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3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8 Multiple Access Techniques:

 The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and
every mobile user in the cell, and is referred as broadcasting.
Transmission from the mobile users in the uplink to the BS is many-to-
one, and is referred to as multiple access.

 Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a

finite amount of radio spectrum resources.

 Should not result in severe degradation in the performance of the

system as compared to a single user scenario.
 Approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband
and wideband.

 Multiple Accessing Techniques : with possible conflict and conflict- free

  Random access
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an example is Code
division multiple access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Duplexing:

 For voice or data communications, must assure two way communication

(duplexing, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously). Duplexing
may be done using frequency or time domain techniques.
 Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the BS to the mobile
 Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the mobile to the BS.

3.4.1 Frequency division duplexing (FDD):

 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user, one for downlink
and one for uplink.

 A large interval between these frequency bands must be allowed so that

interference is minimized.

Figure 3.5 Frequency Separation

3.4.2. Time division duplexing (TDD):

 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use one

contiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time slots to provide
both a forward and reverse link.
  Because transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates
in time, this scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
 As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the
communication quality in both directions is the same. This is different
from FDD.

Figure 3.6 Time Slot

3.4.3 FDMA:

 In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.

During the period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency
band.

Figure 3.7 FDMA Channels

 All channels in a cell are available to all the mobiles. Channel assignment
is carried out on a first-come first- served basis.
  The number of channels, given a frequency spectrum BT , depends on the
modulation technique (hence Bw or Bc ) and the guard bands between the
channels 2Bguard .

 These guard bands allow for imperfect filters and oscillators and can be
used to minimize adjacent channel interference.
 FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

Figure 3.8 FDMA/FDD/TDD

Nonlinear effects in FDMA:

 In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the

BS. The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated
at or near saturation are nonlinear.

 The nonlinear ties generate inter-modulation frequencies.

 Undesirable harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band

cause interference to adjacent services.

 Undesirable harmonics present inside the band cause interference

to other users in the mobile system.
3.4.4 TDMA:

 TDMA systems divide the channel time into frames. Each frame is further
partitioned into time slots. In each slot only one user is allowed to either
transmit or receive.

 Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital modulation must be used.

 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be

thought of as a particular time slot of every frame, where N time slots
comprise a frame.

Figure 3.9 TDMA Channels

Features:

 Multiple channels per carrier or RF channels.

 Burst transmission since channels are used on a timesharing basis.

Transmitter can be turned off during idle periods.

 Narrow or wide bandwidth – depends on factors such as modulation

scheme, number of voice channels per carrier channel.

 High ISI – Higher transmission symbol rate, hence resulting in high ISI.
Adaptive equalizer required.
 Figure 3.10 TDMA Channels time slot

 A guard time between the two time slots must be allowed in order to avoid
interference, especially in the uplink direction. All mobiles should
synchronize with BS to minimize interference.

 Efficient power utilization : FDMA systems require a 3- to 6-dB power back

off in order to compensate for inter-modulation effects.

 Efficient handoff : TDMA systems can take advantage of the fact that the
transmitter is switched off during idle time slots to improve the handoff
procedure. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile
assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening to
neighboring base station during the idle slot of the TDMA frame.

 Efficiency of TDMA

 Efficiency of TDMA is a measure of the percentage of bits per frame which

contain transmitted data. The transmitted data include source and channel
coding bits.

 bOH includes all overhead bits such as preamble, guard bits, etc.
3.4.5 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

 Spreading signal (code) consists of chips

 Has Chip period and and hence, chip rate

 Spreading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-random

sequence)

 PN sequence is called a codeword

 Each user has its own cordword

 Codewords are orthogonal. (low autocorrelation)

 Chip rate is oder of magnitude larger than the symbol rate.

 The receiver correlator distinguishes the senders signal by examining the

wideband signal with the same time-synchronized spreading code

 The sent signal is recovered by despreading process at the receiver.

CDMA Advantages:

 Low power spectral density.

 Signal is spread over a larger frequency band

 Other systems suffer less from the transmitter

 Interference limited operation

 All frequency spectrum is used

 Privacy

 The codeword is known only between the sender and receiver. Hence
other users can not decode the messages that are in transit

 Reduction of multipath affects by using a larger spectrum

CDMA data:

Figure 3.11 CDMA Channels transmission

DSSS Transmitter:
 Figure 3.12 CDMA Transmitter

DSSS Receiver

Figure 3.13 CDMA Receiver

 FDMA/CDMA

 Available wideband spectrum is frequency divided into number

narrowband radio channels. CDMA is employed inside each channel.

