UNIT 11:

ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics:
 Electrostatics deals with electric charges that are at rest or static.
 The force between static charged particles is called the electrostatic
force.
 This force can be attractive or repulsive, depending on the charges
involved.
 Charge is measured in coulombs (symbol C), and it is quantized
(integral multiples of elementary charge, denoted as e).
Coulomb’s Law:
 Coulomb (1736-1805) conducted experiments to measure the force
between electric charges.
 His findings led to Coulomb’s
law, which states:
“The magnitude of the
force between two point charges
is directly proportional to the
product of their charge
magnitudes and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them.”
 Mathematically, this can be
expressed as:
F ∞ q1q2
1
F∞ 2
r
Combining the above
equations:
q1 q2
F∞ 2
r
k q1 q 2
F= 2
r
Here:
(F) represents the force between the charges.
(q 1) and (q 2) are the charges.
(r) is the distance between the charges.
(k) is a constant that depends on the units used and the medium between
the charges.
Note: We assume that the charges are point charges (very small
bodies) compared to the distance between them.
Force Direction and Vector Form:

To indicate the direction of the force between charges, we use a unit

vector along the line joining the charges.
If (r 12) is the unit vector pointing from charge (q 1) to (q 2), the force exerted
by (q 1) on (q 2) in vector form is:
k q1 q 2 r^ 12
⃗
F 21= 2 Material εr
r
Vaccum 1
Similarly, if (r 21) points from (q 2) to (q 1), the force
Air 1.000
exerted by (q 2) on (q 1) is:
6
k q1 q 2 r^ 21
⃗
F 12= 2
Benzene 2.284
r Germiniu 16
Since (r^ 12 = -r^ 21), we have: m
⃗
F 21 = -⃗
F 12 Water 78.5
This relationship demonstrates that Coulomb’s Glass 4.8-
law aligns with Newton’s third law. The force 10
exerted by the charge q 1 on q 2 is conventionaly Mica 3-7.5
denoted by F 21, and the force exerted by the charge Praffine 2
q 2 on q 1 is conventionaly denoted by F 12. The force paper
F 12 exerted by q 2 on q 1 is equal in magnitude to the Rubber 2.94
force F 21 exerted by q 1 on q 2 and in the opposite Ammonia 22-25
direction. (liquid)

Constant (k) and Permittivity:

The constant (k) can be expressed in terms of the permittivity of free
space ε o:
1
k=
4 π εo
The experimentally measured value of (ε o) is approximately;
−12 2 −1 −2
8.85 ×10 C N m
1 −12 2 −2
Therefore, k = =9.0× 10 N m C
4 π εo
Permitivity: Permittivity is the property of a medium which affects the
magnitude of force between two point charges.

Coulomb’s Law in Material Media:

o When an insulator (dielectric) is placed between charges, it affects
the force.
o The force in a medium with relative permittivity (ε r) is given by:
1 q1 q 2
⃗
F med=
4 π ε o εr r2
⃗
F
⃗
F med= vac
εr
 Here:
(ε ) represents the permittivity of the medium.
(ε r) is the relative permittivity (dielectric
ε
constant) compared to vacuum. ¿ = ¿
εo
ε r is dimensionless constant and its
value is always greater than unity.

Electric Field and

Intensity
Electric Field Basics
 Proposed by Michael Faraday in the 19th
century.
 Electric field around a charge resembles a
sphere, influencing other charges within
it.
 Electric field: Any region around a charge where an electric test charge
experiences a force.
 Characterized by strength and direction at
every point in space.
 Determined by placing a unit positive test
charge in the field (small enough not to
distort the original field).

Electric Field Intensity (E)

 The intensity of an electric field at any point
is the force per unit positive test charge
placed at that point.
 Denoted by (E), a vector quantity.
 Represents field strength and direction at a
specific point.
 If a unit positive test charge (q O) experiences force (F) due to the electric
field of charge (q):
⃗
F
o (⃗
E= )
qO
o (⃗
F = qO E)
 SI unit: newton per coulomb ( N C−1) or volt per meter (V m−1).

Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field

 Coulomb’s law calculates electric field around a fixed static charge (q):
k q qo
 Magnitude of electric field: F= 2
r
 k q qo
 In vector form: ⃗
F= r^
2
r
k q qo
 Field intensity: ⃗ r2
E= r^
qO
kq
Simplified Form: ⃗E = 2 r^
r

The strength of the field is

proportional to the magnitude of the
charge. Its strength decreases as the
test charge moves away (unit charge)
from source charge q.

Electric Field Lines

 Electric field lines represent the
intensity and direction of the electric field around a charge.
 These lines are a pictorial representation in empty space.

Key Points
1. Direction of Electric Field:
o At any point, the electric field direction is tangent to the field line passing
through that point.
o For positive charges, field lines point outward; for negative charges, they
point inward.
2. Termination and Origin:
o Field lines start from positive charges and terminate at negative charges.
o Example: Two parallel plates (one positive, one negative) separated by a
small distance.
3. Fringing Field:
o If plates are not infinitely long, field lines bulge out at the ends (non-
uniform field).
o This region is called the “fringing field.”
4. Electric Field Inside Conductors:
o Inside a conductor, the electric field is zero.
o Charges redistribute within the conductor to cancel out any external field.

Properties Of Electric Field Lines:

1. Electric lines of force initiate from positive charge and terminate in
negative charge.
2. Electric lines of of force never cross each other. If they cross then
electric intensity have more than one direction, but it is not possible as
it has only one direction
 3. Electric field is strong, where electric field lines are closer to each other
while electric field is weak, where electric field lines are farther apart
from each other.
4. Curved lines shows non-uniform electric field and parallel lines shows
uniform electric field.
5. Electric field lines are imaginary but electric field exist.
6. The tangent to a field at any given point gives the direction of force at
that point.

Electric Dipoles
Definition
 An electric dipole consists of two charges of equal magnitude but
opposite signs (one positive and one negative) separated by a small
distance.
 Examples: Molecules like H₂O and HCl exhibit electric dipole behavior in
their normal states.
 In a dipole, the resultant charge is zero, but an electric field exists due to
the separation of charges.

Key Concepts
1. Dipole Axis:
o The line joining the charges in an electric dipole is called the dipole axis.
o It is a vector, pointing from the negative charge to the positive charge.
2. Dipole Moment (p):
o The product of the magnitude of either charge and the separation
distance between them: [⃗ P = q ⃗d ]
o Dipole moment is a vector quantity along the dipole axis.
o SI unit: Coulomb meter (C m), and a smaller unit used is the debye (D).

Electric Field Due to a Dipole

 Consider a dipole with charges (q) and (-q) separated by a distance (2d).
 We want to find the electric field strength at point (C) located at a
distance (r) from the center (O) of the dipole.
 Point (C) is at a distance (r-d) from the positive charge (+q) and (r+d)
from the negative charge (-q).
The field due to positive charge +q at point 'C' at a distance r-d is given
by
 Applications Of Electrostatics:
1. Photocopiers (Xerography):
o Photocopiers use a process called xerography.
o The drum in a photocopier is made of aluminum and coated with
selenium.
o Selenium is an insulator in the dark but becomes a conductor when
exposed to light (a photoconductor).
o The drum is charged with static electricity, attracting toner particles.
o When a document is placed on the glass plate, dark and light areas create
an image on the drum.
o Dark areas retain a positive charge, while light areas become neutral.
o Toner particles are attached to the paper, creating a permanent
impression after passing over the drum.
2. Laser Printers:
o Laser printers use a laser to create an image on a photoconducting drum.
o The laser beam scans across the drum, leaving a positive charge image.
o The process of charging the drum and transferring the image to paper is
similar to xerography.
o Precisely controlled laser light enables high-quality image production.
3. Inkjet Printers:
o Inkjet printers use electric charges.
o Tiny ink droplets are forced out of a fine nozzle and charged
electrostatically.
o The charged droplets pass between oppositely charged plates.
o Negatively charged droplets are attracted toward a positive plate, causing
deflection.
o The charging control turns off the electric field when ink is placed on
paper, allowing uncharged droplets to strike the paper.

