3.

1 Robot Kinematics:

Robot kinematics is the study of the geometry of robot motion, focusing on the position,
velocity, and acceleration of links and joints without considering the forces or torques that cause
the motion. It's a fundamental aspect of robot design, analysis, control, and simulation.

Key Concepts:

 Kinematic Chain:

A robot's structure is modeled as a series of interconnected rigid links (bodies) connected by

joints (rotational or translational).

 Forward Kinematics:

Determines the position and orientation (pose) of the robot's end-effectors (e.g., gripper) given
the joint angles or positions.

 Inverse Kinematics:

Calculates the required joint angles or positions to achieve a desired end-effectors pose.

 Degrees of Freedom (DOF):

The number of independent movements a robot can make, determined by the number and type of
joints.

 Jacobean Matrix:

A matrix that relates the joint velocities to the end-effectors’s linear and angular velocities,
crucial for controlling robot motion.

Types of Kinematics:
In robotics, forward dynamics predicts a robot's motion given applied forces and torques, while
inverse dynamics calculates the forces and torques needed to achieve a desired motion.

 Forward Kinematics:

Predicts the end-effector's position and orientation based on the robot's joint positions.
 Purpose:
Used for simulation and predicting the motion of a robot based on known forces and
torques.
 Input:
Joint positions, velocities, applied forces, and torques.
 Output:
Joint accelerations, which can be used to determine the robot's future positions and
velocities.
 Mathematical Formulation:
 Involves solving the robot's equations of motion, which are often derived using methods
like Newton-Euler or Lagrange's equations.
 Applications:
 Simulating robot motion in a virtual environment.
 Predicting the outcome of a robot's actions.
 Analyzing the stability and performance of a robot design.

 Inverse Kinematics:

Determines the required joint positions to achieve a desired end-effector position and
orientation.

 Purpose: Used for control, trajectory planning, and determining the forces and torques
needed to achieve a desired motion.

 Input: Desired joint positions, velocities, and accelerations, and potentially external
forces.

 Output: The required joint torques and forces to achieve the desired motion.

 Mathematical Formulation: Involves solving the inverse of the robot's equations of

motion.

 Applications:

 Controlling robot motion to follow a desired trajectory.

 Designing robot controllers that can compensate for dynamic effects.
 Estimating the forces and torques exerted by a robot during operation.

 Differential Kinematics:

Studies the relationship between joint velocities and end-effector velocities, essential for
feedback control systems.

3.2 Kinematic Link or Element

Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known as a kinematic link or
element.

A link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly fastened together, so that they do not move
relative to one another.

The link should have the following two characteristics:

1. It should have relative motion, and

2. It must be a resistant body

Types of Links:

Rigid: It undergoes no deformation;

Example: crank, connecting rod.

Flexible: Partial deformation;

Example: springs, belts, ropes.

Fluid: Motion is transmitted by this link by deformation.

3.3.1 Types of Constrained Motions

Constraint means: Limitation of motion (or) action.

Completely Constraint: Moves in a definite direction

Example: square bar moving in square hole.

Incompletely Constraint: Moves in all direction.

Example: Circular bar moving in a circular hole.

Successfully Constraint: Motion is not completed by itself but by some other means.

3.3.2 Kinematic Pair

The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a pair.
If the relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained the pair is known
as kinematic pair.

Classification of Pair is based on:

1. According to the type of relative motion between the elements.

Sliding Pair: The two elements have a sliding motion relative to each other.
Example: Piston and cylinder pair rectangular rod is rectangular line.

Turing Pair: When the two elements are connected such that the element revolves about
the other element.
Example: Shaft rotates in the bearing rotation of a crank in a slider crank mechanism.

Rolling pair: When one element is free to roll on another element.

Example: The belt and pulley surfaces constitute rolling pair.

Screw Pair: In this type the contacting surface is having threads. It is also called a helical
pair one element turns about another element by means of thread only.
Example: A bolt and nut arrangement screw jack for lifting heavy weights.
 Spherical Pair: One element is in the form of sphere and turns about the fixed element;
Example: ball and socket joint

2. According to the type of contact between the elements.

Lower Pair: If a pair motion has surface contact between the elements.
Example:
Piston reciprocating in a cylinder
Shaft rotates in a bearing. (Contacting surfaces are similar)

Higher Pair: In higher pair there is a line or point contact between the elements.
Example: Cam and follower. (Contact surfaces are different.)

