DATABASE

MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Subash Manandhar

1
Chapter 4 – SQL

• SQL (Structured Query Language) is the database language designed for

managing data in RDBMS (Relational Database Management System).
• Its scope includes data insert, query, update and delete, schema creation and
modification and data access control.
• It is ANSI (American National Standard Institute) standard.
• Can execute queries against database.
• Different types of SQL statements are:
• DDL (Data Definition Language)
• CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE
• DML (Data Manipulation Language)
• INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
• DQL (Data Query Language)
• SELECT
• TCL (Transaction Control Language)
• COMMIT, ROLLBACK
• DCL (Data Control Language)
• GRANT, REVOKE

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language) in 1970’s, developed at IBM.

• SQL-86 (First ANSI standard)
• SQL-89, SQL 1
• SQL-92, SQL 2 (Most of dbms use it)
• SQL-99, SQL 3 (recursive queries, triggers and OO features)
• SQL-2003, windows functions, XML related features
• SQL-2006, XML query support (Xquery)
• SQL-2008
• SQL-2011, improved support for temporal database.

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DDL (Data Definition Language) CREATE TABLE tablename

• used to define the database schema. (
• used to create and modify the structure column1 datatype(size) Constraints,
of database objects in the database. column2 datatype(size),
• To create database: ……….
• Syntax: );
• CREATE DATABASE dbname; • e.g.
• To create table:
• CREATE DATABASE cms
• Syntax:
• CREATE TABLE student
• CREATE TABLE tablename
(
(
column1 datatype(size), S_ID int,
column2 datatype(size), name varchar (20),
………. address varchar(20)
); )

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Chapter 4 – Relational Database Query Language
4.1 SQL
• CREATE TABLE student • CREATE TABLE student
( (
S_ID int PRIMARY KEY, S_ID int ,
name varchar (20) NOT NULL, name varchar (20) NOT NULL,
address varchar(20) address varchar(20),
); CONSTRAINTS pk_sid PRIMARY
• CREATE TABLE student KEY(S_ID, name )
( )
S_ID int ,
name varchar (20) NOT NULL,
address varchar(20),
CONSTRAINTS pk_sid PRIMARY
KEY(S_ID )
)

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• To alter table: • e.g.

• Syntax: • ALTER TABLE student
• ALTER TABLE tablename ADD phone varchar(10)
ADD columnname datatype
• ALTER TABLE student
• ALTER TABLE tablename
DROP COLUMN address
DROP COLUMN columnname

• ALTER TABLE student

• ALTER TABLE tablename
ALTER COLUMN phone integer
ALTER COLUMN columnname datatype

ALTER TABLE student ALTER TABLE student

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_sid PRIMARY KEY (S_ID) DROP CONSTRAINT pk_sid

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• To delete table: • To rename table:

• Syntax: • Syntax:
• ALTER TABLE tablename
• DROP TABLE tablename
RENAME TO newtablename
• To delete data inside table, not e.g.
table itself: ALTER TABLE xyz
• Syntax: RENAME TO abc
• TRUNCATE TABLE tablename
• e.g. • To rename column:
• DROP TABLE student • Syntax:
• ALTER TABLE tablename
CHANGE oldname newname datatype
• TRUNCATE TABLE student e.g.
ALTER TABLE student
CHANGE phone contact_no integer

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DML (Data Manipulation Language)

• Used to insert , update, delete data in database.
• To insert data in table:
• Syntax:
• INSERT INTO tablename (column1,……,columnN) VALUES (val1,…….valN);
• INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (val1,…….valN);
• INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (val1,NULL,val3,NULL…….valN);
• INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (val1,…….valN),(val1,……..valN);
• e.g.
• INSERT INTO student (S_ID,name,address) VALUES (1,’Ram’,’Kathmandu’);
• INSERT INTO student VALUES (2,’Sita’,’Patan’);
• INSERT INTO student VALUES (3,NULL,’Patan’);
• INSERT INTO student VALUES (4,’Hari’,’Patan’), (5,’Gita’,’Pokhara’);

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DML (Data Manipulation Language)

