Biomedical Instrumentation

Course Code: EEE 4221

Section-B; Marks: 37.5

M. R. Talukder
Department of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering
University of Rajshahi
 Learning objectives

By the end of this Lecture the student will be

able to:

➢ Properties and applications of X-ray

➢ X-ray production mechanisms
➢ Differentiate between Continuous and
Characteristic X-ray
➢ Construction & working principle of X-ray
tube
➢ X-ray production efficiency
 X-ray: Properties (Physical)
Can you think to focus photon?
• X-radiation is a form of
electromagnetic radiation
• X-rays travel in straight lines.
• X-rays are invisible
• X-rays cannot be optically focused
• They cannot be accelerated or made to change
direction by a magnet or electrical field
• Electron lose energy & produce x-ray photon
• Wavelength: 0.01 – 10 nm
• Frequency: 3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz
• Controlled by: KV, MA & exposure time
http://www.sprawls.org/ppmi2/XRAYPRO/
 X-ray: Properties (Interaction)
• The x-ray beam used in diagnostic radiography
comprises of many photons that have many different
energies.
• X-rays can cause some substances to fluoresce.
• X-rays cause chemical changes to occur in radiographic
and photographic film.
• X-rays can be absorbed or scattered by tissues in the
human body.
• X-rays can produce secondary radiation.
• X-rays can cause chemical and biologic damage to
living tissue.
 X-ray production

• Bremsstrahlung or Continuous radiation

• Characteristic radiation
 Continuous radiation

If an incoming free electron gets close to the nucleus of a

target atom, the strong electric field of the nucleus will attract
the electron, thus changing direction and speed of the electron.
The Electron looses energy which will be emitted as an X-ray
photon. The energy of this photon will depend on the degree
of interaction between nucleus and electron, i.e. the passing
distance. Several subsequent interactions between one and the
same electron and different nuclei are possible. X-rays
originating from this process are called bremsstrahlung.
Bemsstrahlung is a German word directly describing the
process: "Strahlung" means "radiation", and "Bremse" means
"brake
Continuous X-ray production
 Characteristic X-rays
The high energy electron can also cause an electron close to the
nucleus in a metal atom to be knocked out from its place. This
vacancy is filled by an electron further out from the nucleus. The
well defined difference in binding energy, characteristic of the
material, is emitted as a mono-energetic photon. When detected
this X-ray photon gives rise to a characteristic X-ray line in the
energy spectrum.
 Characteristic Radiation
Binding energies of
different shell electrons

70-12 = 58 keV

L K

70-3 = 67 keV

M K

12-3 = 9 keV

Ke of projectile electron > M L

binding energy of orbital electron
 Characteristics of X-rays
The intensity of the electron beam determines the
intensity of X-ray radiation. Electron energy determines
the shape of the continuous spectrum, in particular the
endpoint of the spectrum. Low energy X-rays are
absorbed in the tube material.
Characteristics of Target materials

X-ray energy determines the emission of

characteristic lines from the target material.
 X-ray tube
Typical operation
conditions are:
• Acceleration Voltage: 20-
150 kV
• Electron Current: 1-5 mA
(for continuous operation)
• Electron Current: 0.1-1.0 A
(for short exposures)

Major components:
• cathode (electron source)
• anode (acceleration potential
• rotor/stator (target device)
• glass/metal envelope (vacuum tube)
 Anode
Tungsten target
2 primary functions:
• convert electronic energy
into x-radiation
• dissipate heat created in
the process
X-radiation efficiency:
• the atomic number Z,
• energy of the electrons
 Cathode-1

Different types of emission:

• Thermionic emission
• Field emission
• Secondary emission
• Photoelectric emission
Z # 74, Melting Point- 3410 C; Z # 90, Thorium made of Tungsten + 1%-3% Thorium
 Cathode-2

• a spiral of heated low resistance (R) tungsten wire

(filament) for electron emission. Wire is heated by
filament current I = V/R. ( V  10V, I  3-6 A )
• Electrons are released by thermionic emission, the
electron current is determined by the temperature
which depends on the wire current. The electron
current is approximately 5 to 10 times less than the
wire current.
• a focusing cup with a negative bias voltage applied
to focus the electron distribution.
 Some definitions

KVp (kilovolt peak): is the voltage applied across anode

& cathode. Energy of the x-ray photon depends on KVp.
The maximum photon energy (KeV) equals to the
maximum applied voltage.
 % Efficiency of x-ray production
Electron energy:
Only a small amount of energy is
converted into x-radiation
Most energy is absorbed and
converted into heat
• Potential energy
% Efficiency= KVp*Z * 10-6
Kinetic energy (2 interactions):
• electronic shells produce
characteristic x-ray photon
• atomic nucleus Bremsstrahlung /
continuous x-ray photon
 X-ray Image formation

❑ Introduction
❑ The Invisible and Visible Image
❑ Image Characteristics

Chapter 12, Page: 169, Physical Principles of Medical Imaging by Perry Sprawls
 Learning objectives

By the end of this Lecture the student will be able to:

