Environment Notes
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Adarsh PrasadEnvironment Notes
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Adarsh PrasadCompilation of
Daily Class Notes
Environment
List of Lectures
1. Introduction
2. Ecosystem
3. Functions of Ecosystem
4. Biotic Interaction and Productivity of an Ecosystem
5. Ecological Succession
6. Biogeochemical Cycles
7. Major Biomes or Ecosystems
8. Major Biomes or Ecosystem (Part 02)
9. Aquatic Biomes or Ecosystem
10. Wetland Ecosystem
11. Mangrove Ecosystem
12. Ramsar Convention and Coral Reef
13. Ozon Depletion
14. Acid Rain and Biodiversity
15. Biodiversity (Part 02)
16. Biodiversity Conservation
17. International Convention on Biodiversity
18. Climate Change
19. Climate Action
20. Climate Change and India
21. Environmental Impact Assessment
22. Current Developments in Environment
Environment
Lecture 01: INTRODUCTION
● We are surrounded by various environmental components that significantly influence our
lives; thus, the environment is essentially our surroundings.
● However, human activities are leading to the destructionoftheenvironmenttomeetour
needs, making it crucial to protect our environment.
● For the UPSC exam, it's important to understand fundamental concepts such as
ecosystems, biodiversity, climate change, and biomes, along with the dynamic aspectsof
the environment as covered in current affairs. Current affairs may include plans and
policies of national and international significance.
● In the study of environmental basics, we will explore concepts and components of the
environment, types of environments, the importance of the environment, and therelated
problems and adaptations.
Components of Environment
● Biotic Components: Biotic components refer to alllivingorganismswithinanecosystem.
These components are essential for the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
● AbioticComponents:Abioticcomponentsarethenonlivingphysicalandchemicalelements
of the environment. These components provide the basic needs and conditions for the
survival of biotic components.
● Energy:Energyisacriticalcomponentthatdrivesallecologicalprocesses.Itflowsthrough
the ecosystem in various forms and supports the survival and functioning of organisms.
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Types of Environment
Tounderstandtheenvironmentcomprehensively,itiscrucialtoexploreitsvarioustypes,eachwith
distinct characteristics and influences. The environment can be broadly categorized into three
types: Biological Environment, Physical Environment, and Cultural Environment.
Biological Environment
Thebiologicalenvironmentreferstothelivingcomponentsthatinteractwitheachotherandtheir
surroundings. It encompasses all forms of life and their interactions within ecosystems.
● Flora (Plants): Includes all plant life, ranging from tiny algae to large trees. Plants
produce oxygen, provide food, and serve as habitats for various organisms.
● Fauna (Animals): Encompasses all animal life, including insects, birds, mammals, and
aquaticorganisms.Animalsplaydiverserolesinecosystems,suchaspollinators,predators,
and prey.
● Microorganisms: Bacteria, fungi, and viruses that decompose organic matter, recycle
nutrients, and influence the health of larger organisms.
● Interactions: Includes various biological interactions such as symbiosis, competition,
predation, and mutualism, which shape the dynamics of ecosystems.
Physical Environment
The physical environment consists of the non-living, abiotic components that provide the
conditions and resources necessary for life.
● Atmosphere:ThelayerofgassessurroundingtheEarth,includingoxygen,nitrogen,carbon
dioxide, and others, which are essential for respiration and photosynthesis.
● Hydrosphere: All water bodies on Earth, such as oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
Water is vital for all living organisms and supports various ecological processes.
● Lithosphere: The solid, outer part of the Earth, including soil, rocks, and minerals. It
provides nutrients for plants, habitats for organisms, and resources for human activities.
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Cultural Environment
Theculturalenvironmentencompassesthehuman-createdaspectsthatinfluenceandinteractwith
the natural environment. It includes cultural, social, and economic factors that shape human
activities and their impact on the environment.
● Social Systems: Societal organization, including communities,institutions,andgovernance
structures that regulate human interactions with the environment.