3. According to the type of closure.

Self Closed Pair: In this pair, two elements are held together mechanically; Example: All
lower pair

Unclosed Pair/Force Closed Pair: The two elements are not held together mechanically;
Example: Cam and followers.

3.4 Common types of robotic joints

 Robot joints are the movable connections between different parts of a robot’s body, much
like the joints in humans.
 These links enable robots to bend, twist, and move in various directions, allowing them to
perform tasks and interact with their environment.
 Robot joints come in many forms, including rotational joints like those in arms and legs,
as well as sliding joints found in robotic grippers and other tools.
 These joints are typically equipped with actuators, sensors, and mechanical components
to facilitate controlled movement and precise positioning.
 Overall, robot joints are essential for the mobility and functionality of robots in a wide
range of applications, from manufacturing and assembly to exploration and healthcare.

Robot joints come in diverse forms, each with distinct characteristics, applications, and
advantages.

Revolute Joints
Characteristics: Revolute joints, also known as rotary joints, facilitate rotation around a
single axis. They offer versatility in movement and are pivotal in enabling bending and
twisting motions.

Applications: Revolute joints find extensive use in robotic arms and legs, where they
enable articulation and maneuverability essential for tasks such as assembly, welding,
and material handling in manufacturing processes.
Advantages: The versatility of revolute joints allows for a wide range of motion, making
them suitable for applications requiring flexibility and adaptability in movement.

Prismatic Joints

Characteristics: Prismatic joints, also referred to as linear joints, enable movement along
a single axis in a straight line. They excel in providing precise linear motion.

Applications: Prismatic joints are commonly employed in robotic sliders, extendable

arms, and telescopic mechanisms, where precise linear movement is crucial for t asks such
as pick-and-place operations and positioning.

Advantages: Prismatic joints offer precise control over linear motion, making them ideal
for applications requiring accurate positioning and alignment.

Spherical Joints

Characteristics: Spherical joints, also known as ball-and-socket joints, allow movement

in multiple directions around a central point. They offer a high degree of flexibility in
motion.

Applications: Spherical joints are commonly utilized in robotic wrists and hips, where
omni-directional movement is essential for tasks such as object manipulation, grasping,
and navigation in complex environments.
Advantages: The flexibility provided by spherical joints enables robots to navigate and
interact with their surroundings more effectively, making them suitable for applications
requiring agility and adaptability.

Universal Joints
Characteristics: Universal joints, also called cardan joints, facilitate rotation around two
non-intersecting axes. They offer flexibility in changing the orientation of connected
parts.

Applications: Universal joints are often employed in robotic manipulators and drive
shafts to transmit motion between misaligned components, allowing for smooth and
efficient operation in various industrial applications.

Advantages: The ability of universal joints to accommodate misalignment enhances the

maneuverability and efficiency of robotic systems, particularly in tasks requiring complex
motion trajectories.
Cylindrical Joints
Characteristics: Cylindrical joints combine rotational and linear motion along a single
axis, comprising a revolute joint coupled with a prismatic joint.

Applications: Cylindrical joints are commonly found in cylindrical robot arms and
grippers, where tasks necessitate both rotational and linear movement, such as material
handling, machining, and assembly operations.

Advantages: The integration of rotational and linear motion in cylindrical joints offers
versatility in performing tasks that require a combination of both types of movement,
enhancing the efficiency and functionality of robotic systems.

Planar Joints
Characteristics: Planar joints enable movement within a single plane defined by two
perpendicular axes, restricting motion to two-dimensional space.

Applications: Planar joints are well-suited for applications requiring precise motion
control in a flat plane, such as robotic sliders, rotary stages, and XY positioning systems
used in manufacturing, semiconductor, and biomedical industries.

Advantages: Planar joints provide accurate and efficient motion control in two-
dimensional space, making them indispensable for tasks that demand precise positioning
and alignment.