• To update data in table:
• Syntax:
• UPDATE tablename SET column1 = val1;
• UPDATE tablename SET column1 = val1 WHERE column =val;
• UPDATE tablename SET column1 = val1, column2 = val2…. WHERE column
=val;
• e.g.
• UPDATE student SET address = ‘Dharan’;
• UPDATE student SET address = ‘Dharan’ WHERE S_ID = 2;
• UPDATE student SET name=‘Sital’, address = ‘Birgunj’ WHERE S_ID = 3;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DML (Data Manipulation Language)

• To delete data in table:
• Syntax:
• DELETE FROM tablename ;
• DELETE FROM tablename WHERE column =val;
• e.g.
• DELETE FROM student;
• DELETE FROM student WHERE S_ID = 5;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DQL (Data Query Language)

• Query is an operation that retrieves data from one or more tables or views.
• Query nested within another SQL statement is called a subquery.
• SELECT is used in DQL.
• Syntax:
• SELECT * FROM tablename;
• SELECT column1, column2 FROM tablename;
• SELECT DISTINCT colum1, column2 FROM tablename;
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE column operator value;
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE column1 = value1 AND column2 = value2;
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE column1 = value1 OR column2 = value2;
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE column1 = value1 AND (column2 = value2 OR
column3 = value3)
• SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY cloumnname ASC|DESC;
• SELECT TOP number|percent columnname(s) FROM tablename;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DQL (Data Query Language)

• examples:
• SELECT * FROM employee;
• SELECT name, designation FROM employee;
• SELECT DISTINCT address FROM tablename;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE eid = 1;
• SELECT designation, salary FROM employee WHERE eid = 1;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE address = ‘kathmandu’ AND designation =
‘manager’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE address = ‘kathmandu’ OR designation = ‘manager’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE address = ‘kathmandu’ AND (designation =
‘programmer’ OR salary > 25000)
• SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY name ASC|DESC;
• SELECT TOP 3 * FROM employee;(SqlServer)
• SELECT * FROM employee LIMIT 3;(MySQL)

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DQL (Data Query Language)

• Wildcard characters are used with SQL LIKE operator , to search for data within a table.
• % => a substitute for zero or more characters
• _ => a substitute for a single character.
• [characterlist] => sets and range of characters to match.
• [! characterlist] => match only character not specified in bracket.
• Syntax:
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname LIKE pattern;
• e.g.
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘%s’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE country LIKE ‘%land%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE country NOT LIKE ‘%land%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘ber%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘_erlin’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘L_N_ON’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘[bsp]%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘[a-d]%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city NOT LIKE ‘[bsp]%’;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city LIKE ‘[!bsp]%’;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• DQL (Data Query Language)

• Syntax:
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname IN (val1,val2,….);
• e.g
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city IN (‘london’, ‘paris’);
• SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
• e.g.
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary BETWEEN 15000 AND 35000;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary NOT BETWEEN 15000 AND 35000;
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE (salary BETWEEN 15000 AND 35000) AND NOT eid IN (1,2,3);
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘M’
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name NOT BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘M’
• SELECT columnname AS newname FROM tablename;
• e.g.
• SELECT designation AS post FROM employee;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• SQL functions:
• SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
• AVG() => returns average value of a numeric column.
• SELECT AVG(columnname) FROM tablename;
• COUNT() => returns the no. of rows.
• SELECT COUNT(columnname) FROM tablename;
• SELECT COUNT(*) FROM tablename;
• MAX() => returns the largest value of selected column.
• SELECT MAX(columnname) FROM tablename;
• MIN() => returns the smallest value of selected column.
• SELECT MIN(columnname) FROM tablename;
• SUM() => returns the total sum of numeric column.
• SELECT SUM(columnname) FROM tablename;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• SQL functions:
• UPPER() => converts value of field to uppercase.
• SELECT UPPER(columnname) FROM tablename;
• LOWER() => converts value of field to lowercase.
• SELECT LOWER(columnname) FROM tablename;
• SQRT() => used to find out square root of any number.
• SELECT SQRT(columnname) FROM tablename;
• RAND() => used to produce random numbers between 0 and 1.
• SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY RAND();
• CONCAT() => used to concatenate two strings to form single string
• SELECT CONCAT(col1,col2) FROM tablename;