● Economic Activities: Agriculture, industry, commerce, and services that utilize natural
resources and impact environmental health.
Importance of Environment
● Provides Basics of Life: The environment supplies essential elements like air and water
necessary for survival.
● SourceofFood:Itoffersfertilesoilforagricultureandaquaticsystemsforfish,ensuringa
steady food supply.
● Shelter: Natural resources like wood and stone are used to construct homes and other
structures for habitation.
● ResourcesLikeClothesandMedicine:Itprovidesnaturalfibersforclothingandmedicinal
plants for healthcare.
● Cleaning Actions: Natural processes purify air and water, and decomposers recycle
nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Problems Related to Environment
● Environmental Degradation: The deterioration of the environment through depletion of
resources and destruction of ecosystems.
● GlobalWarming:TheincreaseinEarth'saveragesurfacetemperatureduetorisinglevelsof
greenhouse gasses.
● Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature, precipitation,andotheratmospheric
conditions on Earth.
● Ozone Layer Depletion: The thinning of the ozone layer caused by chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), leading to increased UV radiation reaching the Earth.
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● Land Degradation: The decline in land quality caused by human activities such as
deforestation, overgrazing, and industrialization.
● Water Body Degradation: Pollution and over-exploitation of rivers, lakes, and oceans,
leading to a decline in water quality and aquatic life.
● LossofBiodiversity:Thereductioninthevarietyoflifeformsduetohabitatdestruction,
pollution, and climate change.
● Environmental Pollution: The contamination of the natural environment, causing adverse
effects on living organisms and ecosystems.
○ AirPollution:Harmfulsubstanceslikeparticulatesandgassesarereleasedintothe
atmosphere, affecting air quality and health.
○ Water Pollution: Contaminants enter water bodies, degrading water quality and
harming aquatic life.
○ Land Pollution: The deposition of waste materials on land leading to soil
contamination and loss of fertility.
○ Sound Pollution: Excessive noise from industrial, transportation,andothersources
causing hearing loss and stress.
○ Light Pollution:Excessive artificial light disruptingecosystems and human health.
○ Radioactivity: The presence of radioactive substances in the environment posing
health risks and environmental hazards.
Environmental Adaptations
Environmentaladaptationshelpanimalsadjusttothespecificclimateoftheirhabitat.Forexample,
African elephants have larger ears compared to their Indian counterparts.
Structural Adaptations
● Structural adaptations involve physical features that enhance an animal's survival.
● The hightemperaturesinAfricanecessitatelargerearstoreleaseexcessbodyheat,while
Indian elephants, living in relatively cooler climates, have smaller ears sufficientfortheir
thermal regulation needs.
● Similarly,polarbearshaveadaptedtothecoldpolarregionswiththeirwhitefur,whichnot
only provides insulation but also serves as camouflage in the snow.
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● Sealsandwhales,forinstance,havedevelopedflippers,whichaidinefficientswimming,an
essentialtraitforaquaticlife.Giraffeshaveevolvedlongnecks,enablingthemtoreachand
feed on high foliage in trees, which other animals cannot access.
Physiological Adaptations
● Physiological adaptations are internal processes that help animals cope with their
environment.
● Desertanimalspossesshighlyefficientkidneysthatproduceconcentratedurine,conserving
water in arid conditions.
● Leeches,ontheotherhand,producehirudin,ananti-bloodclottingagent,allowingthemto
feed onthebloodofotheranimalswithoutthebloodclotting,ensuringacontinuousflow
of nourishment.
Behavioral Adaptations
● Behavioral adaptations areactionsanimalstaketosurvive.Manyanimalsmigratetomore
favorable environments for breeding, feeding, or better climatic conditions.
● Hibernation is another behavioral adaptation where animalsenterastateofwintersleep,
significantly slowing down their metabolism to conserve energy during the cold months
when food is scarce.
● In contrast, aestivation, orsummersleep,helpsanimalssurviveextremeheatanddrought
by lowering their metabolic rate.
