CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1. Data Representation 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

As it can be seen that it starts from 1 and then goes till

1.1. Number Systems 128 from left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together giving the
Binary System final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4
+ 2 = 238
Base 2 number system
Has two possible values only (0 and 1)
Converting Denary to Binary
0 represents OFF and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
Take the value and successively divide it by 2 creating a
MSB (Most Significant Bit) table like follows:

Denary System 2 142

2 71 Remainder: 0
Base 10 number system
Has values from 0 to 9 2 35 Remainder: 1
2 17 Remainder: 1
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 8 Remainder: 1
2 4 Remainder: 0
Base 16 number system
Has values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F 2 2 Remainder: 0
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15 which 2 1 Remainder: 0
is F 0 Remainder: 1

Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
0000 0 0 divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
0001 1 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
0010 2 2 number
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0011 3 3
bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
0100 4 4 is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0101 5 5
0110 6 6 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0111 7 7
1000 8 8 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
1001 9 9 denary
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
1010 A 10
All the binary values to be merged together
1011 B 11 e.g.
1100 C 12
1101 D 13 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Denary : 2 1 15 13
1110 E 14
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1111 F 15
Final Answer: 0010000111111101

Number Conversions
Converting Binary To Hexadecimal
1.2. Converting Binary to Denary Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
Take the binary value and place it in columns of 2 raised until it reaches 4
to the power of the number of values from the right For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
starting from 0.e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
a table like this: hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

order to get the final answer Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.

iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then Logical Shifts
convert the final answer to denary
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
or the right
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to emptied is going to become 0
hexadecimal as explained above
Explaining with an example:
Addition of Binary Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
Binary values are not added the way denary values are shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two removed) - ==(if it were 2 places, 2 bits would have
because it doesn’t exist in binary. been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
1.3. Points to note: direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
0+0=0 marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1+0/0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry) Two’s complement (Binary Numbers):
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
Overflow: negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is Converting binary values to two’s complement
called overflow.
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
third position from the right.
previous part.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our
Steps to add two values (with example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
example): complement of itself.

The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 Converting negative values to two complement
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
left-hand side to match them). Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
2. Add the values as follows with the points given Make the MSB 1, if not already
above
Converting two’s complement value to denary:
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

We do it the same way as a normal value is converted ASCII uses one byte to store the value
from binary to denary; we only just replace 128 with -128 When ASCII value of a character is converted to binary, it
e.g., for 10111010 we do the: can be seen that the sixth bit changes from 1 to 0 when
going from lowercase to uppercase of a character and the
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 rest remains the same. e.g.
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System Unicode

Examples: ASCII does not contain all of the international languages,
thus Unicode is used to solve this problem
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) For the first 128 values, it is the same to ASCII
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that Unicode supports up to four bytes per character allowing
uniquely identifies a device on a network) multiple languages and more data to be stored
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory set, which is a collection of characters and the
location of the error)
corresponding binary codes that represent them
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses

Memory Dumps Sound

Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
when trying to trace errors. Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output form, it is sampled
to a printer or monitor. The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
where the amplitude is measured, however, it cannot be
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) measured precisely, so approximate values are stored

Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code How is sound recorded

Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary. The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in time intervals
values and is prone to errors. The value is converted to digital form
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a

Text series of binary digits

A series of readings gives an approximate representation
of the sound wave
1.5. ASCII
Sampling Resolution:
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
code that represent the letters, numbers and characters The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control resolution (aka bit depth)
codes Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
values amplitude of the sound
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII , “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as store the data
follows:
Sampling rate
0 is at 48
Sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken per
A is at 65
second which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
a is at 97 Using a higher sampling rate would allow more accurate
sound as less estimations will be done between samples
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Name of memory No. of

Images size Bytes
Equivalent Denary Value

1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes

Bitmap images 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
binary numbers
1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015
Color Depth bytes

The number of bits used to represent each colour is called

Calculation of file size
the colour depth.
An 8 bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
The file size of an image is calculated as: image resolution
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
A 1 bit color depth means each pixel can store 1 color
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as: sample rate
(because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being black)
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when
multiply the result by two.)
storing an image

