General Relativity and Cosmology

Problem Sheet 2
João G. Rosa

Universidade de Coimbra

1. The three-dimensional real projective space RP3 is a smooth manifold defined as the set of
directions in R4 \ {0} such that the points (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) and (λx1 , λx2 , λx3 , λx4 ), λ 6= 0, are
identified. Show that an atlas for RP3 is given by the charts:

(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (x2 /x1 , x3 /x1 , x4 /x1 ) ,

(b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (x3 /x2 , x4 /x2 , x1 /x2 ) ,
(c1 , c2 , c3 ) = (x4 /x3 , x1 /x3 , x2 /x3 ) ,
(d1 , d2 , d3 ) = (x1 /x4 , x2 /x4 , x3 /x4 ) ,

indicating in each case the open sets where they are defined. Show also that this atlas is not
oriented.

2. Find the integral curves of the vector field:

∂ ∂ ∂
V =Vµ µ
= (x2 + xy) + y2
∂x ∂x ∂y
as illustrated in the figure.

1.0

0.5

0.0
y

-0.5

-1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
x

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3. The 3-dimensional sphere S3 can be parameterized by Euler angles 0 < θ < π, 0 < φ < 2π
and 0 < ψ < 4π. Find the dual vector basis to the following basis of 1-forms:
ω 1 = − sin ψdθ + sin θ cos ψdφ
ω 2 = cos ψdθ + sin θ sin ψdφ
ω 3 = cos θdφ + dψ

4. Consider a 2-sphere of radius R described by the standard spherical coordinate system.

(a) Show that the metric tensor for a 2-sphere of radius R is given by the line element:
ds2 = gij dxi dxj = R2 dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ,

in the standard spherical coordinate system.

(b) Show that the non-vanishing Christoffel symbols for the 2-sphere metric tensor in this
coordinate system are given by:
Γθφφ = − sin θ cos θ , Γφφθ = Γφθφ = cot θ

(c) Write the geodesic equations for the 2-sphere and the corresponding constraint on the
4-velocity, and show that the solutions correspond to great circles.

5. The Schwarzschild metric, as we will see later in this course, is a solution of Einstein’s equations
in vacuum describing the space-time outside a spherical mass distribution of total mass M ,
like the Sun or the Earth. It also describes a static, spherically symmetric black hole solution
known as the Schwarzschild black hole, and is given by the line element:
ds2 = f (r)c2 dt2 − f −1 (r)dr2 − r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdφ2
in spherical coordinates. The function f (r) = 1 − rrS , where rS ≡ 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild
radius.

(a) Compute the Schwarzschild radius for the Sun and for the Earth, and hence show that
f (r) > 0 for r ≥ R, where R denotes, respectively, the radius of the Sun and the Earth.
(b) Show that the non-vanishing Christoffel symbols for the Schwarzschild metric are:
1 f0 ff0
Γttr = Γtrt = −Γrrr = 2 f , Γrtt = 2 , Γrθθ = −rf , Γrφφ = −r sin2 θf
Γθθr = Γθrθ = Γφφr = Γφrφ = 1r , Γθφφ = − sin θ cos θ , Γφφθ = Γφθφ = cot θ

(c) Write the geodesic equations in this space-time and the corresponding constraint on the
4-velocity. Show that geodesics starting in the equatorial plane (θ = π/2) remain in
this plane, and hence conclude that the energy E = f (r)ṫ and the angular momentum
L = r2 φ̇ are conserved along geodesics (use natural units such that c = 1 for simplicity).
Show that the 4-velocity constraint can be simplified to give:
L2
 
 rS 
ṙ2 + 1 −  + 2 = E2
r r
where  = 1 for timelike geodesics and  = 0 for null geodesics (for which gµν uµ uν = 0).

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6. In this problem we will compute the angle by which a light ray is deflected when grazing
the Sun’s surface, which constituted one of the major tests of general relativity. Let us then
consider (planar) null geodesics in the Schwarzschild metric given in the previous problem.

(a) Show that the 4-velocity constraint can be written as:

 rS  L2
ṙ2 + V (r) = E 2 , V (r) = 1 −
r r2

(b) Show that for null geodesics:

dφ 1
= ±p
du a2 − u2 + rS u3

where u = 1/r and a = E/L.

(c) For a null geodesic starting at φ = 0 when τ → −∞ and ending at φ = φ1 when τ → ∞,
the deflection angle is θS = φ1 − π. Hence, show that this angle is given by the integral:
Z 1
dv
θS = 2 p −π
0 1 − v − ξ + ξv 3
2

where v = u/u0 , u0 = 1/r0 , with r0 denoting the point of closest approach (perihelium
in the case of the Sun), and ξ = rS /r0 .
(d) For a light ray grazing the Sun’s surface, r0 ' R  rS , so we may take ξ  1.
Performing a Taylor series expansion of the function θS (ξ) = θS (0) + θS0 (0)ξ + . . ., show
that to leading order
4GM
θS '
R c2

which is twice the Newtonian prediction and agrees with the value measured during the
1919 solar eclipse through the expeditions led by Eddington (Príncipe island, Africa) and
Dyson (Sobral, Brazil).

You may use the following integrals:

Z 1 1
1 − v3
Z
dv π
√ = , dv = 2
0 1−v 2 2 0 (1 − v 2 )3/2

3
7. In this problem we will compute the “anomalous” precession of the perihelium of Mercury’s
orbit around the Sun, which yielded another important confirmation of Einstein’s theory of
general relativity. For this we will consider timelike geodesics in the Schwarzschild space-time.

(a) Show that the 4-velocity constraint can be written as:

rS L2 rS L2
ṙ2 + V (r) = E 2 , V (r) = 1 − + 2 − 3
r r r

(b) Show that for timelike geodesics:

dφ 1
= ±q
du E 2 −1
+ rS
u − u2 + rS u3
L2 L2

where u = 1/r. Convince yourself that this corresponds to an elliptical orbit where
rmin ≤ r ≤ rmax . These can be written in terms of the semi-major axis a and eccentricity
e as follows:

rmin = a(1 − e) , rmax = a(1 + e)

(c) For a timelike orbit starting at the perihelium (rmin ) when φ = 0, show that after an
orbital period the angle φ is given by:
Z vmax
dv
φ=2 p
vmin ξ(v − v0 )(v − vmin )(v − vmax )

where v = au, u0 + umin + umax = 1/rS and ξ = rS /a.

(d) For Mercury’s orbit around the Sun, a ' 5.79 × 1010 m (0.39 AU), so we may take
ξ  1 and perform a Taylor expansion of the orbital precession angle ψ(ξ) = φ(ξ) − 2π =
ψ(0) + ψ 0 (0)ξ + . . . Hence, show that to leading order:

6πGM
ψ' ' 5 × 10−7
a(1 − e2 )c2

for an orbital eccentricity e = 0.206. Using that Mercury’s orbital period is about 88 days,
show that this corresponds to approximately 43 arcseconds per century, which corresponds
to the anomalous perihelium precession first found by Le Verrier in 1859 and correctly
computed by Newcomb in 1882 (the total precession is about 574 arcseconds/century but
most of it is due to perturbations from other bodies in the Solar System).

You may use the following integrals:

b b
(v + a + b)(v − a)(b − v)
Z Z
dv 3π
p =π , 3/2
dv = (a + b)
a (v − a)(b − v) a [(v − a)(b − v)] 2