GANPAT UNIVERSITY

U. V. PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: 2ES103 BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING (BEE)
Understanding Current

This flow of electrical charge is referred to as electric current. There are two types of current

DIRECT CURRENT
DC is current that flows in one direction with a
constant voltage polarity while AC is current that
changes direction periodically along with its voltage
ALTERNATE CURRENT polarity.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Where is electricity used ???

• In our house….
• T.V.
• Refrigerator
• Oven
• Mobile Phone
• Laptop
• Computers
• AC
• Fans, tube lights…..
• In industries….

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

CHAPTER 5: AC CIRCUITS
• Representation of sinusoidal waveforms,
• peak and rms values,
• phasor representation,
• real power, reactive power,
• apparent power, power factor.
• Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL,
RC, RLC combinations (Series and parallel), resonance.
• Three phase balanced circuits, voltage and current relations in
star and delta connections, measurement of power in 3-phase
circuits.
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Which book to be referred ???

B. L. Thereja, “Electrical Technology”, S.

Chand Volume-I.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

 Let’s us understand the title…
AC CIRCUITS

What is What is
A.C. ? Circuit ?
A.C. – Alternating Current
This circular path, which is always
Alternating current is an electric required to get electricity to flow and
do something useful, is called a circuit.
current which periodically reverses
A circuit is a path that starts and stops
direction and changes its magnitude at the same place, which is exactly what
continuously with time we're doing.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Representation of sinusoidal waveforms
• How does A.C.
generates ???
Alternating voltage may be
generated by rotating a coil in
a magnetic field or by rotating
a magnetic field within a
stationary coil.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents
• Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform
magnetic field, with an angular velocity of ω radian/second, as shown
in Fig.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Let time be measured from the X-axis.
• Maximum flux ∅𝑚 is linked with the coil, when its plane coincides with the X-
axis.
• In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ = ωt.
• In this deflected position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the
plane of the coil, is ∅ = ∅𝑚 cos ωt.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time are N ∅ = ∅𝑚 N cos ωt.

• According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in

the coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil.

𝑑
• e=- (N ∅)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
= -N (∅𝑚 N cos ωt) volt
𝑑𝑡

= - N∅𝑚 ω (- sin ωt) volt

= ∅𝒎 Nω(sin ωt) volt

1
= ∅𝒎 Nω(sin θ) volt

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• When the coil has turned through 90° i.e. when θ = 90 °,
then sin θ = 1, hence e has maximum value, say 𝐸𝑚 .
Therefore, from Eq. (1) we get
𝑬𝒎 = ωN ∅𝒎 = ωN𝑩𝒎 A = 2 π f N 𝑩𝒎 A volt 2

• 𝐵𝑚 = maximum flux density in Wb/𝒎𝟐

• A = area of the coil in 𝒎𝟐
• f = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/second
Substituting this value of 𝐸𝑚 in Eq. (1), we get
• e = 𝐸𝑚 sin θ = 𝐸𝑚 sin ωt
• Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is i = 𝐼𝑚 sin ωt

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers to a
time-varying waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid better
known as a Sinusoidal Waveform.

• Sinusoidal waveforms are more generally called by their short description as Sine
Waves. Sine waves are by far one of the most important types of AC waveform used in
electrical engineering.

• The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or
current against time is called an AC Waveform.

• An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity every half cycle alternating between
a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value respectively with regards to
time with a common example of this being the domestic mains voltage supply we use in
our homes.
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Let’s us get familiarize with few terms…
1) CYCLE: One complete set of positive and negative values of
alternating quantity is known as cycle.
Positive
half

Negative
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half
Therefore,
1 positive half + 1 negative half = 1 complete “CYCLE”
• A cycle may also be sometimes specified in terms of angular measure.
In that case, one complete cycle is said to spread over 360o or 2π
radians.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

2) FREQUENCY: The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of
the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
Hertz (Hz) = One hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
Example: If an alternating current is said to have a frequency of 3 Hz (see
diagram below), that indicates its waveform repeats 3 times in 1 second.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

3) TIME PERIOD: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete
one cycle is called its time period T.