Nothinginbiologymakessenseexceptinthelightofevolutionandnothinginevolutionmakes
sense except in the light of environment.
Environmental Adaptations in Plants
Plants, like animals, have developed various adaptations to survive and thrive in different
environmental conditions. These adaptations are crucialfortheirgrowth,reproduction,andoverall
survival.
● Tundra Region: In thetundraregion,theharshclimatewithcoldtemperaturesandshort
growing seasons limits plant growth. Therefore, wetypicallyfindlichens,mosses,grasses,
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and shrubs, but no trees. These plants have adapted to survive with minimal water and
nutrients, often growing low to the ground to avoid damage from cold winds.
● Taiga Region: The taiga,orborealforest,ischaracterizedbyitsconiferoustrees,suchas
pines,spruces,andfirs.Thesetreeshaveneedle-likeleavesthatreducewaterlossandare
coatedwithathick,waxycuticletoprotectagainstcoldanddesiccation.Theconicalshape
of these trees helps shed snow and prevent branch breakage.
● Rainforest: Rainforests are known for their large, dense trees that form a canopylayer.
These trees havebroadleavestocaptureasmuchsunlightaspossibleinthecompetition
for light. The leaves often have drip tips to shed excess water, preventing mold and
bacterial growth in the humid environment.
● Desert:Xerophyticplants,suchascacti,arewell-adaptedtothearidconditionsofdeserts.
Cactihavedeeprootstoabsorbwaterfromdeepunderground.Originally,theseplantsmay
havebeentypicalleafyplants,butasdesertificationintensified,theyadaptedbymodifying
their leaves into thorns to minimize water loss through transpiration. Their stems have
turned green toperformphotosynthesis,andtheypossesssunkenstomatathatopenonly
at night to reduce water loss.
● Mangroves: Mangrove plants, foundincoastalintertidalzones,haveuniqueadaptationsto
survive in salty, waterlogged soil. Their roots grow above the ground, forming structures
knownaspneumaticroots,whichhelpthemabsorboxygenintheanaerobicsoilconditions.
An exampleistheSundaritreefoundintheSundarbansmangroves.Theserootsnotonly
provide stability in the soft soil but also facilitate gas exchange.
Level Of Organisation
● Thelevelsoforganizationinbiologydescribeahierarchyofcomplexstructuresandsystems
that define life, ranging from the simplest forms to the most complex.
● At the foundational level are atoms, the basic units of matter, which combine to form
molecules. These molecules are essential for various biochemical processes and come
together to create cells, the basic units of life.
● Cells performessentiallifefunctionsandcanexistindependently,asseeninsingle-celled
organisms, or as part of a larger organism. Groups of similar cells form tissues, each
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performing specific functions such as muscle tissue for movement or nervous tissue for
transmitting signals.
● Differenttissuesthencombinetoformorgans,liketheheart,lungs,andliver,eachwitha
uniquerole.Organsworktogetherwithinorgansystems,whichareresponsibleforcomplex
functions necessary for survival, such as the digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems.
● When these organ systems function together, they form a complete organismcapableof
independent life.
● Populationsareformedbygroupsoforganismsofthesamespecieslivinginaspecificarea,
interacting and reproducing to ensure species survival. Different populations of various
species interacting in a particular area create a community.
● A community, along with its abiotic components like water, air, and soil, forms an
ecosystem.Ecosystemsfunctionasunitswithenergyflowandnutrientcycling,supporting
diverse life forms.
Biosphere
● Thebiosphereiswherelifeispossible,integratingtheatmosphere(air),lithosphere(land),
and hydrosphere (water) to create a habitable environment.
● The biosphere encompasses all ecosystems and biomes on Earth, extending from the
ocean'ssurfacetoabout8kmintotheatmosphere,providingasupportiveenvironmentfor
life.
Biome
● Biomes are large regions characterized by specific climatic conditions, vegetation, and
adaptations of flora and fauna. Examples include deserts, forests, and grasslands, each
hosting unique ecosystems with specialized plant and animal life.