Electric Flux
1.Concept of Flux:
 Flux measures how much of something (such as electric field lines)
passes through a given area.
 For electric fields, we use an area vector ⃗ A (magnitude equal to the
area and direction normal to the surface).
 Electric flux (denoted as φ E ) is the scalar product of the electric field
⃗
E and the area vector ⃗ A:

φ E =⃗
E∙⃗
A =EA cosθ

 θ represents the angle between the electric field lines and the
surface.

2.Dependence of (φ E ):
 Surface area.
 Electric field intensity.
 The orientation of surface area A with respect to the field lines.

3.Flux at Any Angle (θ):

 If the area ⃗
A is tilted with respect to the electric field lines.

φ E =⃗
E∙⃗
A =EA cosθ

 The number of lines passing through the area depends on the angle
θ.
 4.Maximum Flux:
 When the surface is perpendicular to
the electric field (A parallel to E)
φ E =⃗
E∙⃗
A =EA cos ⁡(0)=EA
 Maximum electric lines pass through
the surface.

5.Zero Flux:
 If the surface is parallel to the electric field (A
normal to E):
φ E =⃗
E∙⃗A =EA cos ⁡(90)=0
 No electric lines pass through the surface.

6.Electric Flux Through

Closed Surfaces:
 For non-uniform fields or curved
surfaces, divide the surface into small
patches (∆A).
 Assume these patches are
approximately flat and that the electric
field is nearly uniform over them.
 The electric flux through a differential
area ∆A is given by:
φ E =E ∙ ∆ A
 To find the total flux through the
entire surface, sum up the flux
contributions from each patch:
φ E =∑ ⃗ E∙∆⃗A

 Three cases:
o Zero flux: Equal numbers
of field lines enter and
leave the surface.
o Negative flux: More field
lines enter than leave the
surface.
o Positive flux: More field
lines leave than enter the
surface.

Gauss’s Law:
  Gauss’s law relates the net electric flux through a closed surface to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
 It provides an alternative method for calculating the electric field due to a charge
distribution.
 The law states that the net electric flux Φ through a closed surface is equal to the
total charge (q) enclosed by the surface divided by the permittivity of free space.
q
φE=
εO

Derivation Using a Spherical Closed Surface:

 Consider a spherical closed surface of radius (r) centered around a point charge (q).
 Divide the surface into small patches with areas (∆ A 1, ∆ A 2, ∆ A 3, …, ∆ A n).
 The electric field intensity (E) is the same at every point on the surface since they are
equidistant from the charge.

The electric flux through the small elements

∆ A 1, is

φ 1=⃗E1 ∙ ∆ ⃗
A 1=E1 ∆ A1 cos ( 0 ) =E1 ∆ A 1
The electric flux through the other small element ∆ A 2 is
φ 2= ⃗
E2 ∙ ∆ ⃗
A 2=E2 ∆ A2 cos ( 0 )=E2 ∆ A2
Similarly the electric flux through ∆ A n, is
φ n=⃗En ∙ ∆ ⃗
A n=E n ∆ A n cos ( 0 ) =En ∆ An
The total flux through the entire surface is
φ n=φ 1+ φ2 +φ3 + φ4 … .+φ n
φ n= ∑ E ∆ A
surface

But as electric field intensity E is constant over the surface of sphere. Therefore,
φ E =E ∑ ∆ A
surface

Since,
q 1
E=
4 π εo r2
Thus the above equation can be written as
q 1
φE= ∑ ∆A
4 π ε o r 2 surface
∑ ∆ A = Total area enclosed by spherical surface = 4 πr 2
surface
q 1
φE= (4 πr ¿¿ 2) ¿
4 π εo r2
 q
φE=
εo

The above equation shows that electric flux does not depend upon
the shape or geometry of a closed surface. But it depends upon the
medium and the charge enclosed by that surface.