For example, a 50-Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.

The frequency of Alternating Current in India is 50 Hz.

Calculate time period for Alternating current in India for 50 Hz

Time Period = 1/f

= 1/50 seconds

= 0.02 seconds
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
4) AMPLITUDE: The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating
quantity is known as its amplitude.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

5) PHASE: By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of the
time period of that alternating current which has elapsed since the current
last passed through the zero position of reference.

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• For example, the phase of current at point A is T/4 second, where T is time period or expressed
in terms of angle, it is π/2 radians

• Similarly, the phase of the rotating coil at the instant ωt which is, therefore, called its phase
angle.

6) Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at a particular

instant is called Instantaneous value.

7) Waveform: The graph of instantaneous values plotted of an alternating quantity plotted
against time is called waveform.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

8) PHASE DIFFERENCE: Now, consider three similar single-turn coils
displaced from each other by angles α and β and rotating in a uniform
magnetic field with the same angular velocity [Fig. 11.13 (a)].

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• In this case, the value of induced e.m.fs. in the three coils are the same,
but there is one important difference.
• The e.m.fs. in these coils do not reach their maximum or zero values
simultaneously but one after another.
• It is seen that curves B and C are displaced from curve A and angles β and
(α + β) respectively. Hence, it means that phase difference between A and
B is β and between B and C is α but between A and C is (α + β).
• The statement, however, does not give indication as to which e.m.f.
reaches its maximum value first.
• This deficiency is supplied by using the terms ‘lag’ or ‘lead’.
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum (or zero)
value earlier as compared to the other quantity.
• Similarly, a lagging alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum
or zero value later than the other quantity.
• For example, in Fig. 11.13 (b), B lags behind A by β and C lags behind A by
(α + β) because they reach their maximum values later.

• The three equations for the instantaneous induced e.m.fs. are

• 𝑒𝐴 = 𝐸𝑚 sin ωt ...reference quantity
• 𝑒𝐵 = 𝐸𝑚 sin (ωt − β)
• 𝑒𝐶 = 𝐸𝑚 sin [ωt − (α + β)]

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
let’s write the equations for the given
waveforms

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒎 sin(ωt) = 𝑽𝒎 sinθ

𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝒎 sin(θ + 60°)

𝑽𝟑 = 𝑽𝒎 sin(θ - 60°)
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Let’s us take an example….
• The maximum values of the alternating voltage and current are 400 V and 20 A respectively in a circuit
connected to 50 Hz supply and these quantities are sinusoidal. The instantaneous values of the voltage
and current are 283 V and 10 A respectively at t = 0 both increasing positively.

(i) Write down the expression for voltage and current at time t.
Solution:
• In general, the expression for an a.c. voltage is v = Vm sin (ω t + φ) where φ is the
phase difference with respect to the point where t = 0.
• v = 283 V and 𝑉𝑚 = 400 V and t = 0
• 283 = 400 sin (ω x 0 + φ)
• Sin φ = 0.7070
• Φ = 45°
• So general expression for voltage is v = 400 sin (wt + 45°) = 400 sin (2𝜋 x 50t + 45°)
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Solution:
• In general, the expression for an a.c. voltage is i = Im sin (ω t + φ) where φ is the phase
difference with respect to the point where t = 0.
• i = 10 A and 𝐼𝑚 = 20 A and t = 0
• 10 = 20 sin (ω x 0 + φ)
• Sin φ = 0.5
• Φ = 30°
• So general expression for voltage is i = 20 sin (wt + 30°) = 20 sin (2𝜋 x 50t + 30°)

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

8) R.M.S Value - (Root Mean Square):

▪ The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same
heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating
current, the former term being used more extensively. For computing
the r.m.s. value of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents, either
mid-ordinate method or analytical method may be used, although for
symmetrical but non-sinusoidal waves, the mid-ordinate method
would be found more convenient.

