TEC 202 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN/COMPUTER AIDED

MANUFACTURING (CAD/CAM)
TECHNICAL DRAWING OVERVIEW
Engineering Drawings
- Engineering drawings are two – dimensional visual representation of three – dimensional
objects and forms the principal means of universal communication
- It serves as an international language in engineering industry.
- It is a system of communication in which ideas are expressed exactly, information is
conveyed completely an unambiguously and even the most complicated shapes are
specifically described.
- They convey, information on:
a) shapes, sizes and position of components,
b) material requirements, and
c) instruction about the method of manufacture.
All information must be complete and specified once only

Standard
- In Great Britain the international conventions of engineering drawing are published by the
British Standards Institution in British Standard BS 308: 1985, “Engineering Drawing
Practice”
- The standards enable the draughtsman to understand clearly the designer’s ideas and
instructions and craftsman to interpret precisely an engineering drawing for manufacturing.
- Before national and international standard came into being, there was no uniformity of
products manufactured by different manufacturers. Nowadays, if two mating standards are
ordered from two different suppliers, providing the specification is the same in both cases,
those two parts will fit together when assembled.
- The standards used in a typical drawing office cover many topics: terminology, definitions,
symbols, preferred numbers and sizes, materials, tools, equipment, papers, practices, safety,
etc. The use of standards parts:
a) simplifies the design – as standards parts are usually already designed and manufactured;
b) Makes production more economical – as standards parts are mass-produced, hence
relatively cheaper, and are usually kept in stock.
c) Reduces the cost of maintenance of a product already in use, due to the interchangeability
of standard parts.

The drawing office

The main functions of a typical drawing office are:
to prepare the design layouts and assembly and production drawings necessary for
the manufacture of products
to make decisions on material to be used, methods of manufacture, etc
to estimate from the drawings the cost of manufacture of designed components
to store all drawings, technical information, and reference material;
to liaise with people the firm

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Drawing-Office Personnel
Designer
A designer is usually a professional engineer, a technologist with a degree. A designer’s
technical knowledge should include such as disciplines as mathematics, theory of machines,
strength of materials, fluid mechanism, electronics, etc. He/She must be able to convey ideas and
instructions clearly, accurately, and concisely, to guide the draughtsmen.
Draughtsman
A draughtsman is usually a technician with an ordinary technician certificate or diploma. His/Her
main functions are to:
a) prepare detailed drawings of individual components, parts and sections;
b) insert on drawings production guidance and information, tolerances, materials to be used,
surface finish, etc
c) calculate detail dimension

Components of an Engineering Drawing

- In general, a formal engineering drawing may consist of three main parts:
a) one or more views of a engineering component (object) or an assembly of components
b) dimensions, symbols, explanatory and instruction notes
c) Title block –
Provides an efficient system of labeling and cross-referencing any drawing stored and,
when required, identified and located quickly. It contains the following information
i) Name of the firm/college
ii) Drawing number
iii) Title
iv) Scale Ratio
v) Date of drawing

LAYOUT OF DRAWINGS
Sizes of drawing sheets normally used:
1. A4 – 210mm X 297mm
2. A3 – 297mm X 410mm
3. A2 – 410mm X 594mm
4. A1 – 594mm X 841mm
5. A0 – 841mm X 1189mm

TYPES OF DRAWING
1. Design layout: These are sketches, which represent feasible solutions to design problems
and should include sufficient information for draughtsman to produce the formal drawing.
2. Detail Drawing: This drawing portrays a single engineering component (object) and should
contain sufficient information required to define that component completely in order to
manufacture it.
3. Assembly Drawing: It shows arrangement of several adjacent parts which together form a
part of a finished assembled product e.g. car engine.
4. Combined drawing: It shows an assembly and detail drawings of constituent parts drawn on
the same drawing sheet thus forming one drawing
5. Arrangement Drawing: It is used fir large machines for example a car and it is prepared to
show the complete finished product will all parts assembled together in their correct
positions.

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DRAWING EQUIPMENTS
Drawing board: Used to fix drawing paper
Tee – Square: It is only used for horizontal lines
Set Squares: Set squares of 450 and 300/600 or adjustable Set Square with edges are required
Pencils: H grades of lead are hard and B grades are soft. The 2H grade is generally used for thin
line work, dimensions, centre lines, hidden details, etc. the H grade is used for thick line work,
visible outlines etc. The HB grade is used for lettering, numerals, and sketching.
Compasses: Compasses of the spring bow type with a shoulder pin are preferable. Compass
leads should be of the same grade as the drawing pencils used. They should be sharpened in one
plane only – on the inside for small compasses and on the outside for large compasses. It is
desirable to use three sizes of compass: small spring-bow, a large spring-bow, and a beam
compass for large discs.
Eraser: It should be soft pencil rubber to ensure that the drawing paper surface will not be
damaged.
Sand Paper: It is use to sharpen pen leads that are used during the drawing process.
Clean Duster: Useful for keeping drawing equipment clean.

TYPES OF LINES

TYPE DESCRIPTION APPLICATION

A Thick continuous Visible outlines and edges
B Thin continuous Dimensions and leader lines
C1 Thin continuous irregular
Limits of partial or interrupted
C2 Straight with zigzag views or sections when line is
not an axis
D Thick/Thin short dashes Hidden outlines and edges
E Thin chain Centre lines, lines of symmetry
for circles and other objects
F Chain thick of ends Used to indicate cutting plane
G Thin chain with short Used for outlines and edges of
double dashes adjacent parts to extreme
positions of movable parts.