Image Resolution 1.7. File types

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 ×
Storage of music files
3072 pixels
Communications protocol that allows electronic musical
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than
instruments to interact with each other
those with a higher resolution
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
being pixelated.
First byte is the status byte – informs the MIDI device
High resolution images use high amounts of memory as
what function to preform
compared to low resolution ones
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
(operates on 16 different channels)
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Examples of MIDI commands:
Computer Memories Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT (loudness of music)
8 bits is a byte Needs a lot of memory storage
4 bits is a nibble
MP3
Byte is used to measure memory size
Uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert
IECB System (more commonly used):
music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
Name of memory No. of This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Done using file compression algorithms which use
1 kibibyte (1KB) 210 1 024 bytes Perceptual Music Shaping
Removes sounds that human ear cannot hear properly
1 mibibyte (1MB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
1 gibibyte (1GB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes quality too much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 tibibyte (1TB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pibibyte (1PB) 250 compression algorithm
bytes
MP4
Conventional System:
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value than just sound
size Bytes
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored

Videos, could be streamed without losing any real 2. Data Transmission
discernible quality

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Transmission
JPEG is a file formats used to reduce photographic file
sizes
Data Packets
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
pixels per centimetre
Packet Structure -
When photographic file undergoes compression, file size
Header
is reduced
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
receiver
between 5 and 15
Sequence number of the packet
Size of the packet
Lossless and Lossy File Payload
Contains the actual data
Compression Trailer
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
packet
1.8. Lossless File Compression Error-Checking methods
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
when the file again is uncompressed independently from start to end and reassembled at the
Important for files where loss of data would be disastrous receiver’s computer.
(spreadsheet)
An algorithm is used to compress data Advantages Disadvantages
No data is lost No need to create a single
Packets may be lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes line of communication
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
Run-Length Encoding busy nodes time streaming

It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data Delay at the receiver while
(e.g. repeated colours in an image) High data transmission speed the packets are being re-
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first ordered
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. Easy to expand package
characters) and the second value represents the code of usage
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
character) e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 Data Transmission
98 02 99 05 100”
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
units/bits computer to printer)
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't very good for Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this, e.g. at the same time (e.g. phone conversation where only one
255 can be made the flag. Now 255 will be put before person speaks)
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on phone line)
where 255 now indicated that now the next character/set Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
of characters is approaching time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data several bits (1
Lossy File Compression byte) are sent down several wires at the same time

The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary Comparsion of Serial and Parallel data transmission
bits of data like MP3 and JPEG formats
Impossible to get original file back once compressed
Serial Parallel
Reduces file quality Better for longer distances Better for short distances
In this, resolution of the image is reduced, and colour (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
depth is reduced
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Serial Parallel
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
Used when the size of data Used when speed is
transmitted is small necessary
Slower Option Faster than Serial

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method and columns
USB consists of:
Four-wire shielded cable Checksum
Two wires used for power and earth
Two wires used in data transmission Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
Advantages Disadvantages algorithm.
Transmission rate is less than Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
Automatically detected
120 mb/sec calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is and the same algorithm used before.
incorrect connections about 5 metres The receiver would then compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
Different data transmission
request is made to re-send the data.
rates
Backwards compatible Echo Check
Industry standard
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
data back to the sender for verification.
Methods of Error Detection The sender would compare the received and original data
for errors.
2.3. Parity Checks The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
occurred when sending the data or sending the data back
Uses the number of 1-bits in a byte for verification.
Type Types -
Even - Even number of 1-bits Check Digits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) - Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 the code.
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
The MSB (Most Significant Bit) is the parity bit. As the 6372 typed as 6379
number of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. 8432 typed as 842
Limitations with Parity Checks
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore, an Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
error is not found
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the Uses acknowledgments and timeouts to make sure the
bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified user received the data
The receiver would check the data for errors; if none are
Parity Blocks found, a positive acknowledgment is sent to the sender.
However, if errors are found, a negative acknowledgment
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks will be sent, and the data will be sent again.
would be used. The sender uses timeouts to wait a pre-determined
amount of time for the acknowledgment.
If no acknowledgments are received after the timeout, the
data will be sent again to the receiver.