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Determine RMS value by Analytical Method

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Determine RMS value by Mid-Ordinate Method

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9) AVERAGE VALUE
• The average value Ia of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any

circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same time.

• In the case of a symmetrical alternating current (i.e. one whose two half-cycles are exactly similar, whether

sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the average value over a complete cycle is zero. Hence, in their case, the average

value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous values of current over one half-cycle only.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• But in the case of an unsymmetrical alternating current (like half-wave rectified current) the average value must

always be taken over the whole cycle.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• In the case of a symmetrical alternating current (i.e. one whose two half-cycles are exactly similar, whether

sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the average value over a complete cycle is zero. Hence, in their case, the average

value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous values of current over one half-cycle only.

• But in the case of an unsymmetrical alternating current (like half-wave rectified current) the average value must
always be taken over the whole cycle.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

(i) Mid-ordinate Method:

This method may be used both for sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waves.

(ii) Analytical Method:

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10) FORM FACTOR:

11) AMPLITUDE FACTOR (Crest Factor):

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12)Phasor Diagrams
Phasor Diagrams are a graphical way of representing the magnitude and
directional relationship between two or more alternating quantities.

Sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a Phase Difference between themselves which
represents the angular difference of the two sinusoidal waveforms. Also the terms “lead” and “lag” as well as
“in-phase” and “out-of-phase” are commonly used to indicate the relationship of one waveform to the other
with the generalized sinusoidal expression given as: A(t) = Am sin(ωt ± Φ) representing the sinusoid in the
time-domain form. Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
13) Phasors

a rotating vector - called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity
that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some
point in time.

vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point known as the “point of
origin” while the arrowed end representing the quantity, freely rotates in an anti-
clockwise direction at an angular velocity, ( ω ) of one full revolution for every cycle.

This anti-clockwise rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation. Likewise, a

clockwise rotation is considered to be a negative rotation.

i
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
 Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

• phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis.

• lengths of the phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( V ) and the current, ( I ) at the
instant in time that the phasor diagram is drawn.

• current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the angle, Φ, as the two phasors rotate in
an anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, therefore the angle, Φ is also measured in the same
anticlockwise direction.
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Let’s us solve some numericals to understand more clearly…

1) An alternating current has f = 50 Hz, Peak Value = 100 A.

▪ Write the equation for instantaneous value of current, and
▪ Find the time taken to reach 80 A for 1st time ?
Solution:
Instantaneous value of current i = 𝑰𝒎 sinωt
Now ω = 2π𝑓 = 2 x 3.14 x 50 = 314 radian/seconds
∴, i = 100 sin (314)t
∴, 80 = 100 sin (314)t
Degree x π/180 = _____
∴, t = 1/314 sin−1 (0.8) = 1/314(53.13°) = 1/314 (0.9268) Radians
= 0.00295 seconds

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

A.C. through pure Resistance alone in a circuit…

• Fig. shows A.C. Circuit consisting of a pure resistor R

connected across alternating voltage

e = 𝑬𝒎 sinωt

𝒆 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏ω𝒕
• Instantaneous current i = = …..(1)
𝑹 𝑹

𝐸𝑚
• = 𝐼𝑚 (Maximum current) …..(2)
𝑅

• Substitute the value for 𝐼𝑚 from (2) in (1)

∴, i = 𝑰𝒎 sinωt
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• For a purely resistive circuit, both
voltage and current are in phase
• They may have different peak value but
they attain 0 and maximum value at
same time.
• The phasor diagram shows the phasor i
and v. Both are in phase (phase
Waveforms of i and e
difference between v and i is 0°)

𝑽𝑹 = IR

i = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕

Phasor
Prepared Diagrams
by: Prof. Anvi J.of i and
Gajjar, EED e
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 𝐸 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠2ω𝑡
Average value of fluctuation part of power 𝑚 𝑚 = 0 over a complete cycle.
2
Hence, we conclude that “in a purely resistive A.C. circuit power is never 0”.