DIMENSIONING
Study of dimensioning falls into two parts:
a) what may be called the technique of dimensioning that is, the correct drawing, lettering
and positioning of the dimensions of a drawing
b) dimensioning involves the selection of dimensions to ensure the correct functioning of
the part, and to enable the workman to make it with out having to calculate
An engineering drawing conveys information in two ways:
a) By a pictorial or orthographic view of the object
b) By instruction in the form of given sizes or dimensions and notes specifying the
manufacturing processes and materials
Drawing for manufacturing, architecture and other fields are usually incomplete without
dimension. Dimensions are defined as numerical values expressed in units of measure and are
indicated on a drawing or in other document.

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PROJECTIONS
Projection is a method of representing visually 3-dimension object on 2-dimesion drawing paper.
The main categories of projections include:
a) Pictorial projection
b) Orthographic projection
Pictorial Projection
A pictorial projection is a method of producing a 2-dimension view of a 3-dimension object that
shows three main faces indicating the height, width and depth simultaneously.
Types of Pictorial Projections
a) Perspective Projection
The forward face or edge of the object is drawn first, with the other lines receding away from the
viewer and gradually approaching each other - just as they appear to do when you look at a real
object. If the receding lines are extended they will meet at points that are called vanishing
points.

b) Isometric drawings
In isometric projection [projection: a representation of a three-dimensional solid on a two-
dimensional surface ] all vertical lines on an object remain vertical [vertical: at right-angles to
the horizon; straight up-and-down ] while horizontal lines are drawn at 30° to the horizontal
[horizontal: parallel to the horizon; left-to-right and flat ]. Isometric drawings are usually
produced with drawing equipment to ensure accuracy.
They are 3D drawings. They show three sides, all in dimensional proportion, but none are shown
as a true shape with 90 degree corners. All the vertical lines are drawn vertically but all
horizontal lines are drawn at 30 degrees to the base line. Isometric is an easy method of drawing
3D images.

c) Oblique drawings
The object is drawn with the most distinguishing features facing directly towards the observer,
showing the true shape of these features. Circular features like round holes can be drawn on this
front face as true circles. In other 3D forms, circular features must be drawn as ellipses

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Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing an 3D object from different directions. Usually a
front, side and plan view is drawn so that a person looking at the drawing can see all the
important sides. Orthographic drawings are useful especially when a design has been developed
to a stage whereby it is almost ready to manufacture.

The ability to visualize or think in 3-dimensional is essential to the competent reading of

drawings and should be developed even before the skills required to produce neat and accurate
engineering drawings

Orthographic projection is based on two planes – horizontal and vertical – intersecting each other
forming right angles and quadrants

1st quadrant
2nd quadrant

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

Only two forms of orthographic projections are used

o First-angle (‘European’)
o Third-angle (‘American’)
First-angle Projection
• In first-angle projection, an object is positioned in the space of the first angle quadrant
between two planes
• A view of the object is projected by drawing parallel projecting lines, or projections, from
the object to the vertical principal (VP) plane. This view on VP is called a front view
• A view similarly projected on the horizontal plane (HP) is called a plan view.
• For the complete description of the object, an additional plane called the auxiliary vertical
plane (AVP), is used at 900 to the principal plans is called an end view.
Memory tip for first angle projection
FAP-O - First Angle Projection - Opposite

F. E. E. F.

OR
P. P.
V V

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Third-angle Projection
• In 3rd angle projection, an object is positioned in the space of the third angle quadrant
between two principal planes
• End view and front view are either in the 3rd or 4th quadrants
• The plan view is above the front view as shown below:
Memory tip for third angle projection
TAP-S - Third Angle Projection - Same

Symbol
P P
OR

F E E F

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Exercises
Sketch the multi views of the diagram using first and third angle orthographic projection

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COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)
The letters CAD stand for computer-aided design. Architects, drafters, engineers, and artists use
CAD software to create plans and construction drawings. CAD is also known as CADD, which
stands for Computer-Aided Design & Drafting
Popular CAD programs used by architects and engineers include:
• AutoCAD
• TurboCAD
• Vectorworks

CAD System
• Consist of a computer with a collection of instructions which are used by designer to
produce engineering drawings.
• It provide many powerful engineering tools for the creation of analysis precision
technical drawings.
• Many of these drawings can be used as a source of information for creating computer
generated models. Analysis such models helps the designers to find design flaw or
potential failure points long before the first part eve-built.

COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
(a) Computer Hardware: this refers to the physical and tangible parts of the computer system

CPU: due to its graphical nature, CAD application software requires high speed CPU.
The CPU speed is a measure in MHz or GHz. A minimum of 1GHz of processor speed is
appropriate .

Memory:– RAM should large enough to the specific of the CAD application software
while the hard-disk has to large to store the drawing files

Input devices
o Keyboard –used to type CAD commands. Use modern keyboards that are
designed with normal position of your hands taken in consideration. They are
referred to as ergonomic keyboards. They have feature such as built in wrist pads
and untouched key position that are angled at the center to allow you to position
the keyboard of a paper angle to match positioning of your hand.
o Mouse – used to select points and objects on the drawing area and also selecting
menu commands

Output Devices
o Monitor – used to display the drawing while it is being produced. The quality of a
display is determined by the screen resolution which refers to the number of
pixels per unit inch and number of colors. The high these values the better the
image view. Appropriate screen resolution value are 1028 x 864 and True Colors
The larger the screen, the more is provides the viewing area. It is recommended
for engineering drawings 17” and above. The monitor can either be:
 Desktop style (Cathode ray tube)
 Liquid crystal display LCD-Laptops

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 o Plotters and printers: used to produce print or hard-copy of the drawings
o Plotters: use to produce large printouts of drawings
 Flatbed plotters: have a flat area on which the paper of any type
and thickness is placed and pens of various thickness and ink
colors are free to move in any direction with plot-head providing
all the motion
 Drum Plotter: have a rotating drum over which the paper can move
in two directions and pens are limited to move only across the
drum and with a combination of pen movement and drum rotation,
provide the required motion.
o Printers: Are used to produce small printouts of the drawings ranging from
A4 to A3.
(b) Software

Operating system.