Derivation Using a Irregular Closed

Surface:
In order to calculate the electric flux through
irregular close surface S, enclosing point charges q 1, q 2, q 3
,…,q n. Then the total electric flux through that closed
surface is;

q1 q 2 q3 qn
φE= + + +...
εo εo εo εo
1
φ E = (q1 + q2 +q 3+ … qn )
εo
n
1
φE= ∑q
ε o i=1 i
1
φ E = (total charge enclosed by a surface)
εo
Q
φE=
εo

Thus Gauss's law shows that the electric flux through any closed surface is 1/ε_o
times the total charge enclosed in it.

Applications Of Gauss’s Law:

1. Electric field intensity of field inside a hollow charged
sphere;
2. Electric field intensity due to an infinite sheet of
charge;

3. Electric field intensity between two oppositely charged

parallel plates;
Electric Potential:
o Electric potential represents the energy stored in a charge due to its
position in an electric field.
o Consider two oppositely charged parallel plates. If a positive charge (+q)
is placed between these plates, it will move toward the negative plate due
to the electric force.
o The work done by the electric force in moving the charge from point B to
point A without acceleration is stored as electrical potential energy in the
charge.
o If (U A ) and (U B) are the potential energies at point A and B respectively,
then change in potential energy ΔU is equal to the work done ( W BA).
 ∆ U =W BA _______ (1)
o The potential energy at point A (U A ) minus the potential energy at point B
(U B) gives the change in potential energy (ΔU).
 U A −U B=W BA
Potential Difference (Voltage):
o Potential difference (ΔV) is the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to another while keeping the charge in electrostatic
equilibrium.

Mathematically;

Dividing equation (1) by q o , we get,

∆ U W BA
=
qo qo

∆U
As =∆V , the above equation becomes
qo

W BA ∆U
∆V = (OR) ∆ V = (OR) q o ∆ V =W BA (OR) q o ∆ V =∆ U
qo qo

We can express potential difference as the difference in electric potential

between two points: V =V A−V B

o The potential energy change per unit charge (q_o) gives the potential
difference.

∆U
∆V =
qo

Units: 1 volt (V) corresponds to 1 joule (J) of energy per 1 coulomb of

charge moved.
1 Joule
1 volt =
1 Coulomb

One Volt:

o One volt (V) represents the potential difference between two points in an
electric field when one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of
charge from one point to the other.
o Multiples and sub-multiples of the volt include:

 1 millivolt (mV) = 10−3 V

 1 microvolt (µV) = 10−6 V
 1 kilovolt (kV) = 103 V
 1 megavolt (MV) = 106 V
  1 gigavolt (GV) = 109 V

Electric Potential at a Point:

o To define electric potential at a specific point, we need a reference point
where the electric potential is zero. This reference point is taken at
infinity.
o Let’s consider two points, A and B:
 At point B (infinity), the electric potential is V B= 0.
 At any other point (e.g., point A), the electric potential is given by

W∞A
V A= ,
qo

where W represents the work done in bringing a unit positive charge

from infinity to that point without acceleration.

Field And Potential Gradient:

Definition of Potential Gradient: The rate of change of electric
potential ΔV with respect to displacement Δr is known as potential
gradient

Mathematically;
o Consider a uniform electric field with parallel lines of force
equidistant from each other.
o Points A and B are very close, so the electric field intensity is nearly
constant.

o According to the formula of potential difference;

W BA
∆V =
q
where W represents the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from point B to point A.