3.5 Kinematic Chains:

If the two ends of the series are fixed, the chain is said to be closed.
If the terminal end of one link is not fixed, the chain is said to be open.
A functional consequence of a closed chain is that movement of one joint will cause every
other joint to move in a predictable fashion. Open chains are not subject to these
constraints: Movement at one joint will not necessarily cause movement at another joint.
Open chain: Has a free end; links are connected in a sequence without forming a loop
Closed chain : Forms a closed loop; all links are connected end-to-end
Open chain : Generally has higher mobility with fewer constraints.
Closed chain : Has more constraints, leading to reduced mobility.
Open chain : Motion is transferred from one end to the other without feedback.
Closed chain : Motion is transferred in a loop, enabling feedback between links.
Open chains are typically used for tasks requiring flexibility, like robotic manipulators or
cranes while closed chains are used in mechanisms requiring precise motion transfer, like
engines and suspension systems
Some key points on kinematic chains:
 Kinematic chains are the building blocks for designing mechanisms like levers,
gears, cams, and linkages
 Mechanism can have more than one kinematic chains
 Proper choice of links, kinematic pairs and the arrangement, construction is
designed to meet that end
 By modifying the type and arrangement of links and joints, kinematic chains can be
tailored to specific tasks, such as lifting, rotating, or oscillating
 Efficient kinematic chain design can reduce the number of components, saving
space and weight in products
3.6 Degree of freedom:
In statistics, the number of degrees of freedom is the number of values in the final
calculation of a statistic that are free to vary.
In mechanics, the degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number
of independent parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of parameters
that determine the state of a physical system and is important to the analysis of systems
of bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics, and structural
engineering. The position and orientation of a rigid body in space is defined by three
components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six
degrees of freedom.
Long story short: Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to the number of independent
movements a robotic arm can make. Basically, the more degrees of freedom, the more
skilled and flexible the arm.

The motion of a ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body, and is
described as shown in fig above.

Translation:
1. Moving up and down (heaving);
2. Moving left and right (swaying);
3. Moving forward and backward (surging);

Rotation:
4. Tilts forward and backward (pitching);
5. Swivels left and right (yawing);
6. Pivots side to side (rolling).

The trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along
the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom.

3.7 Position and orientation of rigid body in space.

3.7.1 Configuration Space:
 This concept is used in robot motion planning among stationary, known objects (case
I). The configuration space is a transformation from the physical space in which the robot
is of finite-size into another space in which the robot is treated as a point.

In other words, the configuration space is obtained by shrinking the robot to a

point, while growing the obstacles by the size of the robot. The figures below illustrate
the concept of configuration space. In figure a, P and Q are fixed obstacles in physical
space, and R is the robot, whose orientation is fixed. Figure b shows the corresponding
configuration space.

Free Space
The free space of a configuration space simply consists of the areas not occupied by
obstacles. Any configuration within this space is called a free configuration.

Free Path
The free path between an initial configuration and a goal configuration is the path
which lies completely in free space and does not come into contact with any obstacles.

What is a Coordinate System?

A coordinate system is a mathematical framework used to define positions and

orientations in a given space. It consists of axes, origin, and units of measurement. Robots
employ a specific type of coordinate system known as the robot coordinate system or the
robotics coordinate system. This system enables the robot to understand and navigate its
environment effectively.

2. Components of the Robot Coordinate System

The robot coordinate system typically comprises three main components:

a. X, Y, and Z Axes: These represent the three-dimensional space in which the robot
operates. The X-axis points forward, the Y-axis points to the left, and the Z-axis points
upwards, forming a Cartesian coordinate system.

b. Origin: The origin is the reference point from which all positions are measured. It
serves as the starting point for the robot's movement.

c. Orientation: The orientation of the robot is described using Euler angles (roll, pitch, and
yaw) or quaternions. These angles represent the robot's rotation around its X, Y, and Z
axes, respectively.

3. Representations of the Robot Coordinate System

To represent the robot's position and orientation accurately, different coordinate systems
are used:

a. World Coordinate System: Also known as the global coordinate system, it is an absolute
reference frame fixed in the robot's environment. The robot's position and orientation are
measured relative to this global frame.

b. Robot Base Coordinate System: This is a local coordinate system fixed to the robot's
base. The robot's joint angles and tool position are measured relative to this coordinate
system.

c. End-Effector Coordinate System: The end-effector is the robot's tool or gripper, and it
has its own coordinate system. The position and orientation of the to ol are measured
relative to this local frame.