Encryption
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Encryption is a process of turning the data into an Increments the value of the instructions by 1 and also
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and fetches the data and instructions.
other attackers. Memory Address Register:
Stores the Address of the instruction and copies it and
2.4. Plaintext and Ciphertext sends to MDR
Memory Data Register:
Plaintext is the original data that is being sent Stores the Data from the address received from the
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption MAR and sends data to CIR
Current instructions Register:
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Data gets executed from here by sending to bios or
processed by sending to ALU
Symmetric Encryption: Accumulator:
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process,
During calculations data is temporarily held in it
The same key is used for both encrypting and
decrypting the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
available to everyone whereas the private key is only
available to the user
The receiver would have the private key and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key and the
data can be on decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

3.1. Computer Architecture & Von The Fetch-Execute Cycle

Neumann architecture
1. PC contains address of the next instruction to be
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a fetched
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
computer systems 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
The CPU consists of the following architecture: temporarily
4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing the
Logic Unit (ALU) next instruction to be fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the 6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
memory, processor and input/output devices
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like Stored program concept:
calculations
Instructions are stored in main memory
System Clock: System clock is used to produce timing
Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
signals on the control bus
the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
Busses: Carry data through components. The following
are it’s types
Memory Concept
Address bus – unidirectional A computer’s memory is divided in partitions : Each
Data Bus – bi-directional
partition consists of an address and its contents e.g.
Control Bus – unidirectional and bi-directional
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are
10101010 01010110
to be processed which are fetched by the CPU
\
Instruction Set:
Following registers also exist in the architecture:
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be
Program Counter:
processed by a CPU and the commands are machine code
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

integrated circuits
Factors that determine the Software produces a digital image from the electronic
form
performance of a CPU Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
converts scanned documents into a text file format
3.2. System Clock If the original document was a photo/image, then the
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
Three-dimensional Scanners
computer operations. By increasing clock speed, the
processing speed of the computer is also increased. This 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
doesn’t mean that the performance of the computer is dimensional image
increased however. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Overclocking The scanned images can be used in Computer Aided
Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to produce a working
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed model
for.
It leads to multiple issues Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

Operations become unsyncronised - (the computer would Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
frequently crash and become unstable) represent the passport pages
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU Text can be stored in ASCII format
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
Length of data buses stored as jpeg image
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the camera and compared using face recognition software
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
computer
eyes, width of nose)

Cache Barcode readers/scanners

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
-- allows faster access to CPU varying thicknesses
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance series of lines
The larger the cache memory size the better the CPU The left and right hand sides of the barcode are separate
performance using guard bars
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Cores
Light is reflected back off the barcode; dark areas
reflect little light which allows the bars to be read
More the cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
performance
Pattern is generated which is converted to digital

3.3. Input Devices Quick Response (QR) Codes

Two-dimensional Scanners: Another type of barcode is the QR codes

Made up of a matrix of filled in dark squares on a light
Used to input hard-copy documents background
The image is converted into an electronic form which can Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
be stored in the computer Advantages of QR codes:
Document is placed on a glass panel No need for the user to write down website address
A bright light illuminates the document QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. And image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
Controlled by microprocessor which automatically adjusts
The lens focuses the document image
the shutter speed, focus the image, etc.
The focused image now falls onto a charge couple
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
device (CCD) which consists of a numbers of
a light sensitive cell
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Cell is made up of pixels Light sensor sends data to the ADC

Number of pixels determines size of the file Digitises data and sent to the microprocessor
Microprocessor samples data every minute
Keyboards If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Connected to computer with a USB connection or by
Lamp switched on
wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital signal 3.4. Output Devices
Slow method
Prone to errors Inkjet Printers

Pointing devices Used to print one-off pictures and documents

Mouse/trackball 1. Data from document sent to printer driver

Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by USB port 2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct format
Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement 3. Check made by printer driver that chosen printer is
available
Microphones 4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary memory
(printer buffer)
Used to input sound to a computer
5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if paper is
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates
available in paper tray
producing an electric signal
6. Print head moves across paper printing text/image,
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
four ink colours sprayed in exact amount
digital values and stored in computer
7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed
Voice recognition, voice is detected and converted into
8. Repeated until buffer is empty
digital
9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt to the
Touchscreens processor (request for more data to be sent)