Application Software (AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, MS Visio)

Assignment one
Discuss the APPLICATION AREAS of CAD system

Producing drawings using CAD system

Draughtmen should have a sound training in producing drawings with traditional
instrument before using computers and they should be familiar with all relevant British
standards.

Basic element of a drawing include Points, straight lines, arcs and curves

Points on the screen can be located by selecting the position with the cursor, Snapping to
the grid points or numerically using the co-ordinate system

Co-ordinate system include:
a) Cartesian co-ordinate system: uses horizontal distance x and vertical distance y from
a fixed origin to locate the required point
x

b) Polar co-ordinate system: uses the length of the radius, R an anti-clockwise angle, θ
to locate the required point

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Useful functions in CAD System
1. Scaling – capability to enlarge/diminish the size of a displayed feature without changing
its shape
2. Zooming – capability to enlarge or reduce a selected area of drawing
3. Rotation – capability of rotating a feature about a selected centre and redrawing them at
the new angular position
4. Mirroring – capability to create the reverse angle of a feature about the chosen line of
symmetry.
5. Translating – capability to move parts of drawing and redrawing them in the new position
to a selected scale.
6. Duplicating – capability of redrawing a feature/component many times and displaying it
in an orderly linearly or rotationally.

Advantages of CAD System

a) Accuracy – provides up to 16 decimal places of accuracy
b) Provides a virtually unlimited drawing area which most objects can be drawn in their
actual size regardless of how large/small they are
c) Your display can be changed quickly to show any area of the drawing
d) Objects need to be drawn only once after which they can be used over and over again e.g.
electronic schematic diagrams which use symbols for revision.
e) Revision to existing drawing can be done quickly and efficiently
f) Transfer of information(drawing) is easy through the use of telecommunication

Parts of the AUTOCAD Window

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Using drawing standards in AutoCAD
Standards are guidelines for operating for operating procedures, drawing techniques, and record
keeping. Most companies have established standards. It is important that standards exist and are
used by all CAD personnel. Drawing standards may include:
• Methods of file storage (location and name)
• File Naming conventions
• File backup methods and times
• Drawing templates and title blocks
• Drawing symbols
• Dimensioning styles and techniques
• Text styles
• Layer settings
• Plot styles
Your standards may vary in content, but the most important aspect of standards is that they are
used. When standards are used, your drawing are consistent, you become more productive and
the classroom or office functions more efficiently

Planning your work

Planning is critical to the success of any design process. When using a CAD System plan the
drawing sessions thoroughly to organize your thoughts. During this process ensure that you:
• Sketch the problem or design, noting the sizes and locations of features.
• List the drawing commands needed, in the order they will are to be used
• Schedule a regular time to use the computer and adhere to that time
• Follow the standards the firm has set
• Develop a habit of saving the work

Planning checklist
In the early stages of your AutoCAD training it is best to plan your drawing projects carefully.
There is a tendency to want things to happen immediately, but if you hurry and do little or no
planning you will become more frustrated. Therefore as you begin any new project, stem through
the following planning checklist so the execution of your project goes smoothly:
 Analyze the problem
 Study all engineering sketches
 Locate all available resources and list for future use
 Determine then applicable standards for the project
 Sketch the problem
 Decide on the number and kinds of views required
 Determine the final plotted scale of the drawing and of all views
 Determine the drawing sequence, such as lines, features, dimensions and notes
 List the CAD commands to be used
 Follow the standards and refer to resources as you work.

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BASIC AUTOCAD COMMANDS
LINE Command
Creates straight line segments
Specify first point: Specify a point or press ENTER to continue from the last drawn line or arc
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]:
Continue
Continues a line from the endpoint of the most recently drawn line.
If the most recently drawn line is an arc, its endpoint defines the starting point of the line, and the
line is drawn tangent to the arc.
Close
Ends the last line segment at the beginning of the first line segment, which forms a closed loop
of line segments. You can use Close after you have drawn a series of two or more segments.
Undo
Erases the most recent segment of a line sequence.
Entering u more than once backtracks through line segments in the order you created them.

XLINE Command
Creates an infinite line
Specify a point or [Hor/Ver/Ang/Bisect/Offset]: Specify a point or enter an option
Task
Using LINE and XLINE draw a square measuring 3inches by 3 inches

CIRCLE Command
Creates a circle
Specify center point for circle or [3P (Three Points)/2P (Two Points)/Ttr (tan tan radius)]:
Specify a point or enter an option

RECTANG Command
Draws a rectangular polyline
Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/Thickness/Width]:

CHAMFER Command
Bevels the edges of objects

FILLET Command
Rounds and fillets the edges of objects
Example with Radius >0

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POLYGON Command
Creates an equilateral closed polyline

OFFSET Command
Creates concentric circles, parallel lines, and parallel curves

ROTATE Command
Revolves objects around a base point

SCALE Command
Enlarges or reduces selected objects proportionally in the X, Y, and Z directions

MIRROR Command
Creates a mirror image copy of objects

TRIM Command
Trims objects at a cutting edge defined by other objects

EXTEND Command
Extends an object to meet another object
Select boundary edges...
Select objects or <select all>: Select one or more objects and press ENTER, or press ENTER to
select all displayed objects

BREAK Command
Breaks the selected object between two points
Select object: Use an object selection method, or specify the first break point (1) on an object

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ARRAY Command
Creates multiple copies of objects in a pattern. To create many regularly spaced objects, arraying
is faster than copying. The command provides two options of making multiple copies.
a) Rectangular Arrays – elements copied in rows and columns

b) Polar Arrays – Elements copied The array is drawn counterclockwise or clockwise,

depending on whether you enter a positive or a negative value for the angle to fill.