➢ Define the terms, image and identify its types and methods of
viewing
➢ Identify the stages of image formation
➢ Differentiate between the invisible (latent) and visible image
➢ List and define the basic image characteristics
➢ Differentiate between density and contrast and state their
relationship
 Principle of Image formation

• X-ray beam of uniform intensity falls on object

consists of structures with different absorption
properties,
• It attenuates in different amounts by different
structures,
• The transmitted beam consists of different
intensities – called the ‘aerial image’,
• The aerial image falls on the image receptor,
usually on a cassette containing x-ray film &
intensifying screens.
Image formation
 Image formation
• Primary Radiation: The beam of photons, interacts
with the patient’s body.
• Remnant Radiation: The resulting beam that is able
to exit from the patient.
• Scattered Radiation: Radiation that interacts with
matter & only continues in a different direction –
not useful for image production.
• Attenuation: Primary radiation that is changed
(partially absorbed) as it travels through the
patient.
 Image formation

• Medical imaging is the extraction of anatomical and

physiological information from the patient and the
interpretation of these information for the purpose of
diagnosing diseases
• The flow of the information from the patient to the
observer is through three stages:
❑The formation of the invisible image
❑The conversion of the invisible image into a visible
light image
❑Interpretation of the visible image
 Radiographic Contrast
A. X-rays B. Penetration C. Film
1. Object: 1. Source: 1. Characteristic
• Atomic Number • Field size curve:
• Density • Thickness • Design
• Thickness • KV • Processing
2. Photon energy 2. Grid 2. Exposure
• KV • Ratio
• Filter
• Anode
 Stages of Contrast
Development in Radiography
 Image formation

Image characteristics
• Density and Contrast

Density
The amount of blackening
“darkness” on the radiograph
Contrast
The differences between
the blacks to the whites
 Image formation
Step-1: The formation of the invisible image
❑ During radiographic examination X-ray passes through the patient
❑ As x-rays penetrate through the body tissues it become modified each
part of the beam is attenuated in a degree which depend on
➢ The tissue type

➢ The intensity of the beam

➢ Thickness of the tissue
❑ Film is the simplest image receptor, but it is usually coupled with
intensifying screens, which help reduce the dose to the patient.
❑ X-ray film responds to a range of wavelengths and is in fact far more
sensitive to light than it is to x-rays.
❑ After exposure to x-rays an invisible image known as the latent image
is formed.
 Image formation
Step-2: Conversion of invisible image into visible

Types of Conversion
❑ Using the photographic effect of x-rays on a sensitive sheet (x-
ray film)
❑ Using xero-radiographic effect process through exposing an
electrically charged imaging plate
❑ Using the fluorescent effect of x-ray on a sensitive screen
where the x-rays is converted into light when touches these
screens
❑ Using the process of photon stimulated luminescence where a
phosphor coated imaging plate is exposed to x-ray , the
absorbed energy is stored in the phosphor layer until
stimulated by laser photons to form the visible image
 Image formation
Why you see? What you see?

• The images have different levels of density –

different shades of gray
• X-rays show different features of the body in various
shades of gray.
• The gray is darkest in those areas that do not absorb
X-rays well – and allow it to pass through
• The images are lighter in dense areas (like bones) that
absorb more of the X-rays.
 Image formation
Step:3 (Viewing) Interpretation of the visible image

Types of viewing
Viewing by reflected light from a surface
- Examples (texts, illustrations in books etc)
Viewing by transmitted light
- Through a semitransparent layer (e.g. radiographs)
Viewing by emitted light from fluorescent layer
- Examples (fluoroscopic image on the TV screen)
 Image receptor
Many different types image receptors are used in modern diagnostic
radiology. They all have in common that they form an image by absorption
of energy from the X-ray beam (after transmitting through the body). The
main characteristics will be discussed on the example of the direct
exposure film.
Direct-Exposure Film
1. Direct exposure film has a relatively low absorption efficiency
for photons in the diagnostic range, however it is still used in
many combinations of image receptor systems.
2. Direct exposure film material has special design of two
photographic emulsions with protective layers to optimize the
absorption efficiency .
3. Correct exposure is important to produce a reliable image on
the film. Over- or underexposure will result in loss of contrast
and therefore possibly in loss of diagnostic information.
 Image formation
Step:4 (Viewing) Interpretation of the visible image
❑ The final image whether it would be on a film sheet or on a
television screen should be viewed under specific conditioned to
evaluate its quality and then passes for diagnosis
 IMAGE FORMATION

Image characteristics
❖ Noise
❖ Contrast
❖ Sharpness
❖ Resolution
 IMAGE FORMATION
Image characteristics
• Noise
Real images consist of 2 components
- Meaningful pattern (Signal)
- Chaotic pattern ( Noise)
The details of the structures is affected by noise

+Noise = - Details
 IMAGE FORMATION
Image characteristics
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
• Under optimal condition the magnitude of signal is
greater than the magnitude of the noise
- SNR is said to be high ( More details)
• When the magnitude of nearest the magnitude of the
noise
- SNR is said to be Low ( Less details)
Low SNR

High SNR