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• GROUP BY and HAVING clauses:

• Used to divide the rows in table into groups.
• Used with SQL aggregate functions like SUM(), AVG() etc.
• e.g.
• SELECT designation, SUM(salary) FROM employee GROUP BY designation
• SELECT designation, MAX(salary) FROM employee GROUP BY designation
HAVING MAX(salary) > 35000

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• SQL using JOINS :

• Is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database
based on a common field between them.
• Inner Join :
• Select all rows from both tables as long as there is a match between
the columns in both tables.
• Syntax:
• SELECT columnname(s) FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column1 = table2.column2
• e.g.:
• SELECT customer.name, order.oid FROM customer INNER JOIN order
ON customer.cid = order.cid

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Left Join (left outer join):

• Returns all rows from the left table (table1) with the matching rows
in the right table (table2).
• The result is null in right side where there is no match.
• Syntax:
• SELECT columnname(s) FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column1 = table2.column2
• e.g.:
• SELECT customer.name, order.oid FROM customer LEFT JOIN order
ON customer.cid = order.cid

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• RIGHT Join (right outer join):

• Returns all rows from the right table (table2) with the matching
rows in the left table (table1).
• The result is null in left side where there is no match.
• Syntax:
• SELECT columnname(s) FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column1 = table2.column2
• e.g.:
• SELECT customer.name, order.oid FROM customer RIGHT JOIN order
ON customer.cid = order.oid

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Full Outer Join:

• Returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from right table
(tabl21).
• Combines the result of both left and right join.
• Syntax:
• SELECT columnname(s) FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column1 = table2.column2
• e.g.:
• SELECT customer.name, order.oid FROM customer FULL OUTER JOIN
order
ON customer.cid = order.oid

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Subquery:
• Is a query within another SQL query and embedded within where clause.
• Is used to return data that will be used in main query as a condition to further
restrict the data to be retrieved.
• Can be used with select, insert, update and delete statements along with
operators like =,>,<,>=,<=, IN, BETWEEN etc.
• Rules for subquery:
• Must be enclosed with in parenthesis.
• Can have only one column in SELECT clause.
• An ‘ORDER BY’ can not be used, but ‘GROUP BY ’ can be.
• Subquery that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value
operator like IN operator.
• A subquery can’t be immediately enclosed in a set function.
• ‘BETWEN’ operator can’t be used with subquery, however ‘BETWEEN’ operator
can be used within subquery.
• SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate BLOB,ARRAY.

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Subquery with SELECT statement

• e.g.:
• SELECT * FROM employee WHERE eid IN (SELECT eid FROM employee WHERE
salary > 30000)
• Subquery with INSERT statement
• e.g.:
• INSERT INTO employee1 SELECT * FROM employee WHERE eid IN (SELECT eid
FROM employee)
• Subquery with UPDATE statement
• e.g.:
• UPDATE employee SET salary = salary * 0.25 WHERE designation IN (SELECT
designation FROM employee WHERE designation LIKE ‘d%’)
• Subquery with DELETE statement
• e.g.:
• DELETE FROM employee WHERE salary IN (SELECT salary FROM employee
WHERE salary > 30000)

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Set Operations:
• SQL used set operations to combine same type of data from two or more
tables.
• Set operations are based on principle of mathematical set theory.
• To perform Set operations, Union Compatibility property must be hold i.e.
the relations involved in the operations must have an equal no. of attributes
and they must have the same domain of attributes.
• Different set operations are:
• UNION
• INTERSECT
• EXCEPT

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Set Operations:
• UNION
• Combines two or more result sets into a single set, without duplicates.
• Any duplicate records are automatically removed unless UNION ALL is used.
• e.g.
• SELECT name, address FROM student
UNION
SELECT name, address FROM teacher
• INTERSECT
• Takes the data from both result sets which are in common.
• Removes duplicate rows from the final result set.
• INTERSECT ALL operator does not remove duplicate rows from the final result
set.