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Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
A.C. through purely Inductive circuit…
• The circuit containing pure inductance is shown:

• Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is

given by the equation:

• As a result, an alternating current i flows through

the inductance which induces an emf in it. The
equation is shown below:

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• The emf which is induced in the circuit is equal and opposite to the applied
voltage. Hence, the equation becomes,

• Putting the value of e in equation (2) we will get the equation as

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Integrating both sides of the equation (3), we will get

• where, XL = ω L is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure

inductance and is called inductive reactance.
• The value of current will be maximum when sin (ωt – π/2) = 1
• Therefore,

• Substituting this value in Im from the equation (5) and putting it in equation (4) we will get

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Phasor diagram and waveforms

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A.C. through purely Capacitive circuit…

• The circuit containing pure capacitance is shown:

• Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is

given by the equation:

• Charge of the capacitor at any instant of time is given as:

• Current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation:

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• Putting the value of q from the equation (2) in equation (3) we will get

• Now, putting the value of v from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we will get

• Where Xc = 1/ωC is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure capacitor
and is called Capacitive Reactance.
• The value of current will be maximum when sin(ωt + π/2) = 1. Therefore, the value of maximum
current Im will be given as:

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Substituting the value of Im in the equation (4) we will get:

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Real, Reactive & Apparent Power
• Real Power (*ACTIVE POWER): The power dissipated by a load is referred to
as true power. True power is symbolized by the letter P and is measured in the unit
of Watts (W).

• Reactive Power: Power merely absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive
properties is referred to as reactive power. Reactive power is symbolized by the
letter Q and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR).

• Apparent Power: Total power in an AC circuit, both dissipated and

absorbed/returned is referred to as apparent power. Apparent power is symbolized
by the letter S and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA).
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
These three types of power are trigonometrically related to one another. In a right
triangle, P = adjacent length, Q = opposite length, and S = hypotenuse length. The
opposite angle is equal to the circuit’s impedance (Z) phase angle.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Power Factor
• Power factor is an expression of energy efficiency. It is usually expressed
as a percentage—and the lower the percentage, the less efficient power
usage is.

• Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts

(kW), to apparent power, measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).

𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 (𝐾𝑊)

• p.f. = cosØ =
𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐴𝑅𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 (𝐾𝑉𝐴)

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Series R-L Circuit
• Consider a circuit consisting of R (resistor) & Inductive coil having resistance of R ohms and
Inductance of L henry in series across A.C. source.

• Let, V = rms value of applied voltage

• 𝑉𝑅 = voltage across the resistance R
• 𝑉𝐿 = voltage across the inductance L
• I = rms value of current flowing in the circuit
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• Before drawing the phasor diagram of series RL circuit, one should know the
relationship between voltage and current in case of resistor and inductor.
1. Resistor
In case of resistor, the voltage and the current are in same phase or we can say that the phase
angle difference between voltage and current is zero.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Inductor
In inductor, the voltage and the current are not in phase. The voltage leads that of current by
90o or in other words, voltage attains its maximum and zero value 90o before the current
attains it.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• V = V + j0 (Voltage is reference)

• I = I + j0 (current is reference)

• Since in R-L series circuit, I remains same so its taken as reference !!!

• V = vector sum of 𝑉𝑅 & 𝑉𝐿

• V = 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝑳

= (IR + j0) + (0 + jI𝑋𝐿 )

𝑽𝑳 =I 𝑋𝐿
= I(R + j 𝑋𝐿 )
Ø
V = IZ (Z = resistance + reactance)
𝑽𝑹 =IR I
XL = 2 πFL Ω = ωL {ω = 2 πF}

XC= 1/2 πFC Ω = 1/ ωC Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Z (magnitude) = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2

• R = Z cosØ and 𝑋𝐿 = Z sinØ

−1 𝑋𝐿
• Ø = tan ( )
𝑅

• I lags the applied voltage by angle Ø

• Z (magnitude) = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = impedance of the circuit

