UNIT – II MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS:

What is Recurrence Relation?

A recurrence relation is a mathematical expression that defines a sequence in terms of its
previous terms. In the context of algorithmic analysis, it is often used to model the time
complexity of recursive algorithms.
General form of a Recurrence Relation: an=f(an−1,an−2,….,an−k)an=f(an−1,an−2,….,an−k)
where f is a function that defines the relationship between the current term and the previous
terms.

Significance of Recurrence Relations in DSA:

Recurrence Relations play a significant role in analyzing and optimizing the complexity of
algorithms.Having a strong understanding of Recurrence Relations play a great role in
developing the problem-solving skills of an individual. Some of the common uses
of Recurrence Relations are:

 Time Complexity Analysis

 Generalizing Divide and Conquer Algorithms
 Analyzing Recursive Algorithms
 Defining State and Transitions for Dynamic Programming.

Types of Recurrence Relations:

Various types of Recurrence Relations are:

 Linear Recurrence Relations

 Divide and Conquer Recurrences
 Substitution Recurrences
 Homogeneous Recurrences
 Non-Homogeneous Recurrences

Linear Recurrence Relations:

Following are some of the examples of recurrence relations based on linear recurrence
relation.
T(n) = T(n-1) + n for n > 0 and T(0) = 1

These types of recurrence relations can be easily solved using substitution method.
For example,
T(n)=T(n-1)+n
=T(n-2)+(n-1)+n
= T(n-k) + (n-(k-1))….. (n-1) + n
Substituting k = n, we get
T(n) = T(0) + 1 + 2+….. +n = n(n+1)/2 = O(n^2)
Divide and conquer recurrence relations:

Following are some of the examples of recurrence relations based on divide and conquer.
T(n)=2T(n/2)+cn
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + √n
 These types of recurrence relations can be easily solved using Master Method.
For recurrence relation: T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, the values of a = 2, b = 2 and k =1.
 Here logb(a) = log2(2) = 1 = k. Therefore, the complexity will be Θ(nlog2(n)).
Similarly for recurrence relation T(n) = 2T(n/2) + √n, the values of a = 2, b = 2 and k
=1/2. Here logb(a) = log2(2) = 1 > k. Therefore, the complexity will be Θ(n).

Substitution Recurrences:
Sometimes, recurrence relations can’t be directly solved using techniques
like substitution, recurrence tree or master method. Therefore, we need to convert the
recurrence relation into appropriate form before solving. For example,
T(n) = T(√n) + 1

To solve this type of recurrence, substitute n = 2^m as:

T(2^m) = T(2^m /2) + 1

Let T(2^m) = S(m),
S(m) = S(m/2) + 1

Solving by master method, we get

S(m) = Θ(logm)
As n = 2^m or m = log2(n),
T(n) = T(2^m) = S(m) = Θ(logm) = Θ(loglogn)

Homogeneous Recurrence Relations:

A homogeneous recurrence relation is one in which the right-hand side is equal to zero.
Mathematically, a homogeneous recurrence relation of order k is represented as:
an=f(an−1,an−2,…,an−k)

with the condition that the above equation equates to 0.

Example: an=2∗an−1–an−2
Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relations:
A non-homogeneous recurrence relation is one in which the right-hand side is not equal to zero.
It can be expressed as:

an=f(an−1,an−2,…,an−k)+g(n)an=f(an−1,an−2,…,an−k)+g(n)

where g(n) is a function that introduces a term not dependent on the previous terms. The
presence of g(n) makes the recurrence non-homogeneous.
 Example: an=2∗an−1−an−2+3nan=2∗an−1−an−2+3n
Ways to Solve Recurrence Relations :
Here are the general steps to analyze the complexity of a recurrence relation:

 Substitute the input size into the recurrence relation to obtain a sequence of terms.

 Identify a pattern in the sequence of terms, if any, and simplify the recurrence relation to
obtain a closed-form expression for the number of operations performed by the algorithm.

 Determine the order of growth of the closed-form expression by using techniques such as
the Master Theorem, or by finding the dominant term and ignoring lower-order terms.

Use the order of growth to determine the asymptotic upper bound on the running time of the
algorithm, which can be expressed in terms of big O notation.

It’s important to note that the above steps are just a general outline and that the specific
details of how to analyze the complexity of a recurrence relation can vary greatly depending
on the specific recurrence relation being analyzed.

We have already discussed the analysis of loops . Many algorithms are recursive. When we
analyze them, we get a recurrence relation for time complexity.
We get running time on an input of size n as a function of n and the running time on inputs of
smaller sizes. For example, in Merge Sort, to sort a given array, we divide it into two halves
and recursively repeat the process for the two halves.
Finally, we merge the results. Time complexity of Merge Sort can be written as T(n) =
2T(n/2) + cn. There are many other algorithms like Binary Search, Tower of Hanoi, etc.

Overall, solving recurrences plays a crucial role in the analysis, design, and optimization of
algorithms, and is an important topic in computer science.
There are mainly three ways of solving recurrences:
1. Substitution Method
2. Recurrence Tree Method
3. Master Method

Substitution Method:
We make a guess for the solution and then we use mathematical induction to prove the guess
is correct or incorrect .
For example, consider the recurrence T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
We guess the solution as T(n) = O(nLogn). Now we use induction to prove our guess.
We need to prove that T(n) <= cnLogn. We can assume that it is true for values smaller than
n.
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
<= 2cn/2Log(n/2) + n
= cnLogn – cnLog2 + n
= cnLogn – cn + n
<= cnLogn
Recurrence Tree Method:
In this method, we draw a recurrence tree and calculate the time taken by every level of the
tree. Finally, we sum the work done at all levels. To draw the recurrence tree, we start from
the given recurrence and keep drawing till we find a pattern among levels. The pattern is
typically arithmetic or geometric series.
Consider the recurrence relation, T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + cn2
cn2
/ \
T(n/4) T(n/2)

If we further break down the expression T(n/4) and T(n/2), we get the following
recursion tree.
cn2
/ \
c(n2)/16 c(n2)/4
/ \ / \
T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)

Breaking down further gives us following

cn2
/ \
c(n2)/16 c(n2)/4
/ \ / \
c(n2)/256 c(n2)/64 c(n2)/64 c(n2)/16
/ \ / \ / \ / \

To know the value of T(n), we need to calculate the sum of tree nodes level by
level. If we sum the above tree level by level, we get the following series T(n) =
c(n^2 + 5(n^2)/16 + 25(n^2)/256) + ….

The above series is a geometrical progression with a ratio of 5/16.

To get an upper bound, we can sum the infinite series. We get the sum as (n2)/(1
– 5/16) which is O(n2)
Master Method:
Master Method is a direct way to get the solution. The master method works only for the
following type of recurrences or for recurrences that can be transformed into the following type.

T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) where a >= 1 and b > 1

There are the following three cases:
If f(n) = O(nc) where c < Logba then T(n) = Θ(nLogba)
If f(n) = Θ(nc) where c = Logba then T(n) = Θ(ncLog n)
If f(n) = Ω(nc) where c > Logba then T(n) = Θ(f(n))