F ∙ d⃗
⃗
∆V =
q
Fd cos ⁡(180)
∆V =
q
qE ∆ r (−1)
∆V =
q
∆ V =−E ∆ r
 −∆ V
E=
∆r
The negative sign indicates that the field direction opposes the
direction of increasing potential.

Analogous to Gravitational Field:

 This relationship between field strength and potential gradient is

analogous to gravitational fields.

Equipotential Surfaces:
 These surfaces represent equal electrostatic potential at every
point.
 Imagine drawing imaginary lines (equipotential lines) that connect
points in space where the electric potential is the same.
 On an equipotential surface, the work done to move any charge
from one point to another is zero, as all points have the same
potential.

Visual Representation:
 When visualizing electric fields and potentials:
 Electric field around a point charge is typically represented by pink
arrows.
 Equipotential surfaces are depicted using orange dashed lines.
 If multiple charges are present, the potential at any point results
from the sum of the potentials due to each charge.

Scalar Quantity:
 Electric potential (or voltage) is a scalar
quantity, meaning it has magnitude but no
specific direction.
 The sign of the potential depends on the
charges involved (positive or negative).

Electric Potential Energy

And Potential Due To A
Point Charge :
Electric Field Intensity (E):
 Similar to Earth’s gravitational field, every
charge creates an electric field that
theoretically extends to infinity.
 Consider an isolated charge +Q fixed in space. The electric field
intensity (E) at a distance r from the charge is given by;

⃗ 1 Q
E= r^
4 π ϵ o r2

 As a test charge (q) moves from infinity toward the charge +Q, a
repulsive force acts on it.

Work Done and Potential Energy:

 External work is required to bring the test charge from infinity to
point A.
 The work done (ΔW) is given by:

ΔW =−q ⃗
E Δ r⃗ =qEΔrcos 180 °=qEΔr

 Substituting the value of E, we get:

1 Qq
ΔW = Δr
4 π ϵo r2

Potential Due to a Point Charge:

 Let’s consider the test charge at a large distance (r A ) from charge Q.
 The electric field does not remain constant but varies as the square
of the distance from the charge.
 We divide the distance between r A and r B into infinitesimally small
displacements, ensuring that the field intensity remains constant
over each displacement.
 The Electron Volt (eV)
1. Definition of Electron Volt:
o The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy or work.
o It represents the amount of energy gained or lost by an electron when it
moves across two points with a potential difference of one volt.
o Since the charge of an electron is approximately ( 1.602 ×10−19 ) C, one
electron-volt is approximately equal to (1.602 ×10−19 ) J.
2. Mathematical Relationship:
o By definition, ∆ ( KE ) =1 eV when q=e=1.602× 10−19 C∧∆ V =1 V
o Therefore, 1 eV =1.602 ×10−19 C × 1V =1.602× 10−19 J
3. Common Units:
o The electron volt is a small unit of energy, and larger units are often used:
 1 million electron volt (1 MeV) = (106) eV
 1 gigaelectron volt (1 GeV) = (109 ) eV

CAPACITOR:
Capacitor Basics:

o A capacitor is a device used for storing electric

charges.
o It typically consists of two parallel metal plates
separated by a small distance.
o The medium between the plates can be air or
an insulating material (dielectric).

Charging a Capacitor:
o To charge a capacitor, connect its plates to the opposite terminals of a
battery.
o Electrons transfer through the battery from the positive plate to the
negative plate.
o Due to electrostatic induction, charge +Q appears on one plate (A),
inducing charge -Q on the inner surface of the other plate (B).

Mutual Attraction and Charge Storage:

o Mutual attraction between the charges +Q and -Q keeps them bound on

the inner surfaces of the two plates.
o Even after removing the battery, the charge remains stored in the
capacitor.