● Biomes,asdistinctregionsofthebiosphere,aredefinedbytheirclimaticconditions,types
of vegetation, and adaptations of flora and fauna.
● Climatesignificantlyinfluencesthetypesoforganismsthatcanthriveinabiomeandits
geographic boundaries.
● Each biome, such as tundra, taiga, temperate forests, tropical rainforests, deserts, and
grasslands, supports unique ecosystems with specialized plant and animal life.
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● Together,allbiomesconstitutethebiosphere,thesumofallecosystems,wherediverselife
forms coexist and interact.
Types of Biomes
Biomes are large ecological areas on the Earth's surface, classified based on distinct climate
conditions, vegetation types, and the adaptations of flora and fauna. They can be broadly
categorized into two main types: terrestrial and aquatic.
Terrestrial Biomes:
● Tundra: Characterized byextremelycoldtemperatures,limitedsunlight,andshortgrowing
seasons, tundra regions are found primarily in the Arctic and Antarctic. The vegetation
consists mainly of mosses, lichens, and low shrubs, adapted to harsh conditions.
● Taiga:Alsoknownasborealforests,taigaisthelargestterrestrialbiome,stretchingacross
North America, Europe, and Asia. It is characterized by coniferous trees like pines and
spruces,whichareadaptedtocoldclimatesandhaveneedle-likeleavesthatreducewater
loss.
● Grassland: Grasslands are dominated by grasses and have few trees due to insufficient
rainfall.Theycanbecategorizedintosavannasandtemperategrasslands.Thesebiomesare
home to various herbivores and predators and play a crucial role in agriculture.
● TemperateForest:Theseforestsarefoundintemperateregionsandarecharacterizedby
distinctseasons.Theyarehometodeciduoustreesthatshedtheirleavesinwinter,aswell
as evergreen trees. The diverse flora supports a variety of animal species.
● Tropical Forest: Tropical forests, also known as rainforests, are located near theequator
and are characterized by high temperatures and abundant rainfall. They are incredibly
biodiverse, with a vast range of plant and animal species, and have multiple layers of
vegetation.
● Deserts:Desertsarecharacterizedbylowprecipitationandextremetemperaturevariations
betweendayandnight.Vegetationissparse,consistingmainlyofdrought-resistantplants
like cacti and succulents, which have adapted to conserve water.
Aquatic Biomes:
● Rivers: Rivers are flowing freshwater bodies that support diverse ecosystems. They are
crucial for nutrient cycling and providehabitatsforvariousaquaticspecies,includingfish,
amphibians, and insects.
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● Seas: Seas are large bodies of saltwater that connect to oceans and are essential for
marinebiodiversity.Theyprovidehabitatsforawiderangeoforganisms,frommicroscopic
plankton to large marine mammals.
● CoralReefs:Coralreefsarevibrantecosystemsfoundinwarm,shallowwaters,primarilyin
tropical regions. They are formed by coral polyps and support an incredible diversity of
marine life, making them one of the most productive biomes on the planet.
● Wetlands: Wetlands are areas where water covers the soilorispresentnearthesurface
for part oftheyear.Theycanbefreshwaterorsaltwaterandarecriticalforbiodiversity,
serving as habitats for numerous species and playing a key role in water filtration.
● Mangroves: Mangroves are coastal ecosystems found in tropical and subtropical regions.
They consist of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that thrive in intertidal zones. Mangroves
provide important habitats for fish and other marine species and help protect coastlines
from erosion.
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Environment
Lecture 02: Ecosystem
Ecosystem:
● A community of living organisms in conjugation with non-living(Abiotic) components of
their environment interacting as a system is known as an ecosystem.
● Itisnothingbutabiologicalcommunityinassociationwithnon-livingcomponentsofthe
environment.
