Classification of Manufacturing Process

 Shaping or forming

 Joining process

 Removal process ( In your syllabus)

 Machining
 The process of removing excess material from a
workpiece to create a desired shape, size, and finish
using various cutting tools and machines.

 Machining is a removal process.

Machining aim to
 Fulfill its functional requirements

 Improve its performance

 Prolong its service.

Drawback in Machining
• Loss of material in the form of chips
Any Machining Process ;-

Cutting Fluid

Cutting Tool

Heating Zones
Chips
(Scrap)
 Machine tool
 A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and
reasonably valued device in which energy is expended to
produce workpiece of desired size, shape and surface finish by
removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the work
surface.

(or)

 Machines that use cutting tools to remove material and shape

workpieces into desired forms.
(or)
 Machine that cut things.
Why even a battery operated
pencil sharpener cannot be
accepted as a machine tool?
 Ans. In spite of having all other major features of
machine tools, the sharpener is of low value.
Rack angle and Clearance angle

t
Rack angle and Clearance angle

b
 = Rake angle
of relief angle
= Shear angle
= Leap angle or knife angle or wedge angle or cutting angle
=Chip thickness
= Uncut chip thickness

>

always Chip thickness ratio

For brittle material,

r= 1 (approx.)
t= d (depth of cut) for orthogonal cutting
t= fsin ) (for turning) for oblique cutting
 Rack Surface and Flank
 The surface along which the chip moves upward is
called ‘Rack surface’ of tool.

 The other surface which is relieved to avoid

rubbing with the machined surface, is called
‘Flank’.
Rake angle and Clearance Angle
 Rake angle ( ): Angle of inclination of rake
surface from reference plane i.e. normal to
horizontal machined surface.

 Clearance angle ( ) :Angle of inclination of

clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface.
Speed, feed and depth of cut
Speed(V) - rate at which the metal is removed by tool
m/s
=
=

Feed(f ) – Distance travel by the tool on the workpiece or

we can say -speed of the tool…(mm/Rev)

f= mm/rev. or ( time taken for machining)

.) = )

Depth of Cut (d) – Thickness of metal removed in one cut of the

tool
The nomenclature of different
angle and surface in turning
Discussion on Rack angle
V V
V
 Positive rake

 Reduce cutting force

 Reduce cutting power

Positive rake angles are recommended
 Machining low strength material

 Low power machine

 Long shaft of small diameter

 Setup of machine have low strength and rigidity

 Low cutting speed

 Cutting tool Material: High speed steel (HSS)

 Negative rake
 Increase edge strength

 Increases life of the tool

 Increases the cutting force

 Requires high power

 Heavy impact loads on machine tool

 Requires high cutting speeds

Negative rake angles are recommended
 Machining high strength alloy (example titanium)

 High speed cutting

 With rigid set- up

 Cutting tool Material: Ceramic, Carbide

 Zero rake
 Increases tool strength

 Brass is turned with zero rake angle

 CI uses zero rake angle

 To manufacturing of the form tools.

 All inserts tool and form tool have zero rake angle.

 Avoids digging of the tool into the workpiece

 Clearance angle
 Provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with
the machined surface.

 Reduce tool wear

 Increase tool life.

 Must be positive (30 – 150)

 Name four independent variables and three
dependent variables in metal cutting.
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
•Tool geometry •Force or power requirements
•Cutting speed •Maximum temperature in cutting
•Lubrication •Surface finish
•Workpiece material •Cutting force
•Feed •Tool life
•Use of coolant •MRR
•Depth of cut and width of cut
 IES-2001
For cutting of brass with single-point cutting tool
on a lathe, tool should have
(a) Negative rake angle
(b) Positive rake angle
(c) Zero rake angle
(d) Zero side relief angle
 IES-1995
Single point thread cutting tool should ideally
have:
a) Zero rake
b) Positive rake
c) Negative rake
d) Normal rake
 GATE-1995; 2008
Cutting power consumption in turning can be
significantly reduced by
(a) Increasing rake angle of the tool

(b) Increasing the cutting angles of the tool

(c) Widening the nose radius of the tool

(d) Increasing the clearance angle

 GATE – 2008 (PI)
Brittle materials are machined with tools having
zero or negative rake angle because it

