GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS • Direction of Twist• rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left

or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to
ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

Two General Characteristics to be considered Regarding Ballistics Examination: • Pitch of Rifling • it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It
refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a
• Class Characteristics - are those characteristics which are determinable prior or complete turn inside the barrel.
before the manufacture of the firearm. These serve as basis to identify a certain
class or group of firearms. Depth of the Grooves • the groove's depth if measured on a radius of the bore.
Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the height of
- Individual Characteristics - are those characteristics which are determinable only the lands.
after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is
beyond the control of man. These are the irregularities found in the inner surface of CLASS CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO TYPES OF RIFLING
the barrel and on the breech face of the breechblock of the firearm.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

-Steyr type - 4 lands, 4 grooves, right hand twist and lands and grooves are of equal
• Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) width. (4-RG=L)

• it is diameter to which the bore was reamed. The distance measured between Smith and Wesson type - 5 lands and grooves, right hand twist, and lands and
two opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In grooves of equal width. (5-R-G=L)
most express in either caliber in inch or in millimeters.

Number of lands and grooves- the number of lands an grooves inside the barrel of a
given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most in - Browning type - 6 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands and broad grooves.
the modern firearm are five and six. (6-R-G-2x)

• Lands are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm. Colt type-6 lands and grooves, left twist, narrow lands and broad grooves (6-L-G-2x)

Webley type - 7 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands and broad grooves (7-
R-G3x)
• Grooves are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
Army type - 4 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow land and broad grooves (4-R-
• Width of the lands- is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, G3x)
width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference after
subtracting all the grooves width.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

• Width of the Grooves- is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
or edge of a grooves.
Note:
A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in which it the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most important
is designed to be fired. marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.

• As a result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of itself on the sides
of the bullet.
Breech face markings - Mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

Land marks & Groove marks • Land and groove marks together are called rifling • Chamber marks • Mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case
marks. These are striations found on the periphery/bearing or cylindrical surface of cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber
the fired bullets.
Extractor marks • Mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge
case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.

Skid marks • When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the
bullet can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front
of the groove in the bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more Ejector marks- Mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic
pronounced in revolvers. firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from
the firearm to the area of shooting.
Slippage Marks • Marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily or
oversize barrel.

Shear marks or the secondary firing pin marks • Marks found in the primer near the
primary firing pin mark due to the blowback of the cartridge case.
Stripping Marks- Marks found on those bullet fired from a "loose-fit" barrel
wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out. Magazine Lip Mark • Marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the
• Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
Firing Pin Drag Mark • Occurs when the firing pin and primer move laterally relative
to one another, while they're still in contact after ignition

• Shaving Marks • A shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor
alignment of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver
PRINCIPLES OF FIREARM INVESTIGATION

No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bore all
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE possesses individual characteristics and marking of their own.

• Firing Pin impression • Mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel it becomes engraved by the rifling and this
case more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at engraving will vary its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that
the engraving on the bullet fired from the barrel will be different from that of the *at the same place or level
bullet fired from another barrel. And conversely, the engraving on the bullets fired at the same direction
from the same barrel will be the same
at the same magnification
at the same image
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLET

-Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as
every breech face leave its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge case. SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Bullet Comparison Microscope *A dual microscope setup that allows forensic

examiners to observe two bullets side-by-side.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED SHELLS
By examining both bullets under magnification, investigators can determine if they
-The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically were fired from the same gun, based on unique striations (fine grooves) and
individualities of their own. markings on the bullet surfaces.

The firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb marks on every cartridge cases which it Microscopic Examination
fires.
For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least three test bullets that should
The whole principle of identification base is on the fact that since the breech face of be compared.
every weapon must be individually distinct the cartridge cases which it fired are
imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all cartridge cases fired from the •First, 1 for comparison/preliminary
same weapon are always the same, those on cartridge cases fired from different
Second, 1 for confirmation
weapons must always be different
Third, 1 for conclusion
FIREARM EXAMINATION
*Note: 8 or more striations - accepted by the court.

Stereoscopic Microscope
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
Provides a three-dimensional view of an object, allowing forensic examiners to
Physical Examination• Test Bullets are those recovered from recovery box for
examine surfaces and fine details of bullets, casings, or other evidence from various
comparison purposes with the evidence bullet.
angles.
Evidence bullet - are those recovered from the crime scene..
This type of microscope is useful for analyzing external features like scratch marks
Microscopic Examination -Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired or structural damage on evidence.
bullets or fired shells are examined in a juxtaposition - that is, the two objects-
evidence and the test bullet are examined and compared:
at the same time
CP-6 Comparison Projector -A device that projects magnified images of two objects Onoscope -A device used for internal inspection, often to observe the bore of a
(like bullets or casings) side-by-side onto a screen. firearm. -This tool allows forensic experts to view and analyze rifling patterns, which
leave unique marks on bullets as they pass through the gun barrel.
-This helps forensic experts visually compare the evidence at high magnifications to
identify similarities or differences without straining their eyes through microscopes Helixometer- An instrument designed to inspect the interior of a gun barrel to
observe and document rifling characteristics.

-It allows examiners to identify the pitch of rifling, which are critical in matching
Bullet Recovery Box bullets to specific firearms.