Capacitance Of A Capacitor:
o Capacitance represents a capacitor’s ability to store charges.
o When a charge (Q) is transferred to one plate, it creates a potential
difference (V) between the plates.
o The relationship is given by: (Q = CV).
o Capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge magnitude to potential
difference:

Q
Q=
V

Unit of Capacitance:

o The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F).

o One farad is the capacity of a capacitor that stores 1 coulomb of charge
with a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates.

Sub-Multiples of Farad:

o Convenient sub-multiples include:

 1 microfarad (1 μF) = (10−6) F
 1 picofarad (1 pF) = (10−12 ) F

Parallel Plate Capacitor:

 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel
metal plates separated by a small distance (d).
 When connected to a voltage source (V),
charges accumulate on the plates.

Electric Field Strength (E) Between Plates:

 The electric field strength (E) between the plates is given by:

−∆ V −(V 2 −V 1) V 1−V 2 V
E= = = = __________ (1)
∆r d d d

where:

o (V) is the potential difference between the plates (V 1 −V 2).

o (d) is the separation between the plates.

Charge Density (σ):

The charge density (σ) is the total charge per unit area of the plate:

Q
σ=
A

Electric Field Intensity Using Gauss’s Law:

Gauss’s law relates the electric field intensity to the charge density:

σ Q
E= = __________ (2)
εo εo A

Comparing Equation (1) & (2):

V Q
=
d εo A
It can be written as
εo A Q
= __________ (3)
d V

Capacitance and Vacuum Permittivity (ε o):

Q
 The capacitance (C) of the capacitor is defined as: [C vac = ]
V
 Putting the value from this in equation (3)

εo A
C vac =
d

 Here, (ε o) (vacuum permittivity) is a fundamental constant.

 Dielectric and Capacitor Enhancement:

 When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates of a capacitor,

its charge-storing capacity increases.
 The dielectric permits the capacitor to store ε r times more charge for the
same potential difference.
 In a parallel plate capacitor completely filled with a dielectric, the
capacitance (C med) is given by:

εo εr A
C med= , where:
d

o (ε o) is the vacuum permittivity.

o (ε r) (relative permittivity or dielectric constant) characterizes the dielectric
material.
o (A) is the area of the plates.
o (d) is the separation between the plates.

Relative Permittivity (ε r):

The ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with a specific dielectric

material to the capacitance of the same capacitor when the space is
evacuated defines the relative permittivity (ε r) of the material.

Combinations Of Capacitors:

Series Combination of Capacitors:

 When capacitors are connected plate to plate (i.e.,

the right plate of one capacitor is connected to the
left plate of the next capacitor), it’s called a series
combination.
 Suppose we have capacitors with capacitances (C 1
), (C 2), and (C 3) in series.
 The equivalent capacitance (C e) for this
1 1 1 1
combination is given by: [ = + + ]
Ce C1 C2 C3

Parallel Combination of Capacitors:

 In a parallel combination, the battery is connected to the parallel plates of

the capacitors.
 The equivalent capacitance (C e) for this combination is given by: [C e= C 1+
C 2+ C 3]
 Electric Polarization:

 Dielectric materials, which are electrical insulators, can be polarized by an

applied electric field.
 When placed between the parallel plates of a capacitor, the dielectric
experiences electric polarization.
 Charges within the dielectric shift slightly from their equilibrium positions
due to the applied field.
 The dielectric becomes polarized, enhancing the charge-storing capacity
of the capacitor.

Electric Dipoles:

 Dielectric materials consist of polar and non-polar

molecules.
 A polar molecule (e.g., water) behaves as a
permanent dipole, even though it is electrically
neutral overall.
 Non-polar molecules (e.g., nitrogen) lack an
electric dipole moment in the absence of an
external field.
 In the presence of an electric field, negative
charges in non-polar substances shift toward the
opposite direction of the field.
 Electric dipoles occur when there is a separation
of charge within a material.

