Microbial interaction and its types with examples.

Microorganisms produce a large variety of compounds known as secondary metabolites that do not play
an essential role in the producing organism's growth, development, and reproduction. Nevertheless, these
metabolites are often bioactive compounds and perform important functions in defense, competition,
signaling, and ecological interactions. These interactions can be parasitic, antagonistic, or competitive
while some of the interactions can be beneficial.

There are different kinds of microbial interactions which include the microbe-microbe interactions,
microbe-plant interactions (promoting plant growth), microbe-animal interactions, microbe-human
interactions, and microbe-environment interactions.

Microbial interactions are ubiquitous, diverse, critically important in any biological community's function,
and crucial in global biogeochemistry. The most common cooperative interactions seen in microbial
systems are mutually beneficial. The interactions between the two populations are classified according to
whether both populations and one of them benefit from the associations, or if one or both populations
are negatively affected.

Positive microbial interactions include mutualism, commensalism, syntrophism, and proto-cooperation)

1. Mutualism

It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from the association.
It is an obligatory relationship in which the mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
A mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of the association cannot be replaced by
another species. Mutualism requires close physical contact between interacting organisms. The
relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in a habitat that could not be occupied by either
species alone. The mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.

Lichens are an excellent example of mutualism. They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus
of algae. In lichen, the fungal partner is called mycobiont and the algal partner is called phycobiont, a
member of cyanobacteria and green algae. The phycobiont is a photoautotroph using light, carbon dioxide,
and certain mineral nutrients to produce their foods. The fungus can get its organic carbon directly from
the alga or cyanobacterium. In turn, the fungus protects the phycobiont from excess light intensities,
provides water and minerals to it, and creates a firm substratum (surface) within which the phycobiont
can grow and be protected from environmental stress.

2. Syntrophism

The concept of syntrophy describes mutualistic microbial associations characterized by the exchange of
metabolic intermediates between the partnering microorganisms as a means to jointly facilitate an
otherwise energetically unfavorable metabolic process. Well-studied are syntrophic interactions between
fermentative bacteria and methanogenic archaea with the latter consuming hydrogen or formate
produced by the former. Another example occurs in thiamin-requiring yeasts and fungi, where (group A)
synthesized the thiazole component of the thiamin molecule but required the pyrimidine portion
synthesised by the second group (group B). When group A and group B are grown together in a thiamin-
free medium, both types of organisms survive, since each organism synthesizes the growth factor required
by its partner; neither organism grows alone under these same conditions. Thus, two or more types of
microorganisms often grow in situations in which one species only would not.

Another theoretical example

Compound A utilised by population 1 producing compound B which is utilised by population 2 producing

Products

In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 can utilize and metabolize compound A, forming
compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without the cooperation of population 2.
Population 2 is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C.
Then both populations 1 and 2 can carry out a metabolic reaction which leads to the formation of the end
product that neither population could produce alone.

Examples of syntrophism:

a. Methanogenic ecosystem in a sludge digester

Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other
fermentative bacteria. Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which
are then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.

b. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (formerly Lactobacillus arabinosus) and Enterococcus faecalis

In the minimal media, L. plantarum and E. faecalis can grow together but not alone. The synergistic
relationship between E. faecalis and L. plantarum occurs in which E. faecalis requires folic acid produced
by L. plantarum while lactobacillus requires phenylalanine produced by E. faecalis.

3. Proto-cooperation

It is a relationship in which an organism in an association is mutually benefited with each other. This
interaction is similar to mutualism but the relationships between the organisms in protocooperation are
not obligatory as in mutualism.

Examples of Protocooperation:

a. A Marine Worm-Bacterial Protocooperative relationship: the worms secrete mucous from tiny glands
on their backs to feed the bacteria, and in return they are protected by some degree of insulation.

b. Interaction between N2-fixing bacteria and cellulolytic bacteria such as Cellulomonas.

4. Commensalism

It is a relationship in which one organism (commensal) in the association benefits while another organism
(host) of the association is neither benefited nor harmed. It is a unidirectional association and if the
commensal is separated from the host, it can survive.