• V = IZ and 𝑍 2 = (𝑅)2 + (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)2

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Series R-C Circuit
• Consider a circuit consisting of R (resistor) & capacitor of C capacitance in series across A.C.
source.
• Let, V = rms value of supply voltage
• 𝑉𝑅 = voltage across the resistance R
• 𝑉𝐶 = voltage across the capacitor C
• I = rms value of current flowing in the circuit
• Z = R + jXC

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Series R-L-C Circuit
• Consider a circuit consisting of R (resistor) Ω, a pure inductor of inductance L henry & pure
capacitor of C capacitance in series across A.C. source.
• Let, V = rms value of supply voltage
• 𝑉𝑅 = voltage across the resistance R
• 𝑉𝐶 = voltage across the capacitor C
• 𝑉𝐿 = voltage across the inductor L
• I = rms value of current flowing in the circuit

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• Case I:

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• Case II:

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• Case II:

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Let’s understand it with a example
• The potential difference across a coil is 4.5 V, when it carries a direct
current of 9 A. The same coil when carries an alternating current of
9A at 25Hz, the potential difference is 24 V. Find
1) Current
2) Power
3) Power factor when it I applied by 50 V, 50Hz supply.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Solution:
• Resistance R = V/I = 4.5/9 = 0.5 Ω
With A.C. current of 25Hz, Z = V/I = 24/9 = 2.66 Ω
Now Z = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2
2.66 = (0.5)2 +𝑋𝐿2
𝑋𝐿 = 2.62 Ω
2πFL = 2.62 Ω
Hence, L = 0.0167 Henry
At 50 Hz, 𝑋𝐿 = 2.62 x 2 (because 𝑋𝐿 = 2.62 at 25Hz and now the F = 2 x 25 Hz i.e. doubled
!!!)
𝑋𝐿 = 2.62 x 2 = 5.24 Ω
Z = (0.5)2 +(5.24)2 = 5.26 Ω
Current I = V/Z = 50/5.26 = 9.5 A
Power P = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (9.5)2 x 0.5 = 45 W.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Resonance in series R-L-C circuit

• Consider a series R-L-C circuit where a resistor of R Ω, inductor of inductance L

Henry and capacitor of capacitance C Farads across an A.C. voltage source.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• At particular frequency of supply voltage V,

𝐗𝐋 = 𝐗𝐂

𝐗𝐋 - 𝐗𝐂 = 0

• As per the equation, Z (magnitude) = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 2 − 𝑋𝐶 2 )

• So, Z = R

• The circuit when 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝐗 𝐂 and Z = R is said to be in a resonance.

• At resonance, 𝑽𝐋 = 𝑽𝐂 (cancel each other)

• V = 𝑽𝑹

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

𝐗𝐋 - 𝐗𝐂 = 0 …………………………………… (i)

𝐗 𝐋 = Inductive reactance = 2πfL

1
𝐗 𝐂 = Capacitive reactance =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Substituting the values of 𝐗 𝐋 and 𝐗 𝐂 in the eq. (i)

1
2πfL - =0
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

𝟏
f= is the resonance frequency for series RLC circuit.
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝑪

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Effect of Series Resonance:

✓ Net reactance is 0

✓ Z = R, impedance is minimum

✓I = V/Z is maximum

✓Power dissipation P = 𝐼 2 𝑅 is maximum

✓ CosØ = 1 (Ø =0°)

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
1) In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current
and the voltage are expressed as :

i (t) = 5 sin (314 t + 2 π/3) and v (t) = 15 sin (314 t + 5 π/6)

(a) What is the impedance of the circuit ?
(b) What is the value of the resistance ?
(c) What is the inductance in henrys ?
(d) What is the average power drawn by the circuit ?
(e) What is the power factor ?

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Solution:
Phase angle of current = 2 π/3 = 2 x 180°/3 = 120° and

phase angle of voltage = 5 π/6 = 5 × 180°/6 = 150°.