REGION Command
Converts an object that encloses an area into a region object
Regions are two-dimensional areas you create from closed shapes or loops.
Select objects
Press Enter
Example
This creates TWO regions

UNION Command
Combines selected regions or solids by addition

INTERSECT Command
Creates composite solids or regions from the intersection of two or more solids or regions and
removes the areas outside of the intersection

SUBTRACT Command
Combines selected regions or solids by subtraction

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HATCH Command
Used to shade an enclosed area or shade within a specified boundary, AUTOCAD provides
different hatching techniques. Use HATCH to shade a rectangle or circle

BHATCH Command
Fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a hatch pattern or gradient fill

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USING BLOCKS
A block can be composed of objects drawn on several layers with various colors, linetypes, and
lineweight properties. Although a block is always inserted on the current layer, the block
reference preserves information about the original layer, color, and linetype properties of the
objects that are contained in the block. You can control whether objects in a block retain their
original properties or inherit their properties from the current layer, color, linetype, or lineweight
settings.

BLOCK Command
Creates a block definition from objects you select

XPLODE Command
Breaks a compound object into its component objects
Requires you to select object and press enter

INSERT Command
Places a drawing or named block into the current drawing

WBLOCK Command
Writes objects or a block to a new drawing file

DIMENSIONING USING AUTOCAD (USE COMMANDS OR DIMENSION MENU)

DIMLINEAR Command
Creates linear dimensions
Specify first extension line origin or <select object>: Specify a point or press ENTER to select
an object to dimension

DIMALIGNED Command
Creates an aligned linear dimension

DIMRADIUS Command
Creates radial dimensions for circles and arcs

DIMDIAMETER Command
Creates diameter dimensions for circles and arcs

DIMANGULAR Command
Creates an angular dimension

DIMCENTER Command
Creates the center mark or the centerlines of circles and arcs

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DIMCONTINUE Command
Creates a linear, angular, or ordinate dimension from the second extension line of the previous
dimension or a selected dimension
If no dimension was created in the current session, you are prompted to select a linear, ordinate,
or angular dimension to use as the base for the continued dimension.

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LAYERS IN AUTOCAD
Layers are used to group, change the visibility and to control objects. AutoCAD layers are an
incredibly powerful tool in AutoCAD. A good way to think of layers is to think of them as clear
plastic sheet. Imagine drawing on all sheets and being able to remove or lift sheets to reveal only
the detail beneath.

Layers are managed with the Layer Properties Manager button, which looks like a little icon of
three sheets of paper stacked one atop the other. Each layer has a color associated with it – this is
the color the line segments will show when that object is selected. You can also vary the line
type, the weight of the line and lock, unlock or hide layers so that they're out of the way. You
can define if a layer is to be printed (you can make layers display that don't print, or ones that
print that don't display. This is the first place to check if something didn't print properly!)

Each layer you create has its own associated properties that are unique to that layer. A list of
things you can do using layers:
• Control objects by locking and unlocking layers so they are not accidentally modified.
• Allow layers to be plotted or not.
• Create as many layers as you want.
• Group layers by colors, line types, names, etc... Also, you can create a group filter inside
the layer manager that can be saved within the drawings so other sharing users can use it
later. Isolate layers and objects with the same properties in the drawing space. For
example, you want to show only walls and hide all doors.
• Change the visibility of drawing layouts.
• Turn on or off, freeze or thaw layers in model space or in the viewport layouts in paper
space.
• Globally change objects properties.

Advantages of creating separate layers

• Each layer can be defined to have its own line weight or the thickness that is to be printed
in the hard copy.
• Each layer created can be independently switched on and off in order to have a better
visibility of the drawing. For example, if one just needs to see the outline of the
component, he or she can very well switch of other layers containing center lines,
dimensions, etc.
• All layers if required can be freezed up in order to ensure that nothing is overwritten or
changed in the particular layer.
• Each layer can have its own unique color and line type modules.

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Steps to create a layer and modify layers:
1. Type LAYER in the command line or select from the layer toolbar.
2. By default AutoCAD will name the layer “layer1”.
3. Double click and rename it.
4. In the right column you can assign color, line type to the layer, freeze or thaw it.

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AUTOCAD EXERCISES
Prepare the drawings given below
NB: Unless otherwise specified, dimensions are in inches

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(d)

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WORKING WITH MULTIPLE LINES
MLINE Command
Creates multiple parallel lines
Requires a user to specify start point or justification (Top, zero, bottom), Scale or Style (Choosing type of
multiple line to use)
MLSTYLE Command
Creates, modifies, and manages multiline styles
MLEDIT Command
Edits multiline intersections, breaks, and vertices
Task
Given below is a road in a section of a city
Using mlines details given below create this drawing shown
a) 4LANES – 5 lines, offset distance 0.5
b) STANDARD – 2 lines, offset distance 1.0
c) 1LANE – 2 Lines, offset distance 0.5

A C

F
E

F
E

Use MLEDIT Command to edit the multiline as shown

A – Open Tree B – Closed cross C – Closed cross D- Closed cross E – Open Tree F – Open
Tree
Exercise
Using MLINE (with wall offset of 0.5) draw the floor plan given below using an appropriate scale

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CREATING 3D OBJECTS FROM 2D DRAWINGS
EXTRUDE COMMAND
Creates unique solid primitives by extruding existing two-dimensional objects
Exercise
• Draw the base of an object given below,
• Create regions using REGION command
• EXTRUDE the object to a height of 6 inches.
• Use the 3D Orbit Tool bar to view the result

Exercise
Draw the object given and EXTRUDE it to a height of 7 inches.

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ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS
It is the most common method of pictorial drawing used in industry and provides a single view
showing three sides that can be measured using the same scale. Two of the isometric axes are
drawn at 30º to horizontal and the third at 90º.

