Architecture of Computer System

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In
computer, the CPU executes each instruction provided to it, in a series of steps,
this series of steps is called Machine Cycle, and is repeated for each
instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching of instruction, decoding the
instruction, transferring the data, executing the instruction.
Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform
operations, which are given below:
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit
5. Control Unit

Input Unit

Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It
provides data and instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input
devices are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:
 Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.

 Convert it into machine language.

 Supply the converted data to computer system.

Output Unit

It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It

provides the results of any computation, or instructions to the outside world.
Some output devices are printers, monitor etc.
Storage Unit

This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results
before these are sent to the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:
 Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being
currently executed. It is used for temporary storage of data. The data is
lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage
memory.
 Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than
primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data. Commonly
used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit

All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU
can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers
the data from storage unit to ALU. When the operations are done, the result is
transferred back to the storage unit.

Control Unit

It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and
instructions to and from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also known as
central nervous system of the computer.
CPU

It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are
together known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. It performs
following tasks:
 It performs all operations.

 It takes all decisions.

 It controls all the units of computer.

Above figure shows the block diagram of a computer.

Logic gates
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an
electronic circuit having one or more than one input and only one output. The
relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic.
OR

o The logic gates are the main structural part of a digital system.
o Logic Gates are a block of hardware that produces signals of binary 1 or 0
when input logic requirements are satisfied.
 o Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be
described by means of algebraic expressions.
o The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR.
o The relationship between the input-output binary variables for each gate
can be represented in tabular form by a truth table.
oEach gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A and B
and one binary output variable designated by x
Types of Logic Gate
Basically, there are three types of logic gates based on their applications:

Basic Logic Gate

Universal Logic Gate
Special Purpose Logic Gate..
Basic Logic Gates
Basic Logic Gates are the sort of logic gates that perform basic logical
functions like multiplication, addition, and inversion. AND, OR, and NOT
are categorized as basic logic gates. A detailed overview of them based on
the truth table, logic symbol, etc is given below:

AND Gate
It is the two input and one output logic gate in which the output is high(1) only
when both the inputs are high(1). AND Gate is represented by the following
symbol, truth table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gate
It is the two input and one output logic gate in which the output is high(1) when
either one or both inputs are high(1). OR Gate is represented by the following
symbol, truth table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOT Gate
It is the single input and single output logic gate which complements the input.
NOT Gate is represented by the following symbol, truth table, and Logical
Expression:

Truth Table

A Y
0 1
1 0

Universal Logic Gate

NAND and NOR are termed universal logic gates as any logic gate can be made
from them. The detailed overview of universal logic gates in terms of symbol,
truth table, and boolean expressions is given below:
NAND Gate
It is the two-input and one-output logic gate in which the output is high(1) when
either one or both inputs are low(0). NAND Gate is represented by the
following symbol, truth table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR Gate
It is the two input and one output logic gate in which the output is high(1) when
both inputs are high(1). NOR Gate is represented by the following symbol, truth
table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Special Purpose Logic Gate

XOR or Ex-OR gate and XNOR or Ex-NOR are special types of gates used in
the half adder, full adder, and subtractor. The detailed overview of Special
Purpose Logic Gate in terms of symbol, truth table, and boolean expressions is
given below:

XOR or Ex-OR Gate

It is the two input and one output logic gate in which the output is high(1) when
both inputs are different. XOR or Ex-OR Gate is represented by the following
symbol, truth table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XNOR or Ex-NOR Gate

It is the two input and one output logic gate in which the output is high(1) when
both inputs are the same. XNOR or Ex-NOR Gate is represented by the
following symbol, truth table, and Logical Expression:

Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Applications of logic Gates
The range of usage of logic gates is quite extensive, however
some of its distinct applications are as follows:
1. In manufacturing more complex devices e.g. binary
counters etc.
2. In decision–making regarding automatic control of
machines and different industrial processes
3. In calculators and computers
4. In digital measuring techniques
5. In digital processing of communications
6. In musical instruments, games and different domestic
appliances

What is Boolean Algebra?

Boolean algebra works on logic instead of numbers. It recognizes
only two binary values of 0 and 1. These digits hold values of:-
 True/False
 Open/Close
 Yes/No

Boolean Algebra Operations

The basic operations of Boolean algebra are as follows:

 Conjunction or AND operation

 Disjunction or OR operation
  Negation or Not operation

Boolean Algebra Rules

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.

 Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0 for
LOW.
 The complement of a variable is represented by an overbar.
 OR-ing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between them. For
example, the OR-ing of A, B, and C is represented as A + B + C.
  Logical AND-ing of the two or more variables is represented by writing a dot
between them, such as A.B.C. Sometimes, the dot may be omitted like ABC

. Laws of Boolean Algebra

There are six types of Boolean algebra laws. They are:

 Commutative law
 Associative law
 Distributive law
 AND law
 OR law
 Inversion law

Those six laws are explained in detail here.

Commutative Law
Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to
as a commutative operation. Commutative law states that changing the
sequence of the variables does not have any effect on the output of a
logic circuit.

 A. B = B. A
 A+B=B+A

Associative Law
It states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is
irrelevant as their effect is the same.

 ( A. B ). C = A . ( B . C )
 ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C)

Distributive Law
Distributive law states the following conditions:

 A. ( B + C) = (A. B) + (A. C)
 A + (B. C) = (A + B) . ( A + C)
AND Law
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called AND laws.

 A .0 = 0
 A.1=A
 A. A = A


OR Law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called OR laws.

 A +0=A
 A+1=1
 A+A=A

Inversion Law
In Boolean algebra, the inversion law states that double inversion of
variable results in the original variable itself.

Boolean Algebra Theorems

The two important theorems which are extremely used in Boolean algebra
are De Morgan’s First law and De Morgan’s second law. These two
theorems are used to change the Boolean expression. This theorem
basically helps to reduce the given Boolean expression in the simplified
form. These two De Morgan’s laws are used to change the expression
from one form to another form. Now, let us discuss these two theorems in
detail.

 De Morgan’s First Law:

 De Morgan’s First Law states that (A.B)’ = A’+B’.
 The first law states that the complement of the product of the
variables is equal to the sum of their individual complements of a
variable.
 The truth table that shows the verification of De Morgan’s First law
is given as follows:


 The last two columns show that (A.B)’ = A’+B’.

 Hence, De Morgan’s First Law is proved.
 De Morgan’s Second Law:
 De Morgan’s Second law states that (A+B)’ = A’. B’.
 The second law states that the complement of the sum of variables
is equal to the product of their individual complements of a variable.
 The following truth table shows the proof for De Morgan’s second
law.


 The last two columns show that (A+B)’ = A’. B’.

 Hence, De Morgan’s second law is proved.

The Sum of Product Form
In the sum of the product form of representation, The product num
is logical and operation of the different input variables where the
variables could be in the true form or in the complemented form.
Example:
A+ B̅.C + A.C
as we can see in above example the product terms(A , B̅.C , A.C)
which are created by multiplying input variables are are summed
with each other .

Writing Boolean Expression for Given Truth Table in SOP Form

Suppose following is the truth table for an electronic circuit:
The SOP form is written when the function if high. i.e we will take
conditions only in which the output is one. In given truth table the
columns with F = 1 are the rows with high output. Now we will write
function in the form of given variables which are A, B and C. If we
have 1 in the cell of given variable we will write it as it is , and if we
have 0 in the given cell then we will write it’s complement.
F = Ā.B.C̅ + A.B̅.C̅ + A.B̅.C + A.B.C
Product of Sum (POS)
A canonical product of sum is a boolean expression that entirely consists
of maxterms. The Boolean function F is defined on two variables X and Y.
The X and Y are the inputs of the boolean function F whose output is true
when only one of the inputs is set to true. The truth table for Boolean
expression F is as follows:

In our minterm and maxterm section, we learned about how we can form the
maxterm from the variable's value. A column will be added for the maxterm in
the above table. The complement of the variables is taken whose value is 0, and
the variables whose value is 1 will remain the same.
Now, we will multiply all the minterms for which the output is false to find
the desired canonical POS(Product of sum) expression.
F=(X'+Y').(X+Y)

Converting an POS Expression into a Truth Table

We can display any product-of-sum term in the form of a truth
table as each input combination that produces a logic “0” output
is an OR or sum term as shown below.
Consider the following product of sum expression:
Q = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

We can now draw up the truth table for the above expression to
show a list of all the possible input combinations
for A, B and C which will result in an output “0”.
Product-of-Sum Example
The following Boolean Algebra expression is given as:
Q = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
1. Use a truth table to show all the possible combinations of input
conditions that will produces a “0” output.
2. Draw a logic gate diagram for the POS expression.