Also, Z = Vm/Im = 3 Ω.

Hence, Phase difference between I and V is (150° -120° = 30°) current lags behind voltage by 30°. It means that
it is an R-L circuit.

Also 314 = 2π f or f = 50 Hz.

Now, R/Z = cos 30° = 0.866;

R = 2.6 Ω ;

XL/Z = sin 30° = 0.5

So, 𝑋𝐿 = Z x sin 30 ° = 3 x 0.5 = 1.5 Ω

Now, 𝑋𝐿 = 2π f L = 314 L = 1.5 so L = 4.78 mH

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
(a) Z = 3 Ω

(b) (b) R = 2.6 Ω

(c) L = 4.78 mH

(d) P = I2 R = (5/ 2)2 × 2.6 = 32.5 W

(e) p.f. = cos 30° = 0.866 (lag).

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
2) In a particular R-L series circuit a voltage of 10 V at 50 Hz produces a current of 700 mA while the same
voltage at 75 Hz produces 500 mA.

What are the values of R and L in the circuit ?

Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
3) A two-element series circuit is connected across an a.c. source e = 200 2 sin(ωt + 20°) V.
The current in the circuit then is found to be i = 10 2 cos (314 t − 25°) A. Determine the
parameters of the circuit.
• Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
4) A resistance of 20 ohm, inductance of 0.2 H and capacitance of 150 μF are connected in
series and are fed by a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Find XL, XC, Z, Y, p.f., active power and
reactive power.
Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
5) A resistance of 20 Ω, an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 100 μF are connected

in series across 220-V, 50-Hz mains. Determine the following

(a) impedance

(b) current

(c) voltage across R, L and C

(d) power in watts and VA

(e) p.f. and angle of lag.

Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Examples:
6) A series R-L-C circuit consists of R = 1000 Ω, L = 100 mH and C = 10 picofarads. The
applied voltage across the circuit is 100 V.

(i) Find the resonant frequency of the circuit.

Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

• Methods to solve Parallel A.C. Circuits:

1) By phasor diagram method

2) By equivalent impedance method

3) By admittance Method

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
1) ADMITTANCE METHOD

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Let’s understand how to find admittance from
impedance !!!
1) Two circuits, the impedance of which are
given by 𝑍1 = 10 + j 15 and 𝑍2 = 6 − j8 𝒁𝟏
ohm are connected in parallel. Find
admittance 𝑌1 & 𝑌2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌𝑒𝑞.
1 1 𝒁𝟐
𝑌1 = =
𝑍1 10 +𝑗15
Convert 10 + j 15 into polar form
= 102 + 152 = 18.02
−1 15
= tan = 57°
10
𝑌1 = 1/18.02 ∠ 57° = 0.0055 ∠ - 57°
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
 1 1
𝑌2 = =
𝑍2 6 − 𝑗8
Convert 6 - j 8 into polar form
= 62 + 82 = 10
−1 8 𝒁𝟏
= tan (− ) = -53.129°
6
𝑌2 = 1/10 ∠ -53.129° = 0.1 ∠ 53.129°
𝑌𝑒𝑞 = 1/ 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝒁𝟐

𝑍𝑒𝑞 = Parallel combination of 𝑍1 & 𝑍2

1/ 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 1/ 𝑍1 + 1/ 𝑍2
𝑌𝑒𝑞 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
2) A capacitor is connected in parallel with a coil having L = 5.52 mH and R = 10 Ω, to
a 100-V, 50-Hz supply. Calculate the value of the capacitance for which the current taken
from the supply is in phase with voltage.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• 3) Calculate the impedance of the parallel-turned circuit as shown in Fig.
14.52 at a frequency of 500 kHz and for bandwidth of operation equal to
20 kHz. The resistance of the coil is 5 Ω.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