Is a secure container filled with a material like water or cotton that safely
decelerates bullets fired during test firings.
Chronograph -Used to measure the velocity of a bullet when it is fired from a gun.
This box allows for the recovery of intact bullets, which can then be analyzed for -It helps determine the kinetic energy of a bullet and provides valuable information
markings and compared to bullets found at crime scenes. about the ammunition used.

Measuring Projector MP-6

• Also known as Optical Comparator or Shadowgraph -An optical device used to CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE FOR SHOOTING INCIDENT
magnify and measure small components or features on evidence, such as the
dimensions of a cartridge casing or the distance between markings on a bullet. -Upon receiving a call to the scene of the shooting, the officer should always take
along a loose-leaf notebook and pen to make notes at the time and on the place
It is precise and helps forensic experts document small details with high accuracy. and not trust his memory to reconstruct the situation for his future convenience.

Vernier Caliper • A precision instrument used to measure internal and external -When the officer is summoned on such errand, his procedure should follow a
dimensions of small objects. logical pattern. His observations should be put in writing at the time of his
investigation for future reference and to produce in court if necessary.
-It can measure the diameter of a bullet or the thickness of cartridge casings,
providing detailed dimensional data for ballistics analysis.

Analytical Balance -A highly sensitive scale capable of measuring small masses with CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE FOR SHOOTING INCIDENT
high precision. -It can measure the exact weight of bullets, gunpowder residues, or
cartridge casings, which aids in identifying the type and make of ammunition used. Steps:

Taper Gauge- Used to measure gaps or the thickness of thin objects by fitting it into 1. Note accurately in writing the time the call was received and by whom it was
a space. -It may help measure bore diameter or other small gaps on firearms or sent.
cartridge casings.
2. Note accurately the time of arrival at the scene and the correct address.
3. The investigator should ascertain if the victim is dead and if not, summon medical 13. Transport the recovered evidences to the crime laboratory for examination.
aid or bring the victim to the hospital. Otherwise, the body should not be disturbed.
NOTE:
4. Immediately clear the premises of all by-standers and under no circumstances
allow anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinity. When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an
automatics pistol, or automatic weapon was used.
5. Use every effort and means to identify the deceased.
When no empty shell is found, the presumption is that a revolver was used.
6. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written notes on the
statements of as many persons as possible. In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves and the raised
portions are the lands.
7. Measure the exact distance of the body in relation to the previously mentioned
fixtures of the premises. On a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the landmarks are the depressed portions, and
the groove marks are the raised portions.
8. Examine the ceiling, floors, and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains, fired
bullets, fired shells or shotgun wadding. To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep thru the
barrel, place a land or groove on the top and look away from you. If the land or the
9. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should note in writing the following groove inclines to the right, then it has a right twist, and if it inclines to the left it is
observations: a left twist

• Exactly where found. To determine the twist of a bullet, look on the bullet in an elongated position. If the
lands and grooves incline to the right it is a right twist, if it incline to the left it is a
•Type of weapon, caliber or gauge designation left twist.

Note the serial number; mark his initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for It is the rifling of a bore that marks a fired bullet.
future identification.
A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the barrel from
*Note other distinctive features. which it was fired. Therefore, if a bore has a class characteristics of a .45 caliber, 6
lands, 6 grooves, right twist, grove wider than the land such characteristics will be
10. Note down where the empty shells, bullets and/or firearms were found and impressed on the bullet it fires.
make a diagram to illustrate the same to show their relative distances from the
body of the victim and take a photograph of it. So, if a fatal bullet will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the
suspected firearm, then it is possible that the bullet could have been fired from the
11. Mark the found evidences for future identification, use your initials and state suspected gun.
the date and place where recovered.
To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from the suspected gun,
12. After marking the evidence, wrap them separately and individually with soft then the case must be sent to a forensic ballistics expert who will conduct the
tissue paper and note down on the wrapper where each item was found indicating proper examination.
the date and time.
If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, definitely and conclusively
the bullets were not fired from the barrel
 • weighing the bullet; and

comparing the bullet with known standards.

SPECIMEN SUBJECT FOR PROCESSING/RECOVERY FROM THE CRIME SCENE 2. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from
one and the same firearm.
• Firearms -Ammunition -Ammunition Components, such as:
3. Given a cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it
- bullet -pellet -cartridge cases -primer -propellant -wads was fired.

- bullet fragment, other related specimen 4. Given two or more cartridge cases to determine whether or not they were fired
from one and the same firearm.

5. Given cartridge case and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
PROPER LIFTING OF EVIDENCE FIREARM cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.
In 1933, Churchhill advised scene of crime officers that a weapon found at the 6. Given bullets and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullets
crime scene should be lifted by passing a metal rod down the muzzle. was fired from the suspected firearm.
Today, such practice is absolute anathema "DO NOT" handle by means of inserting 7) Given firearms/arms to determine whether they are serviceable or not.
a pencil or similar article in the barrel. This is because the modern helixometer and
similar instruments are capable of detecting minute clues from the interior of the
gun.

The proper lifting of an evidence firearm is to insert a string in the trigger guard
then lift it

TYPES OF PROBLEMS IN BALLISTICS

1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from
which it was fired.

• When a bullet is submitted for comparison to a firearm, one of the first

examinations conducted will be to determine the bullets caliber in any of the
following means;

• measuring the bullets diameter with the use of caliper;