(a) results in lower cutting force

(b) improves surface finish

(c) provides adequate strength to cutting tool

(d) results in more accurate dimensions

Types of Machining
 Orthogonal Cutting
1. Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the
direction of cutting velocity.
2. The cutting edge is wider than the workpiece
width and extends beyond the workpiece on
either side. Also the width of the workpiece is
much greater than the depth of cut.
3. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the
tool with chip velocity perpendicular to the
cutting edge.
4. The cutting forces act along two directions only.
 Oblique Cutting
1. Cutting edge of the tool is not perpendicular to
the direction of cutting velocity.
2. The cutting edge is may not be wider than the
workpiece width and may not be extends beyond
the workpiece on either side. It is not necessary
that width of the workpiece is greater than the
depth of cut.
3. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the
tool with chip velocity may not be perpendicular
to the cutting edge.
4. The cutting forces act along three
directions/dimensions.
 IAS – 1994
Consider the following characteristics
1. The cutting edge is normal to the cutting velocity.
2. The cutting forces occur in two directions only.
3. The cutting edge is wider than the depth of cut.
The characteristics applicable to orthogonal cutting
would include
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
 IES - 2012
During orthogonal cutting, an increase in cutting speed
causes
(a) An increase in longitudinal cutting force
(b) An increase in radial cutting force
(c) An increase in tangential cutting force
(d) Cutting forces to remain unaffected
Geometry of single point cutting tool
Classification: (According to
the number of major cutting
edges (points) involved.)
 Single point: turning, shaping, planning, slotting
tools, Parting tools etc.
 Double point: drilling tools

 Multipoint: Milling, broaching, hobbing tools,

saw, grinding wheel etc.
 Turning tool

Parting tool

drilling tools

Milling tool broaching, hobbling tools

 IES-2006
Which of the following is a single point cutting
tool?
(a) Hacksaw blade
(b) Milling cutter
(c) Grinding wheel
(d) Parting tool
 System of Description of Tool Geometry
 (I) Machine reference system: ASA or ANSI
( American Standards Association or American National Standards Institute)

 (II) Tool reference system: ORS and NRS

(Orthogonal Rake system(ORS)) /(Normal Rake System(NRS)) - India

 (III) Work reference system: WRS

A Single Point Cutting Tool
 Back Rake angle (αb)
 It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base
of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a
plane perpendicular to the base and parallel to the
length of the tool.

 It affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material

and form the chip.
 Side-rake angle (axial rake) (αs)
 It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base
of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a
plane perpendicular to the base and parallel to the
width.

 Increase in the side rake angle reduces the chip

thickness in turning.
 End-relief angle   e 
 It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge, and a line
drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to
the base. It is usually measured in a plane
perpendicular to the end flank.

 The End Relief Angle prevents friction on the flank

of the tool.
 Side-relief angle   s 
 It is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side-cutting edge, and a
line drawn through this cutting edge
perpendicular to the base.
 End cutting edge angle, ECEA (Ce)
•The end-cutting-edge angle is the amount that the
end-cutting edge slopes away from the nose of the
tool, so that it will clear the finished surface on the
workpiece, when cutting with the side-cutting edge.

•It prevents the trailing end of the cutting edge of tool

from rubbing against the workpiece.

•A larger end cutting edge angle weakens the tool.

•It is usually kept between 8o to 15o

 Side cutting edge angle, SCEA (CS)
 Side cutting edge angle is the angle between the side cutting
edge and the longitudinal axis of tool.
 Larger this angle, the greater the component of force tending
to separate the work and the tool. (May induce Chatter)
(due to chattering material will not cut)
 At its increased value it produce thinner and wider chip that
will distribute the cutting heat. (increase tool life)
 Zero SCEA is desirable when machining casting and forging
with hard and scaly skins.
 Nose radius
 It is curvature of the tool tip.

 It strengthen the tool nose by reducing stress

concentration.

 It provide better surface finish , .

 But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.

 If nose radius increased cutting force and cutting power

increased.

 It increases tool life.

 Lip angle
 Lip angle or cutting angle or knife angle or wedge
angle depends on the rake and clearance angle
provided on the tool and determine the strength
of the cutting edge.
 A larger lip angle permits machining of harder
metals, allow heavier depth of cut, increase tool
life, better heat dissipation.
 IES-1995
The angle between the face and the flank of the
single point cutting tool is known as
a) Rake angle
b) Clearance angle
c) Lip angle
d) Point angle.
 IES-2002
Consider the following statements:
The strength of a single point cutting tool depends
upon
1. Rake angle
2. Clearance angle
3. Lip angle
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
 IES - 2012
Tool life increase with increase in
(a) Cutting speed
(b) Nose radius
(c) Feed
(d) Depth of cut
 IES-2009
Consider the following statements with respect
to the effects of a large nose radius on the tool:
1. It deteriorates surface finish.
2. It increases the possibility of chatter.
3. It improves tool life.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
 IES-1995
Consider the following statements about nose
radius
1. It improves tool life
2. It reduces the cutting force
3. It improves the surface finish.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
 Tool designation (ANSI) or ASA
To remember easily follow the rule

