques like brute-force matching, where each feature is compared with all features
in the other image, and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) matching, where the closest
matches are identified, are commonly used.
• Robust matching methods like RANSAC (Random Sample Consensus) help in dealing
with noise and outliers to improve accuracy.
Feature Description
Feature description is a crucial step in the feature matching process, where detected features
are represented in a way that allows them to be compared and matched across different images.
Feature descriptors provide a numerical or symbolic representation of the feature's
characteristics, enabling effective identification and alignment of corresponding features.
Feature descriptors capture the local appearance around a feature in a way that is invariant to
various transformations such as scale, rotation, and illumination changes. They transform the
pixel values in the vicinity of the feature into a compact, fixed-length vector that uniquely
identifies the feature. This vector can then be used for comparing and matching features across
images.
Commonly Used Feature Descriptors
1. SIFT (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform)
SIFT generates a scale and rotation-invariant descriptor by identifying keypoints in the image
at various scales and orientations. Each keypoint is described by a 128-dimensional vector that
captures the gradient orientation distribution around the keypoint.
2. SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features)
SURF is an efficient alternative to SIFT, using an integral image for fast computation of Haar
wavelet responses. It produces a descriptor that is robust to scale and rotation but can be
computed more quickly than SIFT.
3. ORB (Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF)
ORB combines the FAST keypoint detector with the BRIEF descriptor. It provides a binary
descriptor that is efficient to compute and match, making it suitable for resource-constrained
environments. ORB also includes orientation invariance by computing the orientation of each
keypoint.
4. BRIEF (Binary Robust Independent Elementary Features)
BRIEF generates a binary string by comparing the intensities of pairs of pixels around a
keypoint. It is highly efficient in terms of both computation and storage but lacks robustness to
scale and rotation changes.
Feature Matching Techniques
Feature matching involves comparing feature descriptors to find corresponding features across
different images. Various techniques are employed to ensure accurate and efficient matching.
1. Keypoint Matching
Keypoint matching is the process of finding corresponding keypoints between different images
by comparing their descriptors. The goal is to identify pairs of keypoints that represent the
same physical point in the scene.
2. Brute-Force Matcher
The brute-force matcher compares each descriptor from one image with every descriptor from
another image to find the best matches based on a chosen distance metric (e.g., Euclidean
distance).
• Advantages: Simple and straightforward, provides accurate matches.
• Disadvantages: Computationally expensive, especially for large datasets.
3. K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) Matching
KNN matching finds the k closest descriptors for each keypoint based on a distance metric.
Typically, the ratio test is applied to select the best match from the k neighbors.
• Advantages: More efficient than brute-force matching, allows for flexibility in
selecting the best match.
• Disadvantages: Still computationally intensive for very large datasets.
4. RANSAC (Random Sample Consensus) for Robust Matching
Description: RANSAC is an iterative method used to estimate parameters of a mathematical
model from a set of observed data that contains outliers. In feature matching, RANSAC is used
to find a robust set of matches by repeatedly selecting random subsets of matches and
computing a transformation that aligns the images. The transformation with the highest number
of inliers is chosen.
• Advantages: Robust to outliers and noise, improves the accuracy of feature matching.
• Disadvantages: Computationally intensive, requires careful parameter tuning.
Feature Matching Between Images Using ORB and RANSAC in OpenCV
• Loading Images: The images are loaded in grayscale.
• Feature Detection and Description: ORB (Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF) is
used to detect and compute features and descriptors.
• Matching Descriptors: The descriptors are matched using a brute force matcher.
• Drawing Matches: The top 10 matches are drawn and displayed.
• RANSAC Filtering:
o The matching points are extracted.
o The fundamental matrix is computed using RANSAC to filter out the outliers.
o The inlier matches are drawn and displayed.
Feature matching is a pivotal technique in computer vision that enables the accurate
identification and alignment of corresponding features across different images. It underpins a
variety of applications, including object recognition, image stitching, and 3D reconstruction.
By detecting and describing key features using robust methods such as ORB and refining
matches with techniques like RANSAC, we can achieve high accuracy and resilience to noise
and outliers.

What is Image Classification?

Image classification is a fundamental task in computer vision that deals with automatically
understanding the content of an image. It involves assigning a category or label to an entire
image based on its visual content.
Here's a breakdown of the concept:
• Assigning Labels: The goal is to analyze an image and categorize it according to
predefined classes. Imagine sorting photos into folders like "cats," "dogs," and
"mountains." Image classification automates this process using computer algorithms.
• Understanding Visual Content: The algorithm goes beyond just recognizing shapes
and colors. It extracts features from the image, like edges, textures, and patterns, to
identify the objects or scene depicted.
 • Training on Examples: To achieve this, image classification models are trained on
massive datasets of labeled images. These datasets help the model learn the
characteristics of different categories.