 3-PHASE CIRCUIT
• The system which has three phases, i.e., the current will pass through
the three wires, and there will be one neutral wire for passing the fault
current to the earth is known as the three phase system.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Difference between 1-Phase & 3-Phase…
• Single-Phase (1-Ø): The alternating quantity (V or I) alternates at
different intervals of time.
• Polyphase-Phase: more than one alternating quantity (V or I) alternates
simultaneously at different intervals of time.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• 𝒆𝑹 = 𝑬𝒎 sinωt

• 𝒆𝒀 = 𝑬𝒎 sin(ωt – 120°)
𝒆𝒀
120°

• 𝒆𝑩 = 𝑬𝒎 sin(ωt - 240°) 120° 𝒆𝑹

120°

𝒆𝑩

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

2 connection configuration of 3-Phase Circuits
• Star Connection: (denoted by Y) system of
interconnection, the starting ends or finishing ends
(similar ends) of three coils are connected
together to form the neutral point.

• is obtained by connecting together similar ends of

the three coils, either “Starting” or “Finishing”.

• The other ends are joined to the line wires.

• The common point is called the neutral or Star

Point, which is represented by N.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Delta Connection (Δ):

• delta connection consists of three-phase

windings connected end-to-end which are
120° apart from each other electrically.

• is a connection used in a three-phase

electrical system in which three elements
in series form a triangle, the supply being
input and output at the three junctions.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Let’s learn the basic definitions related to 3-ph circuits !!!

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• PHASE VOLTAGE: Voltage induced in any coil or winding. Voltage
measured between any line and neutral of supply.
𝑉𝑅𝑁 , 𝑉𝑌𝑁 & 𝑉𝑅𝑁 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ or 𝑉𝑝ℎ

• LINE VOLTAGE: Voltage measured between any two lines of supply

system (𝑉𝐿 ).
𝑉𝑅𝑌 , 𝑉𝑌𝐵 & 𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝐿

• PHASE CURRENT: Current flowing in each phase winding is called

Phase Current. (𝐼𝑝ℎ )
𝐼𝑅 , 𝐼𝑌 & 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• LINE CURRENT: Current flowing in each line is called line current.
𝐼𝐿1 , 𝐼𝐿2 & 𝐼𝐿3 = 𝐼𝐿

• BALANCED LOAD: Load will have equal current. Loads in all

phase are equal in magnitude & phase. A balanced three phase load is
one that is equally shared (balanced) across all three phases.

• UNBALANCED LOAD: An unbalanced 3 phase load is one in

which the load is not equally distributed over all the three phases.
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• BALANCED SYSTEM: The balance system is one in which the load are equally

distributed in all the three phases of the system. The magnitude of voltage remains

same in all the three phases and it is separated by an angle of 120º.

• UNBALANCED SYSTEM: In the unbalance system the magnitude of voltage in

all the three phases becomes different.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
 𝑬𝑹
𝑰𝑹
Ø
120°
𝑰𝑩 120°
Ø
120°
Ø
𝑬𝑩
𝑬𝒀
𝑰𝒀
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
 𝒀𝑹𝒀
𝑬𝑹𝑵

− 𝑬𝒀
− 𝑬𝑩

𝒀𝒀𝑩

𝑬𝑩𝑵 𝑬𝒀𝑵

− 𝑬𝑹
𝒀𝑩𝑹 Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Delta (Δ or MESH) connection

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• Line Voltage: 𝑉𝑅𝑌 , 𝑉𝑌𝐵 and 𝑉𝐵𝑅

• Phase Voltage: 𝐸𝑅 , 𝐸𝑌 and 𝐸𝐵

• Line Current: 𝐼𝐿1 , 𝐼𝐿2 and 𝐼𝐿3

• Phase Current: 𝐼𝑅 , 𝐼𝑌 and 𝐼𝐵

• Consider balanced system –

𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸𝑌 = 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝑃ℎ

𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝑅 = 𝑉𝐿

𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼𝐿3 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
 𝑽𝑹𝒀