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Set Operations:
• INTERSECT
• e.g.
• SELECT name, address FROM student
INTERSECT
SELECT name, address FROM teacher
• EXCEPT
• Takes the data from first result set, but not the second.
• Automatically eliminates duplicates.
• EXCEPT ALL retains all duplicates.
• e.g.
• SELECT name, address FROM student
EXCEPT
SELECT name, address FROM teacher

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Views
• View is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement
• Is the logical representation of data.
• It contains rows and columns just like real table.
• SQL functions, where and join statements can be added to a view and data
can be presented as if data are coming from one single table.
• Views allow users to
• Structure data in a way that users want.
• Restrict access to data such that user can see and sometimes modify exactly what
they need and no more
• Summarize data from various tables which can be used to generate reports.
• Syntax to create view
• CREATE VIEW viewname AS
SELECT columnname(s) FROM table; / WHERE clause

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Views
• e.g. creating view
• CREATE VIEW view_customer AS
SELECT name, phone FROM customer WHERE address = ‘kathmandu’
• Syntax to query view
• SELECT * FROM viewname
• e.g. to query view
• SELECT * FROM view_customer
• Syntax to update view
• UPDATE viewname SET column = value WHERE clause
• It should not contain aggregate function or distinct or group by clause
while updating views.

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Views
• e.g. to update view
• UPDATE view_customer SET phone = 102050 WHERE name = ‘ram’
• Syntax to drop view
• DROP VIEW viewname
• e.g. to drop view
• DROP VIEW view_customer

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Chapter 4 – SQL
Stored Procedure
• Stored procedure is a set of SQL • Example:
statements with an assigned
• CREATE PROCEDURE selectemp
name, which are stored in RDBMS
as a group, so it can be reused and AS
shared by multiple programs. SELECT * FROM employee
• We can also pass parameters to a GO
stored procedure, so that stored
procedure can act based on the
parameter values(s) passed. • EXEC selectemp
• Syntax:
• CREATE PROCEDURE procedurename
AS
SQL statements
GO;

• EXEC procedurename

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Chapter 4 – SQL

• Stored procedure with parameters

• CREATE PROCEDURE selectemp @job varchar(30)
AS
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE job = @job
GO;
• EXEC selectemp @job = ‘programmer’

• CREATE PROCEDURE selectemp @job varchar(30) , @salary int

AS
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE job = @job AND salary > @salary
GO;
• EXEC selectemp @job = ‘programmer’ , @salary > 25000

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Chapter 4 – SQL
QBE
• QBE (Query By Example) is developed at IBM in early 1970’s.
• It has two dimensional syntax, and queries looks like table.
• QBE queries are expressed by examples.
• QBE queries are expressed by using skeleton tables, which show
the relational schema of the database.
• Skeleton table looks like
Relation name Column1 Column2 …….. ColumnN
Tuple or row operation

• For relation college (collegeid, name), QBE is as shown below

college collegeid name

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Chapter 4 – SQL
QBE
• Use of P to get list of relation.
• P. for print command.
• Data retrieval command is P. <variable name> where variable name
is optional.
• QBE automatically eliminates duplicate values.
• To see the duplicate value, P.ALL
• QBE supported by Microsoft Access is Graphical QBE

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Chapter 4 – SQL
QBE
• Example
• employee (name, city, salary)
• To find all employee names who live in city ‘kathmandu’
employee name city salary
P. or P.ALL kathmandu
• To find entire employee relation
employee name city salary
P.
• To find employee name whose salary is greater than 15000
employee name city salary
P. > 15000
• To find all employees whose salary between 10000 and 25000
employee name city salary
P. >= 10000 AND <= 25000
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Chapter 4 – SQL
QBE
• Database Modification in QBE
• To INSERT
employee name city salary
I. Ram Pokhara 25000
• To DELETE
employee name city salary
D. Ram
• To delete city of Ram
employee name city salary
Ram D.
• To UPDATE
employee name city salary
Ram U.35000
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