Concept of the ecosystem:
● There are two parts of the ecosystem:
○ Biotic or biological community
○ Abiotic or physical community
Components of an ecosystem:
● Biotic components:
○ Producers are called autotrophs, such as Green Plants.
○ Consumers do not produce food. These are called heterotrophs.
○ Decomposers like bacteria and fungi decompose theenvironment.Thesearecalled
Saprotrophs.
● Abiotic components:
○ The physical environment includes light, wind, water, atmospheric gasses,
temperature, soil, and physiography (Landscape).
Biotic component of an ecosystem:
● Producer:
○ They prepare food through the process of photosynthesis.
○ They convert simple inorganic substances into complex energy-rich organic
substances.
○ Green vegetation is an example of the producer.
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● Consumers:
○ They eat food that is a complex energy-rich organic substance.
○ Consumers can be herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
● Decomposers:
○ They convert complex energy-rich organic substances into simple inorganic
substances. This is also known as the recycling of nutrients.
○ These are called Saprotrophs or Detritivores.
○ Energy flow is unidirectional from producer to consumer and then to decomposers.
Types of ecosystem:
● Terrestrial ecosystem:
○ It is a land-based community of organisms and the interactions of biotic and
abiotic components in a given area.
○ Major terrestrial ecosystems are:
■ Tundra in the Arctic and Taiga in the Alpine region
■ Conifer forest
■ Temperate forest
■ Temperate grassland
■ Tropical grassland
■ Tropical forest
■ Desert
● Aquatic ecosystem:
○ It is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water. Aquatic ecosystems
contain communities of organisms that depend on each other and their
environment.
○ It is divided into two:
■ Marine Ecosystems: These are aquatic environments with high levels of
dissolved salt.
● Types of Marine Ecosystems:
○ Open ocean (Plaggic)
○ Continental shelf (Inshore)
○ Deep sea (Hydrothermal vent)
■ Freshwater ecosystems:
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● They are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems.
● They include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and
wetlands.
● Types of freshwater are Steady water (Lentic) andRunningwater
(Lotic).
■ Transitional ecosystem:
● These are complex
human-environmental
systems where
environmental,
economic, and social
issues call for new
integratedmanagement
perspectives.
● It includes Wetlands,
Estuaries, and Mangroves.
Ecotone:
● Atransitionalecosystemortransitionalzonebetweentwoadjacentecosystems,biomes,or
communities that contains some of the
species and characteristics of each one
and also contains species of its own is
known as an ecotone.
● An ecotone is an area that acts as a
transitionoraboundarybetweentwoor
more ecosystems.
● Examples of ecotones are
○ areas of marshland betweenthe
river and river bank,
○ mangrove forest between terrestrial and marine ecosystems,
○ thorny grassland between forest and desert ecosystems,
○ estuaries between saltwater and freshwater.
Characteristics of Ecotone:
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● It can be a natural or man-made ecosystem. (agro forest, man-made pond bank)
● It can be wide or narrow.
● It has intermediate conditions in the adjacent ecosystem and is known as the zone of
tension.
● It will have some species from both ecosystems and Some new species as well.
● Agreater number of series are found in this regionand this is called the Edgeeffect.
● The total number of species and animals in the ecotone or transitional area is always
higher than in the other area. Species found in ecotone are known asEdge species.
Importance of Ecotone:
● A greater diversity of organisms or species is found here.
● A nesting place for birds: It provides a good nesting place for birds and various other
organisms.
● ActasaBufferZone:Itactsasabufferzoneandprotectstheadjacentecosystemfrom
possible damage.
○ Example: wetland absorbs pollutants and stops them from getting into rivers.
● It is a very sensitive indicator ofclimatechangebecauseoftheshiftingofboundaries
between ecosystems or due to climate change.
● Examples of man-made ecosystems are aquariums, zoos, Parks, gardens, agroforests,
plantations, dams, and Water reservoirs.
Difference between Habitat and Niche:
Habitat Niche
A physical place or area where aspecieslives A functional role(profession) played by an
grows, and thrives is known as organism in an ecosystem is known as a niche
habitat(address).