Types of Image Classification
Image classification is a fundamental task in computer vision that involves assigning a label or
category to an image based on its visual content. Various types of image classification methods
and techniques are used depending on the complexity of the task and the nature of the images.
Here are the main types of image classification:
1. Binary Classification
Binary classification involves classifying images into one of two categories. For example,
determining whether an image contains a cat or not. This is the simplest form of image
classification.
2. Multiclass Classification
Multiclass classification involves categorizing images into more than two classes. For instance,
classifying images of different types of animals (cats, dogs, birds, etc.). Each image is assigned
to one, and only one, category.
3. Multilabel Classification
Multilabel classification allows an image to be associated with multiple labels. For example,
an image might be classified as both "sunset" and "beach." This type of classification is useful
when images can belong to multiple categories simultaneously.
4. Hierarchical Classification
Hierarchical classification involves classifying images at multiple levels of hierarchy. For
example, an image of an animal can first be classified as a "mammal" and then further classified
as "cat" or "dog." This method is useful when dealing with complex datasets with multiple
levels of categories.
5. Fine-Grained Classification
Fine-grained classification focuses on distinguishing between very similar categories. For
instance, classifying different species of birds or breeds of dogs. This type of classification
requires high-resolution images and sophisticated models to capture subtle differences.
6. Zero-Shot Classification
Zero-shot classification involves classifying images into categories that the model has never
seen before. This is achieved by leveraging semantic information about the new categories. For
example, a model trained on images of animals might classify a previously unseen animal like
a panda by understanding the relationship between known animals and the new category.
7. Few-Shot Classification
Few-shot classification is a technique where the model is trained to classify images with only
a few examples of each category. This is useful in scenarios where obtaining a large number of
labeled images is challenging.
Image classification vs. object detection

• Image Classification: Assigns a specific label to the entire image, determining the
overall content such as identifying whether an image contains a cat, dog, or bird. It uses
techniques like Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and transfer learning.
• Object Localization: Goes beyond classification by identifying and localizing the
main object in an image, providing spatial information with bounding boxes around
these objects. This method allows for more specific analysis by indicating the object's
location.
• Object Detection: Combines image classification and object localization, identifying
and locating multiple objects within an image by drawing bounding boxes around each
and assigning labels. Techniques include Region-Based CNNs (R-CNN), You Only
Look Once (YOLO), and Single Shot MultiBox Detector (SSD).
• Comparison: While image classification assigns a single label to the entire image,
object localization focuses on the main object with a bounding box, and object detection
identifies and locates multiple objects within the image, providing both labels and
spatial positions for each detected item. These methods are applied in various fields,
from medical imaging to autonomous vehicles and retail analytics.
How Image Classification Works?
The process of image classification can be broken down into several key steps:
Data Collection and Preprocessing:
• Data Collection: The first step involves gathering a large dataset of labeled images.
These images serve as the foundation for training the classification model.
• Preprocessing: This step includes resizing images to a consistent size, normalizing pixel
values, and applying data augmentation techniques like rotation, flipping, and
brightness adjustment to increase the dataset's diversity and robustness.
Feature Extraction:
 • Traditional methods involve extracting hand-crafted features like edges, textures, and
colors. However, modern techniques leverage Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)
to automatically learn relevant features from the raw pixel data during training.
Model Training:
• Choosing a Model: CNNs are the most commonly used models for image classification
due to their ability to capture spatial hierarchies in images.
• Training the Model: The dataset is split into training and validation sets. The model is
trained on the training set to learn the features and patterns that distinguish different
classes. Optimization techniques like backpropagation and gradient descent are used to
minimize the error between the predicted and actual labels.
• Validation: The model's performance is evaluated on the validation set to fine-tune its
parameters and prevent overfitting.
Model Evaluation and Testing:
• The trained model is tested on a separate test set to assess its accuracy, precision, recall,
and other performance metrics, ensuring it generalizes well to unseen data.
Deployment:
• Once validated, the model can be deployed in real-world applications where it processes
new images and predicts their classes in real-time or batch processing modes.
Algorithms and Models of Image Classification
There isn't one straightforward approach for achieving image classification, thus we will take
a look at the two most notable kinds: supervised and unsupervised classification.
Supervised Classification
Supervised learning is well-known for its intuitive concept - it operates like an apprentice
learning from a master. The algorithm is trained on a labeled image dataset, where the correct
outputs are already known and each image is assigned to its corresponding class. The algorithm
is the apprentice, learning from the master (the labeled dataset) to make predictions on new,
unlabeled data. After the training phase, the algorithm uses the knowledge gained from the
labeled data to identify patterns and predict the classes of new images.
