📘 Data Structures and Algorithms
🔹 Introduction
Data Structures are ways of organizing and storing data in computers so it can be
accessed and modified efficiently.
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems or performing
tasks using data.
Both are fundamental to computer science and software engineering, affecting everything from
app performance to solving complex programming problems.
🔹 Importance of Data Structures and Algorithms
Help in writing efficient and optimized code.
Reduce time and space complexity of software.
Essential for technical interviews and competitive programming.
Form the backbone of databases, operating systems, and compilers.
🔹 Common Data Structures
1. Arrays
Fixed-size collection of elements stored in contiguous memory.
Pros: Fast access (O(1) for index), easy to use.
Cons: Fixed size, slow insert/delete operations.
2. Linked Lists
A series of nodes, each containing data and a pointer to the next node.
Types: Singly, Doubly, Circular.
Pros: Dynamic size, fast insertion/deletion.
Cons: Slower access (O(n)).
3. Stacks
LIFO (Last In, First Out) data structure.
Operations: push(), pop(), peek().
Applications: Undo operations, parsing, function calls.
4. Queues
FIFO (First In, First Out) data structure.
Types: Simple Queue, Circular Queue, Priority Queue.
Applications: Scheduling, buffering, resource management.
5. Trees
Hierarchical structure with nodes connected via edges.
Types: Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree (BST), AVL Tree, B-Trees.
Applications: Databases, file systems, search algorithms.
6. Graphs
A set of nodes (vertices) connected by edges.
Can be directed or undirected, weighted or unweighted.
Applications: Social networks, maps, networking.
7. Hash Tables
Store key-value pairs using a hash function.
Offers average-case O(1) access.
Applications: Databases, caches, associative arrays.
🔹 Common Algorithms
1. Searching Algorithms
Linear Search – Checks each element; O(n) time.
Binary Search – Divides sorted array to find value; O(log n) time.
2. Sorting Algorithms
Bubble Sort – Repeatedly swaps adjacent elements; O(n²).
Selection Sort – Finds the smallest and places it first; O(n²).
Insertion Sort – Builds the sorted list one item at a time; O(n²).
Merge Sort – Divide and conquer, recursive; O(n log n).
Quick Sort – Uses partitioning; average case O(n log n), worst O(n²).
Heap Sort – Uses a heap data structure; O(n log n).
3. Recursion
A function calling itself to solve smaller subproblems.
Important in tree traversal, divide-and-conquer algorithms.
4. Dynamic Programming
Solves problems by breaking them down into overlapping subproblems and storing
results.
Examples: Fibonacci numbers, Knapsack problem, Longest Common Subsequence (LCS).
5. Greedy Algorithms
Make the locally optimal choice at each step.
Examples: Kruskal’s and Prim’s for MST, Huffman Coding.
6. Graph Algorithms
BFS (Breadth-First Search) – Level-wise traversal using a queue.
DFS (Depth-First Search) – Goes deep before backtracking using a stack or recursion.
Dijkstra’s Algorithm – Finds shortest paths in weighted graphs.
Bellman-Ford, Floyd-Warshall – All-pairs shortest paths.
🔹 Big O Notation (Time & Space Complexity)
Algorithm/DS Time Complexity Space Complexity
Linear Search O(n) O(1)
Binary Search O(log n) O(1)
Merge Sort O(n log n) O(n)
Algorithm/DS Time Complexity Space Complexity
Quick Sort O(n log n) avg O(log n)
Hash Table Access O(1) O(n)
Tree Traversal O(n) O(h)
🔹 Applications in Real Life
Social Media – Graphs to represent connections.
Banking – Queues for transaction processing.
Search Engines – Trees, hash tables, and sorting algorithms.
E-commerce – Algorithms for recommendations and price sorting.
Games – Pathfinding (e.g., A* algorithm).
🔹 Conclusion
Understanding Data Structures and Algorithms is crucial for building efficient software and
solving complex problems. They are the foundation of computer science and a vital skill for any
software developer or computer science student.