Making the drawings

Set up your isometric variables using the Drafting Settings dialog box
-Type DS or DSETTINGS or Tools Menu/Drafting Settings (Snap type & style to: Isometric
snap)

Drawing an isometric shape is possible without ever changing the angle of the crosshairs.
However, the drawing process can be made easier and quicker if the angles of the crosshairs
align with the isometric axes. Use Ctrl + E to change the crosshairs immediately to the next
isometric plane i.e. Top, Left or Right.
Task
Draw the following isometric drawing shown below (select an appropriate dimension)

Isometric Ellipses
Placing an isometric ellipse on an object is easy with AUTOCAD because of the isocircle option
of the ELLIPSE command.
NB: An ellipse is positioned automatically on the current isoplane (Use ctrl + E to select the
isoplane).

Steps
- Draw the Isometric drawing
- Enter the ELLIPSE command and select I for isocircle.
- Specify center of isocircle
- Specify radius of isocircle or Diameter
NB: The Isocircle option is available only when you set the Style option of SNAP to
Isometric.

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Task 2
Prepare the isometric drawing shown and insert the isometric ellipses in the different isoplanes
(note the varying radiuses)

EXERCISES
Prepare isometric drawings shown below.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is a natural extension of the technology of Computer Aided
Design (CAD). CAM is the use of computers and computer technology to assist in all phases of
manufacturing a product, including process and production planning, machining, scheduling,
management, and quality control.
Definitions
• The use of computer systems to plan, manage and control the operations of manufacturing plant
through either direct or indirect computer interface with the plant’s production resources.
• CAM can be defined as a plan for utilizing numerically controlled machines such as mills, lathes,
drills, punches, and other programmable production equipment controlled by computers.
• CAM is the effective use of computer technology in the planning, management, and control of
manufacturing function.

Several ways in which CAM can benefit a production company include:

• Integrating design and manufacturing - (tying the two departments together results in shorter
lead times and better cooperation between departments)
• Making mass customization possible - (machinery can instantly begin producing another
product [from the same product family], making mass customization of products a viable
option)
• Reducing costs - (using CAM can decrease the amount of materials waste, thus reducing
overall costs)
• Leveraging computing power - (computers are more reliable and consistent than human
workers and once a process has been established, they can produce incredible productivity
gains)
• Automating the manufacturing process - (creating automated factories that do not require
human intervention saves human resource costs)

The application of CAM

The ultimate application of CAM occurs when the various operations and routings needed to allow
production of the product are automatically from the CAD data, a process commonly referred to as
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP). The application of CAM can be divided into two broad
categories:
a) Manufacturing Planning (Monitoring)
In manufacturing planning or monitoring, the computer is used indirectly to support the production
function, but there is no direct connection of interface between the computer and the manufacturing
process. The computer is used “of-line” to provide information for the effective of production activities.
The application of CAM in this category includes;
o Cost Estimating;
o Computer –Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
o Computerized Machinability Data Systems;
o Computer-Assisted NC Part programming;
o Development of Work Standards;
o Production and Inventory Planning.
b) Manufacturing Control
This is the second application of CAM and it is concerned with developing computer system for
implementing the manufacturing control functions. Manufacturing control is concerned with managing
and controlling the physical operations in the factory. Process control, quality control, shop floor control,
and process monitoring are all included within the scope of this function.
Computer process control includes;
• Transfer line;
• Assembly system;

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• Numerical control;
• Robotics;
• Material handling; and
• Flexible manufacturing system.

Computer Monitoring (Planning)

Computer control.

The use of computer is seen throughout the manufacturing process. Mechanical CADD is part of the
much broader concept of Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). At first, Computer- Aided Design
(CAD) systems are used to define the geometry of the object. This geometry is then converted to
Numerical Code (NC) by an NC processor. The code is read by a controller, connected to a milling
machine or lathe, to direct the speed and direction of the machine tool.

CAM speeds up the manufacturing process since the same information used to create the design is used
by machinery to machine the part before being sent to a machine, the numerical code can be used for
machine to simulate using this type of program, the computer displays the tool path on the screen. Errors
in tool movement can be detected before part is machines. If the tool moves too fast or too deep, the
designer can edit the tool path.

AN INTEGRATED CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is a term which means Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided Manufacturing. It is the
technology that concerned with the use of digital computers to perform certain functions in design and
production process to improve productivity. The scope of CAD/CAM in the operations of a
manufacturing firm and the product cycle is presented in Figure.

Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

Advantages of using CAM

Some advantages for using CAM include;
a) Communications are improves by the direct transfer of documentation from design to manufacturing.
b) Production is increased and more efficient
c) Errors are reduces with the same data base used by design an manufacturing.

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d) Material handling and machine processing are more efficient;
e) Quality control is improves
f) Leads items are reduced, improving market responses and
g) Work environment is safer and more humans

TECHNOLOGIES OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Manufacturing system entails a large number of interdependent activities consisting of distinct entities
such as materials, Tools, machines, power, and human beings. It is a complex system because it is
comprised of many diverse physical and, human elements.
Manufacturing Cycle
Manufacturing is a dominant activity in an individual organization. Like design, there is no unique
process for manufacturing. It all depends on products to be manufactured. For example, we have
manufacturing industry, tyre, fuel/chemical products, machines tools, heavy vehicles such as earth
moving equipment for farming and road construction, food processing, canning/bottling plants such as
breweries, foundries, etc. each has its manufacturing process with diversification within each group as in
the case of processed adopted by different company’s in the same industry.

The manufacturing process begins with a set of objectives which are set by management. Such objectives
may be;
(i) To develop and fabricate product;
(ii) To produce parts or products designated by the customer/client
(iii) To reproduce items that has been manufactured in the plant.

