Theory :

An active filter is a type of filter that includes one or more active circuit components such as
a transistor or an operational amplifier (Op-Amp). They derive their energy from an external
source of energy and use it to increase or amplify the signal output. Operational amplifiers
can also be used to form or change the circuit frequency response by making the filter’s
output bandwidth narrower or even wider by generating a more selective output reaction.
An Op-Amp has a high input impedance, a low output impedance and a voltage gain within
its feedback loop arising from the mixture of the resistor. Active filters, when used with
careful circuit design, generate excellent performance features, very good precision with a
steep roll-off and low noise. If an active filter permits only low-frequency components and
denies all other high-frequency components, then it is termed as an Active Low Pass Filter.
Active low pass filters are made up of Op-Amp. The input to the Op-Amp is high impedance
signals, which produces a low impedance signal as output. The circuit’s frequency response
will be the same as that of the passive RC filter, except that the pass-band voltage gain
increases the amplitude of the output signal.

Fig.1
A first-order active low pass filter is a simplistic filter that is composed of only one reactive
component Capacitor accompanying with an active component Op-Amp. A resistor is utilized
with the capacitor or inductor to form RC or RL low pass filter respectively. In a passive circuit,
the output signal amplitude is smaller than the input signal amplitude. To surmount this
problem, active circuit designs were introduced. When a passive low pass filter is connected
to an Op-Amp either in inverting or non-inverting condition, it gives an active low pass filter
design. The connection of a simple RC circuit with a single Op-Amp is shown in the image
above. This RC circuit assists in providing a low-frequency signal to the input of the amplifier.
The amplifier operates as a unity gain output buffer circuit. This circuit has added input
impedance value. The Op-Amp of the circuit has a very low output impedance value, which
helps in providing high stability to the filter.
When compared with passive filter, an active filter has an arrangement in which the amplifier
is designed as a voltage-follower (Buffer) which gives a DC gain of one. This configuration
provides excellent stability to the filter and has a high power gain. The main drawback of this
filter is that it has no voltage gain above one, which can be rectified with extra circuit design.
At lower frequencies, the input signals flow directly through the amplifying circuit. When the
frequency of the input frequency increases, it is bypassed and made to pass through the
capacitor C. This increases the amplitude of the output signal by pass-band gain.

Fig.2
As it is illustrated above , the Low Pass Filter- Filter passes low frequencies and blocks high
frequencies. It only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its cut-off frequency, (fC) point
to pass while blocking those any higher.
Cut-Off frequency of the low-pass filter can be calculated with this formula :
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝝅𝑹𝑪
Voltage Gain calculated with this formula :
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅1
The Sallen-Key low pass filter is the most popular second-order active low pass filter. The
design of Sallen-Key filters is similar to voltage-controlled voltage-source (VCVS), with filter
characteristics such as high input impedance, good stability, and low output impedance.

Fig.3
If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C the expressions of cut-off frequency will be :
1
𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Procedure :
Test A : One-Pole LPF :
1- We connected the circuit as shown below :

Fig.4
2- We applied a 6Vp-p , 2KHZ sine wave to the input of the amplifier.

Fig.5
3- We measured output voltage from 500HZ to 70KHZ.
4- We drew the frequency response of the circuit then found a cut-off frequency.
5- By using bode-plotter tool in the Multisim we drew the frequency response and
found cut-off frequency of the circuit.

Fig.6
• Maximum Gain equals to 3.989dB so we must 3dB down to find cut-off frequency as
we see cut-off frequency equals to 7.216KHZ.
6- Finally we found cut-off frequency theoretically by this formula :

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Test B : Two-Pole LPF :
1- We connected the circuit as shown below :

Fig.7
2- We applied a 6Vp-p , 2KHZ sine wave to the input of the amplifier.

Fig.8
3- We measured output voltage from 500HZ to 70KHZ.
4- We drew the frequency response of the circuit then found a cut-off frequency.
5- By using bode-plotter tool in the Multisim we drew the frequency response and
found cut-off frequency of the circuit.
 Fig.9
• Maximum Gain equals to 3.989dB so we must 3dB down to find cut-off frequency as
we see cut-off frequency equals to 7.211KHZ.
6- Finally we found cut-off frequency theoretically by this formula :
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Discussion :
Test A : One-Pole :
1- Compare your results.
Ans :
Theoretical cut-off frequency can be calculated by this way :
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋∗1∗103 ∗0.022∗10−6

𝑓𝑐 = 7.237KHZ
V3dB can be used to identify a practical cutoff frequency:
V3dB = Vmax * 0.707
= 9.45 * 0.707
= 6.7V
By drawing a line from 6.7V on the Y-Axis to the curve, the first intersection with the curve is
practical cut-off frequency therefore the practical cutoff frequency is nearly identical to the
theoretical cutoff frequency. Or from the bode plotter of the multisim we can find practical
cut-off frequency.
Theoretical cut-off frequency = 7.237KHZ
Practical cut-off frequency ( Bode-Plotter ) = 7.216KHZ
Practical cut-off frequency ( Results ) = 7.1KHZ
Theoretical and practical values differ slightly, with practical values being lower than
theoretical values. Because of their tolerances, these changes occur following voltage loss
in the components.
Test B : Two-Pole :
1- Compare your results.
Ans :
Theoretical cut-off frequency can be calculated by this way :
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋∗1∗103 ∗0.022∗10−6

𝑓𝑐 = 7.237KHZ
V3dB can be used to identify a practical cutoff frequency:
V3dB = Vmax * 0.707
= 9.5 * 0.707
= 6.7V
By drawing a line from 6.7V on the Y-Axis to the curve, the first intersection with the curve is
practical cut-off frequency therefore the practical cutoff frequency is nearly identical to the
theoretical cutoff frequency. Or from the bode plotter of the multisim we can find practical
cut-off frequency.
Theoretical cut-off frequency = 7.237KHZ
Practical cut-off frequency ( Bode-Plotter ) = 7.211KHZ
Practical cut-off frequency ( Results ) = 7.1KHZ
Theoretical and practical values differ slightly, with practical values being lower than
theoretical values. Because of their tolerances, these changes occur following voltage loss
in the components.