 DS/FHMA

 The signals are spread using spreading codes (direct sequence signals
are obtained), but these signal are not transmitted over a constant
carrier frequency; they are transmitted over a frequency hopping
carrier frequency.

 Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)

 Each cell is using a different spreading code (CDMA employed

between cells) that is conveyed to the mobiles in its range.

 Inside each cell (inside a CDMA channel), TDMA is employed to

multiplex multiple users.
  Time Division Frequency Hopping

 At each time slot, the user is hopped to a new frequency according to

a pseudo-random hopping sequence.

 Employed in severe co-interference and multi-path environments.

Bluetooth and GSM are using this technique

 A large number of independently steered high-gain beams can be formed

without any resulting degradation in SNR ratio.

 Beams can be assigned to individual users, thereby assuring that all links
operate with maximum gain.

 Adaptive beam forming can be easily implemented to improve the system

capacity by suppressing co channel interference.

Advantage of CDMA

 It is recognized that CDMA’s capacity gains over TDMA

 FDMA are entirely due to Its tighter, dynamic control over the use of the power
domain.

 Choosing a new non-orthogonal PN sequence a CDMA system does not encounter

the difficulties of choosing a spare carrier frequency or time slot to carry a Traffic
Channel

 Ensure that interference will not be too great if it begins to transmit -that there is
still enough space left in the power domain.

Disadvantages of CDMA:

 Satellite transponders are channelized too narrowly for roadband CDMA, which is
the most attractive form of CDMA.

 Power control cannot be as tight as it is in a terrestrial system because of long

round-trip delay.

3.5. Channel allocation schemes:

In radio resource management for wireless and cellular network, channel

allocation schemes are required to allocate bandwidth and communication
channels to base stations, access points and terminal equipment.
 The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral efficiency in
bit/s/Hz/site by means of frequency reuse, but still assure a certain grade of service
by avoiding co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference among nearby
cells or networks that share the bandwidth. There are two types of strategies that are
followed:-

 Fixed: FCA, fixed channel allocation: Manually assigned by the network

operator
 Dynamic:

 DCA, dynamic channel allocation,

 DFS, dynamic frequency selection
 Spread spectrum

3.5.1 FCA:

In Fixed Channel Allocation or Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)

each cell is given a predetermined set of frequency channels.

FCA requires manual frequency planning, which is an arduous task in

TDMA and FDMA based systems, since such systems are highly sensitive to co-
channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the same channel.

This results in traffic congestion and some calls being lost when traffic gets
heavy in some cells, and idle capacity in other cells.

3.5.2. DCA and DFS:

Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in wireless

networks with several adjacent non-centrally controlled access points.

A more efficient way of channel allocation would be Dynamic Channel

Allocation or Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) in which voice channel are
not allocated to cell permanently, instead for every call request base station
request channel from MSC.

3.6 Spread spectrum:

Spread spectrum can be considered as an alternative to complex DCA

algorithms. Spread spectrum avoids cochannel interference between adjacent
cells, since the probability that users in nearby cells use the same spreading code
is insignificant.

Thus the frequency channel allocation problem is relaxed in cellular

networks based on a combination of Spread spectrum and FDMA, for example
IS95 and 3G systems.

In packet based data communication services, the communication is bursty

and the traffic load rapidly changing. For high system spectrum efficiency, DCA
should be performed on a packet-by-packet basis.

Examples of algorithms for packet-by-packet DCA are Dynamic Packet

Assignment (DPA), Dynamic Single Frequency Networks (DSFN) and Packet
and resource plan scheduling (PARPS).

3.6.1 Spread spectrum Techniques:

1 In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum

techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic,
or acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately
spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth.
2 These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the
establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural
interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux
density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
3 Spread-spectrum telecommunications this is a technique in which a
telecommunication signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger
than the frequency content of the original information.
4 Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring
technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of
these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions.
5 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread
spectrum (CSS).
6 Techniques known since the 1940s and used in military
communication systems since the 1950s "spread" a radio signal over a wide
frequency range several magnitudes higher than minimum requirement.
7 Resistance to jamming (interference). DS (direct sequence) is good
at resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while FH (frequency
hopping) is better at resisting pulse jamming.
8 Resistance to fading. The high bandwidth occupied by spread-
spectrum signals offer some frequency diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the
signal will encounter severe multipath fading over its whole
bandwidth, and in other cases the signal can be detected using
e.g. a Rake receiver.
9 Multiple access capability, known as code-division
multiple access (CDMA) or code-division multiplexing (CDM).
Multiple users can transmit simultaneously in the same frequency
band as long as they use different spreading codes.