Dipole Moment (P):

 An electric dipole consists of two charges of equal

magnitude but opposite sign separated by a
distance (d).
 The electric dipole moment (P) is given by: [ P = |Qd| ] where:
o (Q) represents the charge present in the dipole.
o (d) is the distance between the two charges.
o (P) is a vector quantity.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor:

 Initially, a capacitor is uncharged (voltage is zero).

 When connected to a potential difference (V), it charges up.
 The final charge distribution on the plates is +Q and -Q, resulting in a
potential difference (V).
 The average voltage on the capacitor is (V/2).
 The energy stored in the capacitor (U) is given by:

QV
U=
2
2
CV
U= (∴ Q=CV ) ________(x)
2
2
Q Q
U= (∴ V = )
2C C

Energy Stored in the Electric Field:

 Alternatively, we can consider the energy stored in the electric field

between the plates.
 The potential difference (V) can be expressed as (V = Ed).
 The capacitance (C) is related to the area (A), dielectric constant ( ε r), and
separation (d):

A εr ε o
C=
d

 Substituting these values in equation (x), we get:

1 A εr ε o 2
U= × ×(Ed)
2 d

1 2
U = ε r ε o E ×( Ad) (∴ V =L ×W × A × H= Ad )
2

Energy Density (u):

 The product (Ad) is volume between the plates

V =L ×W × A × H= Ad

 Let (u) denote the energy density (energy per unit volume) of the electric
field.
Energy U
 We have: u= =
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1 2
u= ε r ε o E
2
 Charging And Discharging Of A
Capacitor Through A resistor
Consider a circuit with the following components:

o Capacitance (C)
o Resistance (R)
o Battery voltage (V)
o Key (K)

 Initial conditions:
o Capacitor has no charge ((q = 0)) when the key is fully open ((t = 0)).
o Current ((i)) is zero initially.

Charging Process

1. When the key is pressed, the capacitor starts storing charge.

2. During charging:
o Current ((I)) flows through the circuit.
o Charge ((Q)) accumulates on the capacitor plates.
o As charge builds up, it repels additional charge,
causing the current to decrease.
3. Graph of charge ((q)) vs. time ((t)):
o Initially, (q = 0) at (t = 0).
o Charge gradually increases.
o At a certain time, (q) reaches its maximum value (( q o)).
o Smaller time constants lead to faster charging.

Discharging Process

1. If the key is opened after charging:

o The capacitor discharges through the resistor.
2. Graph of charge ((q)) vs. time ((t)):
o Initially, (q = q o) at (t = 0).
o Charge decreases exponentially.
o Time taken for charge to reach 63% of its maximum
value is the time constant.

Conclusion

 Capacitors store energy during charging and release it

during discharging.
 Understanding these processes is essential for various
applications in electronics.
 Time Constant and Capacitor
Charging/Discharging
Time Constant (t)

 The time constant ((t)) of an RC circuit is determined by the product of

resistance ((R)) and capacitance ((C)): (t = RC).
 It represents the duration for the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its maximum
charge when charging or discharge to 36.8% of its initial charge when
discharging.
 Smaller time constants lead to faster charging or
discharging.

Charging Process

Charging a Capacitor:

o When a key is closed, the capacitor starts to

store charge.
o Current flows through the circuit, and charge accumulates on the
capacitor plates.
o The graph of charge ((q)) vs. time ((t)) shows gradual charging.
o At time (t = RC), the charge reaches approximately 63.2% of its maximum
value (q o).

Discharging Process

Discharging a Capacitor:

o If the battery is removed and the key is closed, the

capacitor discharges through the resistor.
o The graph of charge ((q)) vs. time ((t)) shows
gradual discharge.
o At time (t = RC), the remaining charge is
approximately 36.8% of the initial charge (q o).

Applications
 Capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) systems:
o Widely used in motorcycles, lawn mowers, chain saws, small engines,
turbine-powered aircraft, and some cars.
o Enhances power supply capability and produces stronger sparks.