Capacitive (medium cost tech) Laser Printers

Made up of many layers of glass
Used to print flyers, high quality
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
When top layer of glass is touched, electric current
produce text and images
changes
Prints the whole page in one go
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched is
determined by an on-board microprocessor 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
Infra-red heat (expensive) 2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum
Use glass as the screen material rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it removing
Needs warm object to carry an input operation the positive charge leaves negatively charged areas
Infra-red optical (expensive) which match the text/image
Uses glass as screen material 3. Drum is then coated with positively charged toner, it
Uses an array of sensors (grid form) only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
touched 5. Toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce
Resistive (inexpensive) copy of page
Upper layer of polyester, bottom layer of glass 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
bottom layer complete a circuit 7. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the
Signals are then sent out which are interpreted by a drum, ready to print next page
microprocessor, determine where screen was
touched 3D Printers

Sensors Used for models of cars

Produce solid objects that work
Devices which read or measure physical properties Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Data needs to be converted to digital powder
Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) converts physical A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
values into digital
2D and 3D Cutters
Control of Street Lighting­­
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal, metal, wood coated mirrors; these reflect the light back at different
wavelengths
Actuators When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green and blue
Used in many control applications involving sensors and
These three different light pass through three LCD
devices (ADC and DAC)
screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
Loudspeakers/Headphones millions of pixels in grayscale
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
DAC then through amplifier and then emerges from Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
loudspeaker the screen
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

Front layer of monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal Display

(LCD), these tiny diodes are grouped together in threes as
pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are back lit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution), CCFL has
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
yellow tint
LEDs improve colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL Primary Memory:
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen Random Access Memory (RAM)
which supplies the light source
Features of RAM
Light Projectors: Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off)
Two common types of light projectors: Used to store; data, files
Digital Light Projector (DLP) It can be written to or read from and the contents from
LCD Projector the memory can be changed
Projectors are used to project computer output onto Larger the size of the RAM, faster the computer will
larger screens/interactive whiteboards operate
RAM never runs out of memory, continues to run slow
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually
Uses millions of micro mirrors access the hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
the number of micro mirrors and the way they are
RAM is of two types:
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the
image DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source
they are off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LCD Projectors Read Only Memory (ROM)

Older technology than DLP Features of ROM

A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM is turned off)
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Used to store start up instruction (basic input/output Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
systems) stored on remote servers
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read, cannot The same data is stored on more than one server in case
be changed of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
Secondary Storage: The following are it’s types:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) » Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
companies
of the disks (platter)
» Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
Number of read/write heads can access all of the
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
surfaces of the disk
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
a single entity
store the data
» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
environments; some data resides in the private cloud and
HDD have very slow data access compared to RAM
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from
Solid-State Drive (SSD) a public cloud storage provider
\
No moving parts and all data is received at the same time There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could
(not like HDD) be lost from the cloud storage facilities.
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
3.6. Embedded Systems
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Combination of Hardware and Software which is designed
More reliable (no moving parts)
to carry out a specific set of tasks.
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Embedded systems may contain -
Lower power consumption
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Run much cooler than HDDs
peripherals on one single chip
Very thin
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
Data access is faster than HDD
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports,
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
storage and memory
Off-Line Storage: Process of Embedded Devices -
CD/DVD Disks Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data in the Data from the user interface is also sent to the
surface of the disk microprocessor
Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data Microprocessor then sends signals to actuators which
Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from is the output
the centre of the disk to the edge Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
DVD uses Dual-Layering which increases the storage need a software update.
capacity (two individual recoding layers) Programmable devices have two methods of updating -
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading
Blu-ray Disks the update
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
Uses blue laser to carry out read and write operations
link
Wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (stores
up to five times more data than DVD) < centre>Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent systems
piracy and copyright infringement)
Advantages Disadvantages
Used as back-up systems
Small in size, therefore can
Can be difficult to upgrade
USB Flash Memories easily fit into devices
The interface can be
Very small, lightweight suitable from transferring files Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Troubleshooting is a
Solid state so need to be treated with care Requires very little power
specialist’s job
Cloud Storage:
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Advantages Disadvantages Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated

Often thrown away as difficult by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Very fast reaction to changing Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
to upgrade and faults are
input IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
harder to find
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated
are thrown away
by colons (e.g.,
Any computerised system is 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
Applications of Embedded devices - Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
GPS systems Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
Security Systems uses a 128-bit address.
Vending Machines Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion
Washing Machines addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
Oven undecillion addresses.
Microwave Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated using
DHCP or manually, while IPv6 addresses are primarily
assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.
Network Hardware
Routers
3.7. Network Interface Card (NIC)
Router functionality:
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to A router is a networking device that directs data
connect to a network (such as the internet packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
Media Access Control (MAC) Address transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown as six A router examines the destination IP address of
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the incoming data packets.
manufacturer’s code and the second half shows the device It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the
serial number. next router on the path to the destination.
The router forwards the data packet to the
These do not change and are mostly constant for every appropriate next hop.
device Router's role in IP address assignment:
there are two types of MAC address: the Universally A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Administered MAC Address (LAA) devices on a local network.
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
The only differences between the two types are UAA is made
predefined range to connected devices.
Universally and cannot be changed, but it is opposite for LAA
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
and simplifies network management.
IP Addresses Connecting a local network to the internet:
A router serves as the gateway between a local
IP address allocation: network and the internet.
IP addresses are allocated by the network. It connects the local network to an internet service
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. provider (ISP) network.
Static IP addresses: The router receives data packets from devices on the
Assigned manually to a device. local network and forwards them to the internet.
Does not change over time. It also receives incoming data packets from the
Dynamic IP addresses: internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host on the local network.
Configuration Protocol) server.
Changes periodically or when the device connects to a
different network. 4. Operating Systems
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Widely used protocol. Operating Systems are designed to establish
communication between the user and the computer
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Functions of a typical operating system -

Providing HCI Programming Languages,
Multitasking
Memory Management Translators and IDEs
Managing files
Management of user accounts Computers can only understand machine code therefore
Hardware management translators are needed
Platform for running application software
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu and Pointing Devices High-Level Languages

Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI Easier to read and understand as the language is closer
to human language
Easier to write in a shorter time
Easier to debug at the development stage
Easier to maintain once in use

Low-Level Languages

Refer to machine code

Binary instructions that the computer understands

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -

Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Security Management - Providing security features such
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on Assembly Language
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Few programmers use assembly language to -
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
Make use of special hardware
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Renaming
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
and many more functions
Write code that runs very quickly
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple 4.2. Translators
users where each individually customize their account.
Compiler
4.1. Running of Applications
Translates a program written in high-level language into
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer) machine code
through the bootstrap loader. Used without compiler
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer Executable file of machine code produced
the location of the OS in the storage. One high-level language translated into several machine
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware code instructions
Used for general use
Interrupts
Interpreter

Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
doing and service a task No executable file of machine code produced
Ensures important tasks are dealt on priority basis One high-level language program statement may require
Can be a software or a hardware interrupt several machine code instructions to be executed
Can be generated by peripherals like keyboard & mouse Interpreted programs cannot be used without interpreter
Different interrupts have different levels of priority Used when program is being developed
After interrupt is dealt with previous process continues
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Assembler Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into

a single program, allowing for the use of separately
Translates a low-level language program into machine written code modules in the final program.
code Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Executable file of machine code produced communicate with a computer's operating system,
One low-level language translated into one machine code without which a device like a printer would be unable to
instructions work.
Can be used without assembler Operating system: Software that manages basic
Used for general use computer functions such as input/output operations,
program loading and running, and security management,
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) making computers more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manage, maintain, and
An IDE would usually have these features -
control computer resources by carrying out specific tasks,
Code Editor
such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
Translator
management, and security.
Debugger
Error Reports
Application Software:
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Auto-Documenter Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
Pretty Printing documents including creating, editing, and formatting text
with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and

SOFTWARE importing images.

Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
4.3. Types of Softwares: each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can carry out calculations using
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility formulas, produce graphs, and do modeling and "what if"
programs and device drivers calculations.
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
processor etc. manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
hold records and fields. Provides the ability to query and
System Software: report on data, as well as add, delete, and modify records
in a table.
these are a set of programs which control and manage Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
operations of hardware interface with sensors and allow a computer or
gives a platform for other softwares to run microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
it is required to allow hardware and software to run control applications by comparing sensor data with stored
without problems data and altering process parameters accordingly.
provides a human computer interface (HCI) to the user Apps: A type of software designed to run on mobile
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources phones or tablets, which are downloaded from an "App
Store" and range from games to sophisticated software
Application Software: such as phone banking. Common examples include video
and music streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
computer’s resources users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
may be a single program (for example, NotePad) or a including changing color, brightness, contrast, applying
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) filters and other enhancements, and creating transitions
user can execute the software as and when they require between clips.
and is mostly not automatic
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap
Examples graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines,
System Software: curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.

Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine

code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform Utility Software
tasks without re-compilation.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Computer users have access to utility programs as part of locally backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote
system software backup on cloud storage.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
background without user input Security Software
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Security software is a utility software that manages
file compression and management software, backup access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
software, security tools, and screensavers. such as virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
4.4. Virus Checker / Anti Virus software prevent unauthorized access.
Security software uses encryption and decryption to
Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
protecting computers from malware. decryption key.
They should be kept up to date and run in the background It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
to maintain their effectiveness. and prevent malicious software from installing.
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
of known viruses.
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that Screensavers
are not yet on the database.
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic Screensavers display moving and still images on the
deletion or for the user to decide. monitor screen after a period of computer inactivity.
Anti-virus software must be kept up to date as new They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
viruses are constantly discovered. from 'phosphor burn'.
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
dormant viruses. device and as a part of computer security system.
They are used to automatically log out the user after a
Disk Defragmenting Software certain period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
Defragmentation software is used to rearrange the blocks virus scans and distributed computing applications.
of data on a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in
contiguous sectors, reducing head movements and Device Drivers
improving data access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to understood by the hardware device they are associated
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several with.
movements to find the data. Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
When a file is deleted or extended, the vacant sectors are cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
not filled up straight away by new data, causing the files to by the operating system.
become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
A disk defragmenter rearranges the blocks of data to vendor id (VID), product id (PID) and unique serial number
store files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, that allow the operating system to identify the device.
allowing for faster data access and retrieval. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
The defragmentation process can free up previously different devices with the same serial number were
occupied sectors and leave some tracks empty. plugged into a computer at the same time.

Backup Software
5. The Internet
Backup software is a utility software that helps in creating
and managing backup copies of data files and programs. 5.1. The Internet and the World Wide
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but using operating system Web
backup utilities is also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
files if changes have been made to them. Uses transmission protocols
Collection of webpages and
For total security, there could be three versions of a file: such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
the current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a Protocols)
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Internet World Wide Web (WWW) Session Cookie Persistent Cookie

Allows the user to Remembers the user’s login in
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that Temporary cookies which are
communicate with other details so the user doesn’t
are written using Hypertext stored in the RAM till the
users via chat, email, calling have to log in every time they
Mark-up Language (HTML) browser is closed.
and more visit a website
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the computer until their expiry
information on the user
Devices location of the web pages date or the user deletes them
Web pages can be accessed A good example is the virtual
by web browsers shopping basket on e-
commerce websites
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)

URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The Digital Currency
typical format of URLs is -
Form of payment to pay for goods and services
protocol://website address/path/file name A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
The website address would contain -
centralised banking systems.
domain host (www)
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
domain name (website name)
transactions.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
Blockchain Network
The path would usually become the le directory roots. for
example, https://www.igcse.com/computer-science
The /computer-science is the file name 5.2. Blockchain Network

HTTP and HTTPS Blockchain Network involves several interconnected

computers where the transaction data is stored
HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol and HTTPS Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be
stands for Hypertext transfer protocol secure sent to all the computers and the data can’t be changed
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting without the consent of all the network members
data.
How do blockchains work
Web Browsers Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created.
The block would contain -
It is software used to connect to the internet
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount
It translates the HTML code
of money and more
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Offers additional features like search history & ad
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous
blockers
block in the chain
Retrieval and Location of web pages

Browser sends URL to the domain name server (DNS)

DNS stores index and matches with the IP
IP is sent to browser if it exists
Browser sends request to IP of webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies

Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t
They are used to track data about the users and autofill point to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -
Cyber Security
Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Brute Force Attack: Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
certain amount of money is paid
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Adware - Displays unwanted ads on user’s screen
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Effect: legitimate software
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
cards, passwords and more) user to the attacker
To remove risk: Worms - Programs that can replicate itself with the
Use stronger passwords with more characters and intention of corrupting the entire network instead of
symbols the computer alone