4. Transformations in the Robot Coordinate System

Robotics often requires transforming positions and orientations between different

coordinate systems. The most common transformations are:

a. Translation: This involves moving a point from one position to another in the same
coordinate system. It affects only the X, Y, and Z coordinates.

b. Rotation: Rotation involves changing the orientation of a point or object in space

without changing its position. It is essential for converting orientation between coordinate
systems.
c. Homogeneous Transformations: A homogeneous transformation matrix is used to
combine translation and rotation transformations. It enables the seamless conversion of
positions and orientations between different coordinate systems.

5. Forward Kinematics

Forward kinematics is a fundamental concept in robotics. It is the process of determining

the robot's end-effector position and orientation based on the joint angles of the robot.
Forward kinematics calculations depend on the robot's kinematic chain and the Denavit -
Hartenberg (DH) parameters.

6. Inverse Kinematics

Inverse kinematics is the reverse process of forward kinematics. Given the desired end -
effector position and orientation, inverse kinematics helps compute the joint angles
required to achieve that configuration. Solving inverse kinematics is more complex than
forward kinematics and often requires numerical methods.

7. Applications of the Robot Coordinate System

The robot coordinate system finds extensive applications in robotics and automation:

a. Motion Planning: Robots use the coordinate system to plan and execute precise
movements, enabling them to perform tasks accurately.

b. Localization: To navigate autonomously, robots need to determine their position and

orientation relative to the environment, often using techniques like Simultaneous
Localization and Mapping (SLAM).

c. Path Planning: The robot coordinate system assists in finding optimal paths to reach a
target location while avoiding obstacles.

d. Robotic Manipulation: For robots to interact with objects and perform manipulation
tasks, they need to precisely control their end-effector using the coordinate system.

e. Pick-and-Place Operations: Industrial robots rely on the coordinate system to pick

objects from one location and place them in another.

Reference Frames
In robotics, a reference frame, also known as a coordinate frame or coordinate system,
is a fundamental concept used to describe the position, orientation, and motion of rigid
bodies or components within a robotic system.

Reference frames provide a consistent and standardized way to quantify spatial

relationships and dynamics in both 2D and 3D space.

Reference frames in robotics have the following characteristics:

 an origin
 a set of orthogonal axes
 The direction of positive axes is defined by the right-hand rule convention.

Stationary and inertial frames

Stationary frame: a stationary frame is a coordinate system that remains fixed relative to
a specific reference point or object within the robotic system.
Inertial frame: an inertial frame is a frame where first Newton's law holds true, i.e. if no
external force is acting on a body it will stay at rest or remain in uniform motion.
All frames considered in robotics are stationary, inertial and right-handed.

Space frame and Body frame

A reference frame can be placed anywhere in space, and any reference frame leads to an
equally valid representation of the underlying space and the objects in it. It will be our job
to choose the frame that best fits our necessities or change the reference frame
accordingly.
However, there are two special reference frames that we can define for any rigid body: the
Space (or World) frame and the Body frame.
Space frame:
The Space (World) frame is an inertial frame of reference that provides a fixed coordinate
system relative to an external reference point.
It serves as a global reference for describing positions and orientations of objects in the
environment.
The external reference may be the Earth's coordinate system or a predefined origin in
the robot's workspace.
Positions and orientations of objects or robotic systems are often expressed relative to the
space frame, allowing for global localization and navigation.
Space frame is often referred as {s}
Body frame:
The body frame, also known as the local frame, is a coordinate system that is attached to a
specific object or body, such as a robotic manipulator or mobile robot. It moves and
rotates with the object, providing a local reference for describing its motion and
orientation.
The body frame is also a stationary motionless frame that is instantaneously
coincident with a frame that is fixed to a possibly in motion body.
Motions and orientations of objects are often expressed relative to their body frames,
allowing for local control and manipulation tasks.
Body frame is often referred as {b}