 rake, relief, cutting edge

 Side will come last

 finish with nose radius (inch)

 b   s   e   s  Ce  Cs  R
 Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
i       1  Ce    R
 Inclination angle -i
 Orthogonal rake - 
 side relief angle - 
 end relief –  1
 End cutting edge- Ce
 Approach angle () = 90 - CS
[Sometimes is called principal cutting edge angle (Orthogonal cutting)]
 For Orthogonal cutting, i = 0
 For Oblique cutting, i  0
Inter conversion between ASA & ORS
 IES-1994
Tool geometry of a single point cutting tool is specified by
the following elements:
1. Back rake angle
2. Side rake angle
3. End cutting edge angle
4. Side cutting edge angle
5. Side relief angle
6. End relief angle
7. Nose radius
The correct sequence of these tool elements used for
correctly specifying the tool geometry is
(a) 1,2,3,6,5,4,7 (b) 1,2,6,5,3,4,7
(c) 1,2,5,6,3,4,7 (d) 1, 2, 6, 3, 5, 4,7
 IES-2009
The following tool signature is specified for a single-
point cutting tool in American system:
10, 12, 8, 6, 15, 20, 3
What does the angle 12 represent?
(a) Side cutting-edge angle
(b) Side rake angle
(c) Back rake angle
(d) Side clearance angle
 IES-1993
In ASA System, if the tool nomenclature is
8-6-5-5-10-15-2-mm, then the side rake angle will be

(a) 5° (b) 6° (c) 8° (d) 10°

 ISRO-2011
A cutting tool having tool signature as 10, 9, 6, 6, 8, 8, 2 will
have side rake angle

(a) 10o (b) 9o (c) 8o (d) 2o

 Critical correlations
When   90 s  
When i  0 n  
When i  0 and   90 s  n  
(Pure orthogonal cutting)
Where,  is principal cutting edge angle
i is inclination angle
 s is side rake angle ( ASA)
 is orthogonal rake angle (ORS )
 n is normal rake angle (NRS)
 GATE-2008
In a single point turning tool, the side rake angle
and orthogonal rake angle are equal. Φ is the
principal cutting edge angle and its range is
0o    90o . The chip flows in the orthogonal plane.
The value of Φ is closest to
(a) 00 (b) 450
(c) 600 (d) 900
 Shear angle ( )
t lc Vc sin  1
r    
tc l V cos(   ) h

and
Where,
r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio ; r < 1
h = 1/r = Inverse of chip ratio or chip reduction factor
or chip compression ratio; h > 1

lc= length of chip, Vc= Velocity of chip

IAS - 2009 Main
 Proof

x
D

𝒄
 For angle x,
=
x=180-90-(90-
x= (

(
= r .Cos .Cos + r. Sin . Sin

(1-r. Sin = r .Cos .Cos

 GATE-2001
During orthogonal cutting of mild steel with
a 10° rake angle tool, the chip thickness ratio
was obtained as 0.4. The shear angle (in
degrees) evaluated from this data is
(a) 6.53 (b) 20.22
(c) 22.94 (d) 50.00
 GATE 2011
A single – point cutting tool with 12° rake angle is
used to machine a steel work – piece. The depth of
cut, i.e. uncut thickness is 0.81 mm. The chip
thickness under orthogonal machining condition is
1.8 mm. The shear angle is approximately
(a) 22°
(b) 26°
(c) 56°
(d) 76°
 Cutting shear strain (  )
  cot   tan   
cos 

sin  cos   
 IES - 2009
Minimum shear strain in
orthogonal turning with a cutting
tool of zero rake angle is
(a) 0.0
(b) 0.5
(c) 1.0
(d) 2.0
 IES - 2004
In a machining operation chip
thickness ratio is 0.3 and the rake
angle of the tool is 10°. What is the
value of the shear strain?
(a) 0.31 (b) 0.13
(c) 3.00 (d) 3.34
 Velocities in metal cutting
(i) The velocity of the tool relative to the work piece (V)
is called the cutting speed.

(ii) The velocity of the chip relative to the work, Vs is

called the shear velocity.