Technologies of manufacturing systems include:

• Numerical Control Machine Tools (NC);
• Computer Numerical Control Machine Tools (CNC);
• Direct Numerical Control Machine Tools (DNC);
• Robotics;
• Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM);
• Artificial Intelligence; and
• Expert Systems

1. Numerical Control (NC) Machines

Numerical Control (NC) can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which the process is
controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. In NC, the numbers form program of instructions designed
for a particular work part or job. When the job changes the program of instruction also changes.
Numerical Control (NC) is an automated method used to operate general purpose machines from
instructions stored on a roll of tape for future as well as present use. The method can be used with or
without a computer. Numerical Control (NC) is just what the term implies- control by the numbers. The
two words “control” and “numbers” have brought about a revolution in manufacturing. NC technology
has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting, assembly, inspections, sheet metal
press working and spot welding. However, NC found it principal applications in metal machining process.
An operational NC system consists of three basic components. Thus,
• Program of instruction;
• Controller unit of machine control unit;
• Machine tool or other controlled process.
The NC Procedure
To utilise Numerical Control (NC) in manufacturing, the following steps need be accomplished;
(i) Process Planning: The engineering drawing of the work part must be interpreted in terms of the
manufacturing processes to be used and it deals with sequence of operations.

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(ii) Part Programming: A part programmer plans the process for the portion of the job to be
accomplished by NC. The program of instructions is the detailed step by step set of directions, which
tell the machine tool what to do. There are two ways to program for NC.
• Manual Part Programming or Manual Data Input (MDI): used for sample jobs.
• Computer- Assisted Part Programming or Direct Numerical Control (DNC).
(iii) Tape Preparation: This is a punched tape, which is prepared by part programmers of NC process
plan.
(iv) Tape Verification: This is a method of checking the already prepared punched tapes for accuracy.
(v) Production: This is where the NC tape is used for the production of the component
Advantages and Disadvantages of NC
The advantages of NC are stated thus;
• Reduced non productive time;
• Reduced manufacturing lead time;
• Greater manufacturing flexibility;
• Improved quality control;
• Reduced inventory; and reduced floor space requirement.
The disadvantages of NC are;
• Higher investment cost;
• Higher maintenance cost; and
• Funding and or training of NC personnel.

2. COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a NC system that utilizes a dedicated, stored program computer to
perform some or all of the basic NC functions. The NC machines have progressively developed into the
multi-axis, multi-tooled and highly efficient CNC machines of today. Most of the CNC systems are
micro-computer based controlled.
Principles of CNC Machines
Many machines used in manufacturing use CNC control systems. They can be categorized as:
• Metal cutting (lathes, milling machines etc.);
• Metal forming (bending and folding machines, etc.);
• Metal joining ( welding machines); and
• Component inspection ( Co-ordinate inspection machines)

Compared to regular NC, CNC offers additional flexibility and computational capability. New system
options can be incorporated into the CNC controller simply by reprogramming the unit. CNC is often
referred to by the term “software NC.
The functions of CNC, which can be difficult for NC, are;
(i) Machine Tool Control: This is the process of converting the part program instruction to machine
tool motion using computer interface and series system
(ii) In- Process Compensation: This is the process of the dynamic correction of the machine tool motion
for charges or errors which occur during processing.
(iii) Improved Programming and Operating Features: There are improved programming and operating
features such as Editing at part at the machine graphic display various types on interpolation etc.
(iv) Diagnostics: CNC are required with diagnostics capacity to assist in maintaining and repairing
system.

Advantages of CNC
CNC has some inherent advantages over NC. Some are listed below:
• The use of part program tape and tape recorded once to enter the program into computer memory.
• The tape can be edited at the machine site.
• It has the ability to convert all other units to metric system.
• It has a greater flexibility,
• Users can generate their own program
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• Total manufacturing system

3. DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC)

The Direct Numerical Control (DNC) can be defined as a manufacturing system in which a number of
machines are controlled by a computer through direct connection and in real time. The DNC are not
making use of tape reader like NC machines. It uses part programs which are transmitted to the machine
tool directly from the computer memory. It is possible to use one computer to control more than 100
separate machines. It will provide instructions to each machine tool on demand. The control commands
can be communicated to the machine immediately the machine is of used or to it.
The DNC machine consists of four components thus;
• Central computer;
• Bulk memory, which stores the NC part programs;
• Telecommunication lines; and
• Machine tools.

Componets of a DNC

Advantages of DNC
Some of the advantages of DNC machine include;
(i) Time sharing
(ii) It has a greater computational capability
(iii) It is located in a computer type environment;
(iv) It eliminates tapes and tape reader, which improved reliability.
(v) It is possible to post-process the programs stored location data for any machine that is assigned to
process the job.
(vi) It eliminate hard wire controller unit on some systems.

4. AUTOMATION
Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and computer-based
systems to operate and control production. This technology includes;
• Automation machine tools to process parts;
• Automation assembly machine
• Industrial robots;
• Automatic material handling and storage systems;
• Automatic inspection system for quality control;
• Feedback control and computer process control;
• Computer systems for planning, data collection and decision making to support manufacturing
activities.
Types of Automation
There are three major types of automation;
(i) Fixed automation: In a system in which the sequence of processing or assembly operation is fixed
by the equipment configuration.
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 (ii) Programmable automation: The production equipment is design with the capability to change the
sequence of operation to accommodation different product configurations.
(iii) Flexible automation: Is an extension of programmable automation and is capable of producing
variety of products with changeover from one product to the next.