Data Interception: Phishing

This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
wireless transmission line into giving out their information.
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless To remove risk:
internet connections illegally Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine Use anti-phishing tools
packets sent over a line, all the data collected is sent Block pop-up ads
back to the attacker Have an up-to-date browser
Effect:
Can cause a computer to crash Pharming
Can delete or corrupt files/data
To remove risk: The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer
Install anti-virus software which redirects the user to fake websites
Don’t use software from unknown sources Effect:
Be careful when opening emails from unknown User gives out login details and other personal details
To remove risk:
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) Using anti-virus software
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Making sure that the green padlock is present in the
network URL bar
Usually temporary but may be damaging
Attacker may be able to prevent user from: Social Engineering
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Accessing online services giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing that your account has been hacked)
Hacking
5.3. Keeping data safe from threats
The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Effect: Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Leads to identity theft, gaining personal information different people (for example - Only doctors can have
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted access to patient’s data)
To remove risk: Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks
Firewalls Authentication - User proving who they are. Most
Strong passwords/ user IDs common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
Use of anti-hacking software biometrics and more)
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer system to steal data Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Cracking is where someone edits a program code, Biometric
Benefits Drawbacks
malicious Methods
Most development Intrusive as used to
Malware
Method, Very easy to identify criminals,
Fingerprint
Stands for Malicious Software, A few examples are - use, Requires very low Can’t be used if the
Scans
Virus - Program that can replicate itself with the storage to store the finger gets dirty or
intention of deleting or corrupting files, cause biometric data damaged (e.g. cuts)
computer malfunction
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Biometric The microprocessor processes the data and takes the

Benefits Drawbacks
Methods necessary decisions based on it’s program
Very intrusive, Takes The actions are then executed by the actuators
Very high accuracy, (Motors, wheels and so on)
longer to verify,
Retina Scan Impossible to replicate
Expensive to install Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
a person’s retina
and set up
Advantages Disadvantages
Can’t identify if there
Expensive to set up and
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the Faster and Safer
maintain
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
or person’s age. Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems
quickly are prone to attacks
Voices can be
Over-Reliance on automated
recorded and used for
verification, low Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans
Non-Intrusive method, to lose skills
accuracy, illnesses
Voice verification is done Higher Productivity and
such as cold or cough
Recognition quickly and relatively Efficiency
can affect a person’s
cheaper
voice making
identification
impossible. Robotics
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Robotics is the branch of computer science that brings
authentication to prove who the user is together the design, construction and the operation of
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain robots.
patches which improve device security Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong A robot may not injure a human through action or
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and inaction
the tone would also seem urgent A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the comes into conflict with Law 1
traffic between a network and the user’s computer a robot must protect itself, unless this conflicts with
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the law 1.
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - Characteristics of a robot -
Filtering Internet traffic Ability to sense their surroundings
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential Have a degree of movement
Blocking access to certain websites Programmable
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy server
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI, THEY TEND TO DO
keeping the web server safe
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
Acts as a firewall as well.
CHARACTERISTICS
Privacy Settings - Used to limit on who can access and see
user’s profile Types of Robots -
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while Independent - Have no human intervention, They can
communicating with other users on the internet. completely replace humans
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an

6. Automated and Emerging interface, can supplement but can’t completely

replace humans

Technologies Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

Advantages Disadvantages
6.1. Automated Systems Robots can work 24/7
Robots can find it difficult to
do non-standard tasks
Automated Systems are a combination of software and Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
hardware that are designed to function without any conditions unemployment
human intervention. They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
Process of Automated Systems - long run replace humans in some task
Inputs are taken by sensors and they are sent to the
They have high productivity Expensive to install and
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
and are more consistent maintain in the short run
has to go through Analouge- to-Digital Converter
(ADC)
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Advantages Disadvantages They have many applications including chatbots,

Robots have the risk of getting diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
hacked and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Artificial Intelligence Advantages Disadvantages

Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
are very high
AI is the branch of computer science dealing with the
simulation of intelligent human behaviour Can only rely on the
High Accuracy and Consistent
Types of AI - information in the system
Narrow AI - Machine has superior performance to a Tend to give cold responses
High response times
human when doing one specific task sometimes
General AI - Machine is similar to a human when doing
one specific task Machine Learning - Subset of AI in which machines are
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a trained to learn from their past experiences.
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI - Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
Collection of Data and Rules AI Machine Learning
Ability to Reason Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
Ability to learn and adapt decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
6.3. Types of AI The aim is to make machines
The aim is to build machines
learn through data
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human that think like humans
acquisitions
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questioning using knowledge and inference.