Manyspeciescanoccupythesamehabitat(not It supports only single species(species-specific)
species-specific)
It is the nutrition-providing area for the Itistheroleandpositionofthespeciesinthe
species. nutrient cycle.
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It includes numerous niche It does not include habitat
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Environment
Lecture 03: Functions of Ecosystem
Functions of an Ecosystem:
● Anecosystemisanopensystemwhereinthetransferofenergyandcyclingofnutrients
takes place.
● Functions of the ecosystem comprise of three important elements:
○ Energy flow:The transfer of energy through trophiclevels in an ecosystem, from
producers to consumers, facilitating life processes and sustaining the food web.
○ Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycle):The recyclingof essential elements like
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus between living organisms and the environment,
ensuring the availability of nutrients for ecosystem productivity.
○ Ecological succession (Development of ecosystem):The process of gradual,
sequential changes in the composition and structure of an ecosystem over time,
resulting from natural disturbances or human influences, leading to the development
of a stable and diverse ecosystem.
Energy flow:
● Energy is a basic force responsible for all metabolic activities (Life activities).
● The Sun is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem.
● Energy flow is always unidirectional and it is always from the producer to the consumer to
the decomposer.
● For Example-
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Grasses → Grasshopper Frog → Snake → Eagle →
→
(Producer) (Secondary (Tertiary (Top
(Primary Consumer) Consumer) Consumer)
(First
Consumer)
Trophic (Third (Fourth (Fifth
Level) (Second Trophic Trophic Trophic
Trophic Level) Level) Level)
Level)
● Energy flows through trophic levels in the ecosystem.
● The trophic level represents the relative position of an organism in the food chain or food
web.
Food chain:
● It is the sequence of eating and being
eaten.
● A linear sequence of organisms where
nutrients and energy are transferred
from one organism to the other.
Types of the food chain:
● Grazing food chain:It starts with
plants.
● The Detritus food chain:It starts from decaying matter(Dead organic matter). Example:
Litter is being eaten by earthworms which are eaten by birds which in turn are eaten by
Hawks.
Food web:
● An interconnected food chain is called a food web.
● Food Web provides:
○ More than one alternative for food
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○ increase the chances of survival.
○ bring more diversity to the ecosystem.
○ brings more productivity to the ecosystem due to many choices.
Energy flow:
● Lindeman Law of 10% energy:
○ It was given by Lindeman.
○ According to Lindeman,only 10% of
energy is transferredfrom one trophic
level to the next in a food chain. The rest
90% of the energy is utilized by
organismsfor respiration, other metabolic
activities, and heat generation.
○ That is why in any food chain trophic
levels are limited up to 4-5 steps only.
Ecological Pyramids (Eltonian Pyramid):
● It is a graphical representation of the ecosystem.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids:
○ Energy pyramid
○ Biomass pyramid
○ Number pyramid
Energy pyramid:
● The energy pyramid isalways upright in any ecosystembecause only 10% of energy will
be transferred to the next trophic level.
● The bottom trophic level is producers and the top trophic levels are consumers.
Biomass pyramid:
● It will be both upright and inverted.
● It will beupright in the terrestrial ecosystem and inverted in the aquatic ecosystem.
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Number pyramid:
● This pyramid isalways upright except in the tree ecosystem(a single tree can be
considered an ecosystem).
● In the tree ecosystem, this pyramid is inverted.
Pollutants in Trophic level:
● Pollutants move through various trophic levels in the ecosystem because of two main
processes.
● These two processes are:
○ Bioaccumulation
○ Biomagnification.
Bioaccumulation:
● Accumulation of toxic substances in a
single organism over time happens
when organisms absorb chemicals that
they can not break down or excrete.
● Bioaccumulation takes place in a single
trophic level or particular organism.
● For example, human hormones can
build up in fish if the river is polluted.
● Accumulation of toxic substances in
aquatic ecosystems is known as
bioconcentration.