𝑰𝑳𝟏
𝑰𝑹

Ø 30°

𝑰𝑩
Ø
Ø

𝑰𝒀
𝑽𝑩𝑹 𝑽𝒀𝑩

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Measurement of Power in 3-phase circuits
• Power generally measured with “WATTMETER”.
• 3-phase power measurement depends on type of load (balanced or
unbalanced), start or delta connected.
• Methods:
1. One Wattmeter Method
2. Three Wattmeter Method
3. Two Wattmeter Method

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Measurement of Power in 3-phase circuits
1. Two Wattmeter Method:
• Common used method to measure power of 3-ph circuits
• Uses only 2 wattmeters
• Current coils of 2 wattmeters are connected in series on any 2 lines.
• Pressure coils are connected between 2 lines and 3rd line where no
wattmeter is connected.
• Used for power measurement of 3-ph circuit irrespective of load
whether balanced or unbalanced, star or delta.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
• Phase Voltage: 𝑉𝑅𝑁 , 𝑉𝑌𝑁 and 𝑉𝐵𝑁 across load &

• Phase Current: 𝑖𝑅 , 𝑖𝑌 and 𝑖𝐵

• Total instantaneous power in load = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝑖𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑖𝐵

• Instantaneous current flowing through current coil of wattmeter 𝑊1 = 𝑖𝑅

• Instantaneous voltage across pressure coil of wattmeter 𝑊1 = 𝑒𝑅𝐵 .

• But 𝑒𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁

• Instantaneous power measured by wattmeter 𝑊1 = 𝑖𝑅 * 𝑒𝑅𝐵

= 𝑖𝑅 (𝑉𝑅𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 )

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• Instantaneous current flowing through current coil of wattmeter 𝑊2 = 𝑖𝑌

• Instantaneous voltage across pressure coil of wattmeter 𝑊2 = 𝑒𝑌𝐵 .

• But 𝑒𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁

• Instantaneous power measured by wattmeter 𝑊2 = 𝑖𝑌 * 𝑒𝑌𝐵

= 𝑖𝑌 (𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 )

• 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 𝑖𝑅 (𝑉𝑅𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 ) + 𝑖𝑌 (𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 )

= 𝑖𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑁 + 𝑖𝑌 𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 (𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑌 )

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• FOR STAR CONNECTION, apply KCL at junction
𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖 𝑌 + 𝑖𝐵 = 0
𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖 𝑌 = - 𝑖𝐵
Put value of 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑌 = - 𝑖𝐵 in equation of 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑁 + 𝑖𝑌 𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 (𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑌 )

Therefore, 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑁 + 𝑖𝑌 𝑉𝑌𝑁 - 𝑉𝐵𝑁 (- 𝑖𝐵 )
= 𝒊𝑹 𝑽𝑹𝑵 + 𝒊𝒀 𝑽𝒀𝑵 + 𝑽𝑩𝑵 𝒊𝑩
= total instantaneous power measured

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter
Method in Delta Connection

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• The instantaneous current through the coil of the wattmeter, W1 is
given by the equation:

• Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 will be:

• Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by the wattmeter,

W1 will be given as:

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

• The instantaneous current through the current coil of the Wattmeter,
W2 is given as:

The instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of

wattmeter, W2 :

• Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by Wattmeter, W2 will

be:

• Hence, to obtain the total power measured by the two wattmeter the
two equations, i.e. equation (3) and (4) has to be added.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Where P is the total power absorbed in the three loads at any instant.
The power measured by the Two Wattmeter at any instant is the instantaneous power
absorbed by the three loads connected in three phases.
In fact, this power is the average power drawn by the load since the Wattmeter reads
the average power because of the inertia of their moving system.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Measurement of power and power factor by 2
wattmeter method – balanced load

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED
Let’s do numerical based on 3-ph circuit
• 3 similar coils each of R = 28 Ohms, L = 0.7H are connected in (i) star (ii) delta. If
supply voltage is 230V, 50Hz, calculate line current, total power absorbed.

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED

 𝟑
𝟑 * 230

Prepared by: Prof. Anvi J. Gajjar, EED