Examples of automation systems

a) Automated Materials Handling System
Automated Materials Handling Systems are the situation where materials are automatically
loaded into process machines without human intervention. When combined with computer
numerically controlled machinery, it comprises a flexible manufacturing system. Examples
of automated materials handling systems are conveyor belts (or gravity-driven ramps),
automated guided vehicles (AGV’s – cars that drive along predefined paths), and automated
storage and retrieval systems (ASRS’s – systems in which an entire warehouse of inventory
is managed and ‘pulled’ by intelligent machines).
b) Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS’s) utilize the gains realized by automating a large
degree of the production process. A FMS uses DNC’s, which work as a unit, and feeds the
raw materials into the machines using automated material handling systems. This allows the
production process to rapidly complete small varied orders, as well as re-tool quickly when a
different product is to be fabricated.

5. ROBOTICS
There are several definitions of an individual robot e.g;
• Is a reprogrammable multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or specify
devices through variables programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tastes.
• A re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator
• Is a manipulating device that is both versatile and also easily programmed or reprogrammed to
perform a sequence of operations.
• A general-purpose, programmable machine possessing certain anthropomorphic characteristics.

Robot Sub-systems
The combination of several different modern technologies into one machine is the attributes of an
individual robot. Microelectronics, electric motors, fluid power systems, sensor technology and
mechanical transmission are the basic development in robot, which has contributed to its versatility and
accuracy,
Benefits of Robots
The benefits derived for introducing robot are;
(i) Overcoming environmental hazards problems;
(ii) Increased productivity;
(iii) Improved quality; and
(iv) Operational flexibility.

6. COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING (CIM)

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system is primarily concerned with the integration and
management of the total manufacturing process. It is a system that recognize and supplies computer
services to each phase of the manufacturing cycle independently, while at the same time maintaining a
database that serves a single source of data for all company activities and applications. The term
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is often used interchangeably with Computer-Aided Design
and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM). Although the terms are closely related, CIM is
interpreted to possess a slightly broader meaning and in scope than CAD/CAM. Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) includes all the engineering function of CAD/CAM, but also includes the business

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function which applies technology for all of the operational function and information processing
functions in manufacturing from order receipt, through design and production to product shipment and
service and field support after sales.

The scope of CIM

The Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) incorporates many of the individual CAD/CAM
technologies and concepts. The technologies include:
(i) Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
(ii) Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)- Planning; and
(iii) Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)- Control;
(iv) Computerized Business System.

The Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

This is originally a design phase but when computer is added in involve the following operations;
 Geometric modelling;
 Engineering Analysis;
 Design Review and Evaluation; and
 Automated Drafting.

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)-Manufacturing Planning

This is the area of manufacturing control. It involves;
 Cost estimating
 Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
 Numerical Control (NC) Part Programming;
 Computerized work studies
 Material Requirement Planning (MRP); and
 Capacity Planning.

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)- Manufacturing Control

This is the area of manufacturing planning. It involves;
 Process Control;
 Process Monitoring;
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 Shop Floor Control; and
 Computer-Aided –Inspection.

Computerized Business Systems

The major business functions that involve CIM are;
 Order Entry;
 Accounting
 Customer billing.

Advantages of CIM
Some of the advantages to be derived for implementing a CIM approach are;
(i) It offers a complete flow of production and management information throughout the entire
organization to all levels.
(ii) There is communication links with interfacing between all hardware and software.
(iii) It is possible to standardize the software packages, achieving the transferability of information
from engineering applications to commercial applications and vice versa.
(iv) It is also possible to respond quickly, both in quantity and type, to customer demands.
(v) The output is more with a little workface, and still able to maintain a high quality.
(vi) It also assists in the minimization of stock levels, inventory and work in progress.

7. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS

Artificial Intelligence is the field of research, which stimulates human thought processes and actions. It
can use or develop a computer systems in stimulating the human thought processes and actions. The goal
of artificial intelligence is not to replace human intelligence, which is actually not replaceable. But it
helps people to be more productive than before. In the past, people used intuition, reasoning and memory
to solve the unstructured problem. The computers used calculation power to solve structural problems. In
industry or in commerce, most organizations have been able to computerize the tasks once done by
human being like clerks, or managers or in the production line. This is the beginning of automation.
AI attempts to develop computer system that can mimic or simulate human thought processes and actions.
The human thought and action includes;
o Reasoning;
o Learning from the past action;
o Human senses such as vision and touch;

Knowledge – based (expert) systems

Knowledge-based system is a category of artificial intelligence programs that makes use of information
gathered from previous projects. Professionals who are well skilled and expert in particular field of
specialization like, Production, Medicine, Law, Accounting, other Engineering fields, are generally very
scarce and are well paid for acquiring such acknowledge.

If one has the ability to capture the knowledge of human expert and made it accessible to everyone
through a computer program, definitely the price will be very high. The expert has the ability to create
their own computer program using their knowledge and what they know. This is what is known as expert
systems or knowledge-based. Expert system can therefore be defined as computer programs that provide
advice to decision makers who would otherwise rely on human experts. The program differs from the
normal program in the sense that;
o Conventional programs are used to perform routine tasks on data. While the;
o Expert system programs are used to provide advice on very specialized tasks that typically require a
human expert.

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APPLICATION OF ICT IN INDUSTRIES
SCADA Systems
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition; it is an industrial computer-based control
system employed to gather and analyze the real-time data to keep track, monitor and control industrial
equipment in different types of industries
SCADA is popular in several applications like process industries, oil and gas, electric power generation,
distribution and utilities, water and waste control, agriculture/irrigation, manufacturing, transportation
systems, and so on.

Application in power systems for operation and control

The electrical distribution system consists of several substations; these substations will have multiple
numbers of controllers, sensors and operator-interface points.

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Programmable Logic Controllers, Circuit breakers and Power monitors – are for controlling and
monitoring a substation in real time
Data is transmitted from the PLCs and other devices to a computer-based-SCADA node located
at each substation.