Biomagnification (Bioamplification):
● Increase in concentration of toxic
chemicals as they move up in the food
chain. This happens when chemicals
are passed from one trophic level to
the next trophic level.
● For example, the concentration of
mercury has increased with increasing
trophic levels in marine ecosystems.
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● Biomagnification occurs across the trophic level or in the entire food chain.
● Bioaccumulation in one organism leads to biomagnification in the food chain.
● Pollutants or chemical concentrations will increase along the trophic level of the food chain.
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Environment
Lecture 04: Biotic Interaction and Productivity of
an Ecosystem
Biotic Interaction:
● It is the interaction of different organisms in the community that influences each other.
Types of Biotic Interaction:
● Amensalism:
○ Thisisanegativeassociationbetweentwospeciesinwhichonespeciesharmsor
restricts the other species without itself being adversely affectedorharmed
by the presence of the other species.
○ ForExample:Asmallplantgrowingunderabigtree,inthissmalltreeisharmed
by a big tree as it restricts the penetration of sun rays.
● Commensalism:
○ In this relationship, one species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.
○ For Example,The dung beetle finds food and shelter from the cow dung.
● Neutralism:
○ Two species in a relationship with each other areneitherbenefitedorharmedby
each other.
○ Example:Rabbits and Deer living together.
● Mutualism:
○ Close association between two species in which both species benefit from each
other.
○ For ExampleLichen (Algae and Fungi).
● Competition:
○ Interaction between two species in which both species are harmed to some extent.
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○ For example: Manycarnivoressuchastigersandlionsliveinajunglecomputing
for food.
● Parasitism:
○ In this type of interaction, one species is harmed, and the other benefits.
○ For example:Disease-causing parasites in humans, animals, and plants.
● Predation:
○ Predationisabiologicalinteractioninwhichoneorganism,knownasthepredator,
hunts, kills, and consumes another organism, known as the prey, for food.
○ For example:Frog eating grasshoppers or tiger-eating deer.
Example of mutualism or symbiotic relationship:
● Lichen: Association of lichen with algae and fungi, algae can make food from
photosynthesis, the food is transferred to fungi,andfungiinreturnprovidewatertothe
algae.
Note:
● Lichens are an indicator species of air pollution.
● Lichen growth decreases in the presence of air pollution.
● Mycorrhiza: Mycorrhiza is an association of two organisms one is fungi and plant roots.
Fungiabsorbwaterfromthesoilandtransferittoplantsinreturnplantsprovidefoodto
fungi.
Note:
● Mycorrhiza givesbenefitstoplantsandcropssuchasitdecreasestheeffectof
soil salinity, and protects the plant from harmful infection.
● Biological Nitrogen(N2)Fixation:
○ It is the result of the symbiotic relationship between rhizobium bacteria and
leguminous plant roots. Rhizobium bacteria convert nitrogen into nitrate and
transfer it to leguminous plant roots which provide shelter and a suitable
environment for the nitrate.
○ Note: Rhizobium bacteria requireanoxygen-freeenvironmentwhichisprovidedby
the roots of leguminous plants.
● Intestinal flora:
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○ Intestinalfloraisasymbioticassociationbetweengoodbacteriaandthehumangut
or intestine.
○ The human intestine provides shelter and food to good bacteria which helps in
digestion and immunity. Good bacteria decrease with an increase in bad food
habits.
○ Types of food:
■ Probiotic food: Probiotic foods are those that contain live good
microorganisms, which can provide health benefits when consumed in
adequate amounts. Examples of probiotic food are curd and probiotic milk.
■ Prebiotic food: Prebiotic foods are non-digestible fibers that promote the
growth and activity of beneficial gut bacteria. They serve as food for
probiotics and can enhance gut health, digestion, and overall well-being.
Examples of the prebiotic food are fruits and vegetables.