1. Truth Table
1. Converting Boolean Expression to Logic
Circuit
The simplest way to convert a Boolean expression into a logical
circuit is to follow the reverse approach in which we start from the
output of the Boolean expression and reach towards the input.
Example 1
Realize the Boolean Expression BC + A + (A + C) using AOI logic
Solution
To realize this using the AOI logic gates, we will use the reverse
approach.
Step 1:
Our expression BC + A + (A+C) is the summation of three terms BC,
A and, (A+C), thus a 3-input OR Gate must have been used to obtain
the expression as given :0

Step 2:
Now, BC and (A + C) both are inverted in nature, so they must have
been inverted using a NOT Gate earlier. BC must have been
obtained by inverting the input BC and (A + C) must have been
obtained by inverting the input (A + C) both using the NOT Gate.
Step 3:
Moving further, in the reverse direction we see, BC must have been
an output of 2-input AND Gate with inputs as B and C. Likewise, (A +
C) must have been obtained as the output of 2-input OR gate with A
and C as the inputs.
So, Final Logic Diagram for above given Boolean expression can be
drawn as,

2. Converting Logic Diagrams into Boolean

Expressions
The easiest way to obtain the Boolean Expression from any logic
circuit is to follow the forward propagation approach. In this, we
start from the input side and move ahead until the output is
reached. While moving from the input side to the output side, we
continue evaluating the output of intermediate logic gates.
Example 2
Find out the Boolean Expression for Logic Diagram given below and
simplify the output in the minimal expression, also implement the
simplified expression using the AOI logic
Solution

Since, we have Y = (A+AB). (B+BC). (C+AB), now we have to

minimize it.
 Therefore, (A+AB). (B+BC). (C+AB)
= A (1 + B). B (1 +C). (C+AB)
= A. B. (C+AB) [Since, 1+B =1 and 1+C =1]
= AB (1 + C)
= AB
Therefore, Y=AB is the minimal expression. This can be
implemented using a 2-input AND Gate having inputs A and B as:

Introduction of K-Map (Karnaugh Map)

In many digital circuits and practical problems, we need to find
expressions with minimum variables. We can minimize Boolean
expressions of 3, 4 variables very easily using K-map without using
any Boolean algebra theorems.
K-map can take two forms:
1. Sum of product (SOP)
2. Product of Sum (POS)
According to the need of problem. K-map is a table-like
representation, but it gives more information than the TABLE. We
fill a grid of the K-map with 0’s and 1’s then solve it by making
groups.
Steps to Solve Expression using K-map
1. Select the K-map according to the number of variables.
2. Identify minterms or maxterms as given in the problem.
3. For SOP put 1’s in blocks of K-map respective to the
minterms (0’s elsewhere).
4. For POS put 0’s in blocks of K-map respective to the max
terms (1’s elsewhere).
5. Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of
two like 2,4,8 ..(except 1) and try to cover as many
elements as you can in one group.
 6. From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and
sum them up for SOP form.
2 Variable K-map
There is a total of 4 variables in a 2-variable K-map. There are two variables in the 2-variable
K-map. The following figure shows the structure of the 2-variable K-map:

3-variable K-map
The 3-variable K-map is represented as an array of eight cells. In this
case, we used A, B, and C for the variable. We can use any letter for the
names of the variables. The binary values of variables A and B are along
the left side, and the values of C are across the top. The value of the given
cell is the binary values of A and B at left side in the same row combined
with the value of C at the top in the same column. For example, the cell in
the upper left corner has a binary value of 000, and the cell in the lower
right corner has a binary value of 101.
The 4-Variable Karnaugh Map
The 4-variable K-map is represented as an array of 16 cells. Binary values
of A and B are along the left side, and the values of C and D are across the
top. The value of the given cell is the binary values of A and B at left side
in the same row combined with the binary values of C and D at the top in
the same column. For example, the cell in the upper right corner has a
binary value of 0010, and the cell in the lower right corner has a binary
value of 1010