• Supervised algorithms can be divided into single-label classification and multi-label
classification. Single-label classification assigns a single label to an image, which is the
most common type. Multi-label classification, on the other hand, allows an image to be
assigned multiple labels, which is useful in fields like medical imaging where an image
may show several diseases or anomalies.
• Famous supervised classification algorithms include k-nearest neighbors, decision
trees, support vector machines, random forests, linear and logistic regressions, and
neural networks.
• For instance, logistic regression predicts whether an image belongs to a certain
category by modeling the relationship between input features and class probabilities. K-
 nearest neighbors (KNN) assigns labels based on the closest k data points to the new
input, making decisions based on the majority class among the neighbors. Support
vector machines (SVM) find the best separating boundary (hyperplane) between classes
by maximizing the margin between the closest points of each class. Decision trees use
a series of questions about the features of the data to make classification decisions,
creating a flowchart-like model.
Unsupervised Classification
Unsupervised learning can be seen as an independent mechanism in machine learning; it doesn't
rely on labeled data but rather discovers patterns and insights on its own. The algorithm is free
to explore and learn without any preconceived notions, interpreting raw data, recognizing
image patterns, and drawing conclusions without human interference.
• Unsupervised classification often employs clusterization, a technique that naturally
groups data into clusters based on their similarities. This method doesn't automatically
provide a class; rather, it forms clusters that need to be interpreted and labeled. Notable
clusterization algorithms include K-means, Mean-Shift, DBSCAN, Expectation–
Maximization (EM), Gaussian mixture models, Agglomerative Clustering, and
BIRCH. For instance, K-means starts by selecting k initial centroids, then assigns each
data point to the nearest centroid, recalculates the centroids based on the assigned
points, and repeats the process until the centroids stabilize. Gaussian mixture models
(GMMs) take a more sophisticated approach by assuming that the data points are drawn
from a mixture of Gaussian distributions, allowing them to capture more complex and
overlapping data patterns.
• Among the wide range of image classification techniques, convolutional neural
networks (CNNs) are a game-changer for computer vision problems. CNNs
automatically learn hierarchical features from images and are widely used in both
supervised and unsupervised image classification tasks.
Techniques Used in Image Classification
Machine Learning Algorithms
Traditional machine learning algorithms, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), k-Nearest
Neighbors (k-NN), and Decision Trees, were initially used for image classification. These
methods involve manual feature extraction and selection, which can be time-consuming and
less accurate compared to modern techniques.
Deep Learning
Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, has revolutionized image classification with the
advent of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). CNNs automatically learn hierarchical
features from raw pixel data, significantly improving classification accuracy. Some popular
deep learning architectures include:
• AlexNet: One of the first CNNs to demonstrate superior performance in image
classification tasks.
• VGGNet: Known for its simplicity and depth, achieving high accuracy with deep
networks.
 • ResNet: Introduces residual connections to address the vanishing gradient problem,
allowing for the training of very deep networks.
• Inception: Utilizes parallel convolutions with different filter sizes to capture multi-
scale features.
Transfer Learning
Transfer learning involves using pre-trained models on large datasets, such as ImageNet, and
fine-tuning them on specific tasks with smaller datasets. This approach saves time and
computational resources while achieving high accuracy.
Applications of Image Classification
Image classification has a wide range of applications across various industries:
1. Medical Imaging
In the medical field, image classification is used to diagnose diseases and conditions from
medical images such as X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans. For instance, it can help in detecting
tumors, fractures, and other abnormalities with high accuracy.
2. Autonomous Vehicles
Self-driving cars rely heavily on image classification to interpret and understand their
surroundings. They use cameras and sensors to classify objects like pedestrians, vehicles,
traffic signs, and road markings, enabling safe navigation and decision-making.
3. Facial Recognition
Facial recognition systems use image classification to identify and verify individuals based on
their facial features. This technology is widely used in security systems, smartphones, and
social media platforms for authentication and tagging purposes.
4. Retail and E-commerce
In the retail industry, image classification helps in product categorization, inventory
management, and visual search applications. E-commerce platforms use this technology to
provide personalized recommendations and enhance the shopping experience.
5. Environmental Monitoring
Image classification is used in environmental monitoring to analyze satellite and aerial images.
It helps in identifying land cover types, monitoring deforestation, tracking wildlife, and
assessing the impact of natural disasters.
Challenges in Image Classification
Despite its advancements, image classification faces several challenges:
• Data Quality and Quantity: High-quality, labeled datasets are essential, but collecting
and annotating these datasets is resource-intensive.
• Variability and Ambiguity: Images can vary widely in lighting, angles, and
backgrounds, complicating classification. Some images may contain multiple or
ambiguous objects.
• Computational Resources: Training deep learning models requires significant
computational power and memory, often necessitating specialized hardware like GPUs.