(iii) The velocity of the chip relative to the tool, Vc, is

called chip velocity.
V
Derive the expression for velocities in
metal cutting. ESE-2004 (Conv.)

=r
Shear Zones

𝒄
 Shear Strain Rate
(Note: it is not shear strain it is rate of
shear strain i.e. flow)

d Vs
 
dt thickness of shear zone  ts 

Thickness of shear zone can be taken as 1/10th (10%) of

shear plane length and its maximum value is 25 micron.
 GATE -2012
Details pertaining to an orthogonal metal cutting
process are given below.
Chip thickness ratio 0.4
Undeformed thickness 0.6 mm
Rake angle +10°
Cutting speed 2.5 m/s
Mean thickness of primary shear zone 25 microns
The shear strain rate in s–1 during the process is
(a) 0.1781×105 (b) 0.7754×105
(c) 1.0104×105 (d) 4.397×105
Determination of Un-deformed chip
thickness in Turning/oblique cutting:
(VIMP)
For single point cutting tool
t  f sin 
d
b
Where sin 
t =Uncut chip thickness
f = feed
 = 90 – Cs = approach angle
Cs = side cutting edge angle
l D
 GATE-2007
In turning of a low carbon steel bar of diameter
150 mm with uncoated carbide tool, the cutting
velocity is 90 m/min. The feed is 0.24 mm/rev
and the depth of cut is 2 mm. The chip
thickness obtained is 0.48 mm. If the
orthogonal rake angle is zero and the principal
cutting edge angle is 90°, the shear angle is
degree is
(a) 20.56 (b) 26.56
(c) 30.56 (d) 36.56
 IES-2004
Consider the following statements with respect to
the relief angle of cutting tool:
1. This affects the direction of chip flow
2. This reduces excessive friction between the tool
and work piece
3. This affects tool life
4. This allows better access of coolant to the tool
work piece interface
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
 IES-2006
Consider the following statements:
1. A large rake angle means lower strength of the
cutting edge.
2. Cutting torque decreases with rake angle.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 IES-2004
Match. List I with List II and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the Lists:
List I List II
A. Plan approach angle 1. Tool face
B. Rake angle 2. Tool flank
C. Clearance angle 3. Tool face and flank
D. Wedge angle 4. Cutting edge
5. Tool nose
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 2 5 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 1 4 3 5
 IES-2003
The angle of inclination of the rake face with
respect to the tool base measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base and parallel to the width
of the tool is called
(a) Back rake angle
(b) Side rake angle
(c) Side cutting edge angle
(d) End cutting edge angle
 IES-2004, ISRO-2009
The rake angle of a cutting tool is 15°, shear
angle 45° and cutting velocity 35 m/min.
What is the velocity of chip along the tool
face?
(a) 28.5 m/min (b) 27.3 m/min
(c) 25.3 m/min (d) 23.5 m/min
 IES-2008
Consider the following statements:
In an orthogonal cutting the cutting ratio is found to be
0·75. The cutting speed is 60 m/min and depth of cut 2·4
mm. Which of the following are correct?
1. Chip velocity will be 45 m/min.
2. Chip velocity will be 80 m/min.
3. Chip thickness will be 1·8 mm.
4. Chip thickness will be 3·2 mm.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
 IES-2001
If α is the rake angle of the cutting tool,  is the
shear angle and V is the cutting velocity, then the
velocity of chip sliding along the shear plane is
given by

V cos  V sin 
(a) (b) cos    
cos(   )

V cos  V sin 
(c) sin(   )
(d) sin(   )
 IES-2003
An orthogonal cutting operation is being
carried out under the following conditions:
cutting speed = 2 m/s, depth of cut = 0.5 mm,
chip thickness = 0.6 mm. Then the chip
velocity is
(a) 2.0 m/s (b) 2.4 m/s
(c) 1.0 m/s (d) 1.66 m/s
 IAS-2003
In orthogonal cutting, shear angle is the angle between
(a) Shear plane and the cutting velocity
(b) Shear plane and the rake plane
(c) Shear plane and the vertical direction
(d) Shear plane and the direction of elongation of crystals in
the chip
IAS-2002
 IAS-1998
The cutting velocity in m/sec, for turning a work piece
of diameter 100 mm at the spindle speed of 480 RPM is
(a) 1.26 (b) 2.51
(c) 48 (d) 151
 IAS-1995
In an orthogonal cutting, the depth of cut is halved and
the feed rate is double. If the chip thickness ratio is
unaffected with the changed cutting conditions, the
actual chip thickness will be
(a) Doubled (b) halved
(c) Quadrupled (d) Unchanged.
GATE – 2009 (PI) Common Data S-1
An orthogonal turning operation is carried out at 20
m/min cutting speed, using a cutting tool of rake angle
15o. The chip thickness is 0.4 mm and the uncut chip
thickness is 0.2 mm.

