Final Review

Logical and Critical Thinking

1. Using the right speech is important because it promotes respectful communication, builds
trust, prevents misunderstandings, and contributes to a more harmonious society. In many
cultures and philosophical traditions—especially in Buddhism—the concept of "Right
Speech" is part of ethical conduct and is seen as essential for personal and social well-
being.

Importance of Using the Right Speech:

1. Promotes Honesty and Trust – Speaking truthfully fosters credibility and strengthens
relationships.

2. Prevents Harm – Avoiding harmful language (e.g., gossip, slander, harsh words)
reduces conflict and emotional injury.

3. Enhances Communication – Thoughtful, clear speech helps convey messages

4. Supports Moral and Spiritual Growth – In traditions like Buddhism, right speech is
a step toward ethical living and enlightenment.

The Four Keys to Right Speech (Based on Buddhist Teachings):

1. Speak Truthfully – Avoid lying or deceit.

2. Speak Kindly – Avoid harsh or hurtful language.

3. Speak Helpfully – Avoid gossip or idle chatter.

4. Speak at the Right Time – Be mindful of when and how to speak.

2. Barriers to critical thinking are obstacles that prevent individuals from thinking clearly,
logically, or independently. These barriers can come from personal biases, emotional
influences, social pressure, or even lack of skills or knowledge.

Common Barriers to Critical Thinking:

- Thinking centered around oneself, assuming one's own perspective is the only valid one.

- Example: Dismissing others’ views just because they don't align with your own.

2. **Sociocentrism (Groupthink)**

- Placing group loyalty above reasoning or evidence.

- Example: Agreeing with a group even when you internally disagree, just to avoid conflict.

3. **Confirmation Bias**

- Focusing only on information that supports your preexisting beliefs and ignoring
contradictory evidence.

4. **Emotional Reasoning**

- Letting feelings cloud judgment or logic.

- Example: Believing something is true just because it "feels right."

5. **Lack of Relevant Background Knowledge**

- Without sufficient knowledge, it's hard to evaluate information or make informed

6. **Over-reliance on Authority**

- Accepting statements as true just because they come from an authority figure, without
critical examination.

7. **Time Pressure and Stress**

- Under stress or tight deadlines, people may default to quick, surface-level thinking rather
than deep analysis.

8. **Fallacies and Misleading Arguments**

- Being misled by flawed reasoning, like slippery slope arguments or false dilemmas.
 3. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments. They often seem
convincing at first but fail under logical scrutiny. Understanding fallacies helps you think
critically and avoid being misled.
Here are 10 common types of fallacies, along with their definitions and examples:
1. Ad Hominem Fallacy
Definition: Attacking the person instead of addressing their argument.
Example:
“Don’t listen to Jane’s opinion on climate change—she’s not a scientist.”
This attacks Jane personally instead of discussing the content of her argument.
2. Straw Man Fallacy
Definition: Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
Example:
Person A: “We should have more vegetarian options in the cafeteria.”
Person B: “So you're saying we should ban all meat? That’s extreme!”
Person A didn’t say anything about banning meat.
3. Appeal to Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam)
Definition: Believing a claim is true just because an authority figure says it is, without
supporting evidence.
Example:
“My favorite actor says this brand of water cures diseases, so it must be true.”
Being a good actor doesn’t make someone a health expert.
4. False Dilemma (False Dichotomy)
Definition: Presenting only two options when more exist.
Example:
“You’re either with us or against us.”
There could be a neutral or alternative stance.
5. Slippery Slope Fallacy
Definition: Assuming one small step will lead to a chain of negative events.
Example:
“If we allow students to redo one test, next they’ll want to redo every assignment, and soon
no one will take anything seriously.”
Exaggerates without evidence.
6. Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)
Definition: The conclusion is included in the premise.
Example:
“Reading is important because it's essential.”
This doesn't provide a real reason—it just restates the claim.
7. Hasty Generalization
Definition: Making a broad conclusion based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
Example:
“I met two rude people from that city. Everyone from there must be rude.”
That’s not enough evidence to generalize.
8. Post Hoc (False Cause)
Definition: Assuming that because B follows A, A must have caused B.
Example:
“I wore my lucky socks and passed the exam. The socks made me pass!”
There’s no proof the socks caused the result.
9. Appeal to Emotion
Definition: Using emotions instead of logical reasons to persuade.
Example:
“You must pass me, or I’ll be heartbroken and disappointed!”
Emotion doesn’t justify an academic grade.
10. Bandwagon Fallacy (Appeal to Popularity)
Definition: Believing something is true or right because it’s popular.
Example:
“Everyone is buying this phone, so it must be the best.”
Popularity doesn’t guarantee quality.

4. Deductive Arguments

Definition:

A deductive argument is one where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Key Traits:

• General → Specific

• 100% certainty (if logically valid)

• Used in mathematics, logic, and structured arguments

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Inductive Arguments

Definition:

An inductive argument is one where the conclusion is likely or probable, based on the
evidence or patterns observed. It’s not guaranteed, but it’s reasonable.

Key Traits:

• Specific → General

• Based on observation, probability, or experience

• Common in science, everyday reasoning

Example:

Premise 1: Every swan I’ve seen is white.

Rahula, W. (1974). What the Buddha taught (Revised ed.). Grove Press.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2014). *The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools*
(7th ed.). Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

Bennett, B., & Royle, N. (2018). Logic and critical thinking (3rd ed.). Routledge.
I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2016). Introduction to logic (14th ed.). Routledge