SCADA Basics

The block diagram of SCADA system

Human-machine Interface (HMI): It is an input-output device that presents the process data to be
controlled by a human operator. It is used by linking to the SCADA system’s software programs and
databases for providing the management information, including the scheduled maintenance procedures,
detailed schematics, logistic information, trending and diagnostic data for a specific sensor or machine.
HMI systems facilitate the operating personnel to see the information graphically
Supervisory System: Supervisory system is used as server for communicating between the equipment of
the SCADA system such as RTUs, PLCs and sensors, etc., and the HMI software used in the control
room workstations. Master station or supervisory station comprises a single PC in smaller SCADA
systems and, in case of larger SCADA systems, supervisory system comprises distributed software
applications, disaster recovery sites and multiple servers. These multiple servers are configured in a hot-
standby formation or dual-redundant, which continuously controls and monitors in case of a server failure
for increasing the integrity of the system.
Remote Terminal Units: Physical objects in the SCADA systems are interfaced with the microprocessor
controlled electronic devices called as Remote Terminal Units (RTUs). These units are used to transmit
telemetry data to the supervisory system and receive the messages from the master system for controlling
the connected objects.
Programmable Logic Controllers: In SCADA systems, PLCs are connected to the sensors for collecting
the sensor output signals in order to convert the sensor signals into digital data. PLCs are used instead of
RTUs because of the advantages of PLCs like flexibility, configuration, versatile and
affordability compared to RTUs.
Communication Infrastructure: Generally the combination of radio and direct wired connections is
used for SCADA systems, but in case of large systems like power stations and railways SONET/SDH are
frequently used. Among the very compact SCADA protocols used in SCADA systems – a few
communication protocols, which are standardized and recognized by SCADA vendors – send information
only when the supervisory station polls the RTUs.
SCADA Programming: SCADA programming in a master or HMI is used for creating maps and
diagrams which will give an important situational information in case of an event failure or process
failure. Standard interfaces are used for programming most commercial SCADA systems. SCADA
programming can be done using derived programming language or C language.

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ARCHITECTURE OF SCADA
Generally the SCADA system includes the following components: local processors, operating equipment,
PLCs, instruments, remote terminal unit, intelligent electronic device, master terminal unit or host
computers and a PC with human machine interface.

Basic SCADA architecture

TYPES OF SCADA SYSTEMS
There are different types of SCADA systems that can be considered as SCADA architectures of four
different generations:
a) First Generation: Monolithic or Early SCADA systems,
b) Second Generation: Distributed SCADA systems,
c) Third Generation: Networked SCADA systems and
d) Fourth Generation: Internet of things technology, SCADA systems

Monolithic or Early SCADA systems

They were developed wherein the common network services were not available. Hence, these are
independent systems without having any connectivity to other systems.

The functions of the monolithic SCADA systems in the early first generation were limited to monitoring
sensors in the system and flagging any operations in case of surpassing programmed alarm levels
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Distributed SCADA Systems
The sharing of control functions is distributed across the multiple systems connected to each other using
Local Area Network (LAN). These individual stations were used to share real-time information and
command processing for performing control tasks to trip the alarm levels of possible problems.

Networked SCADA Systems

The current SCADA systems are generally networked and communicate using Wide Area Network
(WAN) Systems over data lines or phone. These systems use Ethernet or Fiber Optic Connections for
transmitting data between the nodes frequently

The first and second generation SCADA systems are limited to single site networks or single building
called as sealed systems. In these systems, we can not have any risk compared to the third generation
SCADA system which are connected to the internet causing the security risks.

Internet of Things
In fourth generation, the infrastructure cost of the SCADA systems is reduced by adopting the internet of
things technology with the commercially available cloud computing. The maintenance and integration is
also very easy for the fourth generation compared to the earlier SCADA systems.

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Applications of SCADA
SCADA systems are used for monitoring a variety of data like flows, currents, voltages, pressures,
temperatures, water levels, and etc., in various industries. If the system detects any abnormal conditions
from any monitoring data, then the alarms at the central or remote sites will be triggered for alerting the
operators through HMI. There are numerous applications of SCADA systems, but a few most frequently
used SCADA applications include:

Manufacturing Industries

Waste Water Treatment and Distribution Plants

SCADA in Power System
1. SCADA In Manufacturing Industries
In manufacturing industries the regular processes like running the production systems to meet the
productivity targets, checking the number of units produced and counting the completed stages of
operations along with temperatures at various stages of the manufacturing process, and so on, are taken
care by using the SCADA application.
2. SCADA Application in Waste Water Treatment and Distribution Plants
Wastewater treatment plants are of different types such as surface-water treatment and a well water
treatment system in which many control systems and automation processes are involved in water
treatment and distribution systems. SCADA systems are used for controlling the automatic operations of
the equipment used like backwashing the filters based on the hours of working or amount of water flow
through the filters.

In distribution plants the water tank levels, pressure of system, temperature of plant, sedimentation,
filtration, chemical treatment and other parameters or processes are controlled using the SCADA
applications such as PLCs, PC based workstations which are connected each other using Local Area
Network (LAN) such as Ethernet.
3. SCADA in Power System
Power system can be defined as constituent of power generation, transmission and distribution. All these
sectors are needed to be monitored regularly for improving the system efficiency. Thus, the application of
SCADA in power system improves the overall efficiency of the system by providing the supervision and
control over the generation, transmission and distribution systems. SCADA in the power system network
increases the system’s reliability and stability for integrated grid operation.

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 SCADA in Power System
Wireless SCADA
In large scale industries like power plants, steel plants and so on, many processes and operations such as
movement of conveyer belts for coal or product transport, boiler heat temperature, etc. are to be
monitored continuously and there is need to control the factors affecting these parameters. So, application
of wireless SCADA will provide better control over the required control systems and operations.

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