The shear plane angle (in degrees) is

(a) 26.8 (b) 27.8 (c) 28.8 (d) 29.8

GATE – 2009 (PI) Common Data S-2
An orthogonal turning operation is carried out at 20
m/min cutting speed, using a cutting tool of rake angle
15o. The chip thickness is 0.4 mm and the uncut chip
thickness is 0.2 mm.

The chip velocity (in m/min) is

(a) 8 (b) 10 (c) 12 (d) 14

 Cause of chip formation

Yielding –in ductile material

Brittle fracture – in brittle material

Mechanism of chip formation in
ductile material
 Mechanism of chip formation in
brittle material

Fig. Development and propagation of crack

causing chip separation.
 Types of chip
 Continuous chip

 Discontinuous chip

 Continuous chip with BUE

 Serrated chip
 Conditions for forming Discontinuous chip
of irregular size and shape
work material brittle (such as grey cast iron)
of regular size and shape
work material – ductile but hard and work hardenable
feed – large
tool rake – negative
cutting fluid – absent or inadequate
 IES-1994
The following parameters determine the
model of continuous chip formation:
1. True feed
2. Cutting velocity
3. Chip thickness
4. Rake angle of the cutting tool.
The parameters which govern the value of shear
angle would include
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,3 and 4
(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 2,3 and 4
 GATE-1995
Plain milling of mild steel plate produces
(a) Irregular shaped discontinuous chips
(b) Regular shaped discontinuous chip
(c) Continuous chips without built up edge
(d) Joined chips
 Conditions for forming Continuous
chip without BUE
 work material – ductile

 Cutting velocity – high

 Feed- low

 Rake angle – positive and high

 Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating

 IES 2007
During machining, excess metal is removed in the form
of chip as in the case of turning on a lathe. Which of the
following are correct?
Continuous ribbon like chip is formed when turning
1. At a higher cutting speed
2. At a lower cutting speed
3. A brittle material
4. A ductile material
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
 Conditions for forming Continuous
chip with BUE
 Work material – ductile

 Cutting velocity – medium

 Feed – medium

 Cutting fluid - absent or inadequate.

 Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation
 In machining ductile material with long chip tool
contact length, lot of stress and temperature develops in
the secondary deformation zone at the chip tool
interface.
 Under such high stress and temperature in between two
clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take
place due to adhesion similar to welding.
 Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the
chip tool materials have mutual affinity or solubility.
 The weld material starts forming as an embryo at the
most favorable location and thus gradually grows.
Contd….
 Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation
 With the growth of the BUE, the force also gradually
increased due to wedging action of the tool tip along
with the BUE formed on it.

 Whenever the force exceeds the bonding force of the

BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by
the flowing chip. Then again starts forming and grow.

 Low cutting speed also contributes to the formation of

BUE.
 IAS-1997
Consider the following machining conditions: BUE will
form in
(a) Ductile material. (b) High cutting speed.
(c) Small rake angle. (d) Small uncut chip thickness.
 GATE-2002
A built-up-edge is formed while machining

(a) Ductile materials at high speed

(b) Ductile materials at low speed

(c) Brittle materials at high speed

(d) Brittle materials at low speed

 Effects of BUE formation
Harmful effect
 Poor surface finish.
 It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip
causing increase of cutting force i.e. power consumption.
 Induce vibration.

Good effect
 BUE protects the cutting edge of the tool i. e. increases
tool life.
 Reduction or Elimination of BUE
Increase
 Cutting speed
 Rake angle

Reduce
 Feed
 Depth of cut
Use
 Cutting fluid
 Change cutting tool material (as cermets).
 Serrated Chips
 Serrated chips also called segmented or non-
homogeneous chips are semi-continuous chips
with zones of low and high shear strain.

 Metals with low thermal conductivity and

strength that decreases sharply with temperature,
such as titanium exhibit this behaviour, the chips
have sawtooth like appearance.
When is forced chip breaking necessary and why ?
When chips continuously form and come out very
hot, sharp and at quite high speed

Under the condition

 soft ductile work material
 flat rake surface with positive or near zero rake
For
 Safety and convenience of the operator
 easy collection and disposal of chips