Examples of commensalism:
a. Non-pathogenic E. coli in the intestinal tract of humans: E. coli is a facultative anaerobe that uses oxygen
and lowers the O2 concentration in the gut which creates a suitable environment for obligate anaerobes
such as Bacteroides. E. coli is a host which remains unaffected by Bacteroides.

b. Flavobacterium (host) and Legionella pneumophila (commensal): Flavobacterium excretes cystine which
is used by Legionella pneumophila and survives in the aquatic habitat.

c. Association of Nitrosomonas (host) and Nitrobacter (commensal) in Nitrification: Nitrosomonas oxidize

5. Ammensalism (antagonism)

When one microbial population produces substances that are inhibitory to other microbial population
then this interpopulation relationship is known as Ammensalism or Antagonism. It is a negative
relationship. The first population that produces inhibitory substances is unaffected or may gain
competition and survive in the habitat while other populations get inhibited. This chemical inhibition is
known as antibiosis.

Examples of the antagonism (amensalism):

a. Lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria in the vaginal tract: Lactic acid produced by many normal
floras in the vaginal tract is inhibitory to many pathogenic organisms such as Candida albicans.

b. Skin normal flora: Fatty acid produced by skin flora inhibits many pathogenic bacteria in the skin

c. Thiobacillus thioxidant produces sulphuric acid by oxidation of sulphur which is responsible for lowering
pH in the culture media thus inhibiting the growth of most other bacteria.

6. Competition

The competition represents a negative relationship between two microbial populations in which both
populations are adversely affected with respect to their survival and growth. Competition occurs when
both populations use the same resources such as the same space or the same nutrition, so, the microbial
population achieves lower maximum density or growth rate.

The microbial population competes for any growth-limiting resources such as carbon sources, nitrogen
sources, phosphorus, vitamins, growth factors, etc. Competition inhibits both populations from occupying
exactly the same ecological niche because one will win the competition and the other one is eliminated.

Examples of competition:

a. Competition between Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia: Both species of Paramecium
feed on the same bacteria population when these protozoa are placed together. P. aurelia grows at a better
rate than P. caudatum due to competition.

7. Parasitism

It is a relationship in which one population (parasite) get benefited and derive its nutrition from other
population (host) in the association which is harmed. The host-parasite relationship is characterized by a
relatively long period of contact which may be physical or metabolic. Some parasite lives outside the host
cell, known as ectoparasite while other parasite lives inside the host cell, known as endoparasite.
Examples of parasitism:

a. Viruses: Viruses are an obligate intracellular parasite that exhibits great host specificity. Many viruses
are parasites to bacteria (bacteriophage), fungi, algae, protozoa, etc.

b. Bdellovibrio is an ectoparasite to many gram-negative bacteria.

8. Predation

It is a widespread phenomenon when one organism (predator) engulfs or attacks other organisms (prey).
The prey can be larger or smaller than the predator and this normally results in the death of the prey.
Normally predator-prey interaction is of short duration.

Examples of Predation:

a) Protozoan-bacteria in soil: Many protozoans can feed on various bacterial populations which helps to
control the count of soil bacteria.

b) Bdellovibrio, a periplasmic predator that penetrates the cell wall and grows outside the plasma
membrane,

c) Vampirococcus with its unique epibiotic mode of attacking a prey bacterium

d) Daptobacter uses its cytoplasm to attack a susceptible bacterium.

Bacterial cell-cell communication

Bacterial communication relies on multipurpose chemical signaling molecules called autoinducers, which
regulate bacterial gene expression in a process known as quorum sensing. Like languages between
humans, these signals vary between species. Some bacterial species can interpret many different signals,
while others respond to a select few. Quorum-sensing allows individual bacteria within colonies to
coordinate and carry out colony-wide functions such as: sporulation, bioluminescence, virulence,
conjugation, competence and biofilm formation. It is a phenomenon whereby the accumulation of
signalling molecules enables a single cell to sense the number of bacteria (cell density).

How does quorum-sensing work? During their reproductive cycle, individual bacterium synthesize
autoinducers. Gram-negative bacteria produce acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) autoinducers that can
passively diffuse through their thin cell wall. In contrast, gram-positive bacterial autoinducers are made of
peptide and must be actively transported through their peptidoglycan cell wall using the ATP-binding
cassette (ABC) transporter system. In both cases, autoinducers move out of individual cells as they are
produced. Since the bacteria are reproducing, there are progressively more individual cells producing
autoinducers and the extracellular concentration of the autoinducers increases, eventually hitting a
"critical mass." That threshold makes it energetically unfavorable for intracellular autoinducers to continue
to leave the cell (whether through diffusion or transport), increasing their intracellular concentration.
Once intracellular concentration increases, autoinducers bind to their receptors, triggering signaling
cascades that alter transcription factor activity and therefore, gene expression. For many bacteria, the
change in gene expression includes the downregulation of autoinducer synthesis in a negative feedback
loop.