Productivity of the Ecosystem:
● Itistherateofformationofbiomass(Drymass)ortherateatwhichBiomassincreases
perunitareaperunitoftimeortherateatwhichenergyisaccumulatedbyGreenplants
in the form of organic substance (Biomass or chemical energy).
● TheunitofproductivityoftheecosystemisKcal/m2/year(Massperunitvolumeperunit
time or energy per unit volume per unit time).
Types of Productivity of Ecosystem
● Primary Productivity:
○ The amount of solar energy converted into solarenergybyproducersisknownas
primary productivity.
○ It is in the productivity of autotrophs or producers or green plants or the first
trophic level.
○ It is an outcome of photosynthesis in an ecosystem.
○ Carbon dioxide (CO2) and a water molecule (H2O) in the presence of sunlight
formacomplexenergy-richmolecule,whichisknownasGlucose(C6H12O2).This
willgiverisetostarchandcelluloseasbiomassorchemicalenergy.Thisprocessis
known as the metabolic process. It is an endothermic process.
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Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):
● Thetotalsolarenergyusedtoproducebiomassbytheprocessofphotosynthesisisknown
as gross primary productivity.
● Most of the GPP is lost due to plant life activity or cellular respiration is known as
respiratory loss(R).
● A considerable portion of the solar energy fixed by plants (GPP) isutilizedbyplantsin
respiration (R) to get the energy needed for their metabolism and othervitalfunctions.
This entire process is known as the
catabolic process or endothermic process.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP):
● The amount of energy left after being
consumed in respiration (R) is used for
growth or producing new individuals i.e.
reproduction. This is known as NetPrimary
Productivity (NPP).
GPP - R = NPP or
GPP = NPP + R
● Leftover biomass after respiratory loss(R) is known as NPP.
● NPP has stored biomass(Chemical energy) in plants which is available for consumers in
the food chain.
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Lecture 05: Ecological Succession
Number pyramid:
● It is always upright except in the tree ecosystem.
● In the tree ecosystem, this pyramid is inverted.
Classification of Ecosystem-based on Productivity:
Ecological Successions:
● Ecological succession is the process by which communities of plant and animal species in
an area are replaced or changed into another community over a period of time.
OR
● Ecological succession is the development of an
ecosystem through the process of a series of
directional changes over a period of time.
● It occurs when a series of communities replace
one another due to large-scale destruction either
natural or man-made.
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● Ecological succession is a multi-step process.
Process of Ecological Successions:
● It is a multi-step process.
● It is a unidirectional process.
Sere:
● The entire sequence of communities that are changing in a given area during ecological
succession is known as sere.
Types of Sere:
Name of Sere Area of succession
Hydrosere Aquatic areas
Xerosere Dry areas
Lithosere Bare rock
Psammosere Sandy areas
Halosere Saline areas
Ecological succession in the pond:
● It could take anywhere from a few years to hundreds of years for a pond to succeed into a
meadow.
● The transition from a pond habitat to a meadow habitat is affected by many things like
climate, pond depth, plant growth, and impact by humans.
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Stages of Ecological Succession:There are five stages of Ecological Succession:
● Nudation:Formation of the nude or bare area by flooding,erosion, landslide, volcano, etc.
● Invasion:Arrival of different species in an ecosystem.
● Competition:The growth of different species in limitedareas will lead to competition for
space, food, and space.
● Reactions:Modification of the environment due tothe influence of organisms such as
changes in soil structure, pH, temperature, etc.
● Stabilization:It means the arrival of the final stageor climax community. It maintains the
equilibrium of the ecosystem.
Types of Ecological Successions:
● Primary succession:
○ Succession that starts in a lifeless
area where soil is absent is known
as primary succession.
○ It is a slower process.
● Secondary succession:
○ It occurs when the primary
ecosystem gets destroyed for
example forest fire.
○ It is faster due to the presence of
soil.
Other types of Ecological Successions:
● Autogenic Succession:
○ It is driven bybiotic factors or
living organismsof the
community.
○ Secondary succession starts with autogenic succession because dead organic
material in the soil changes the nutrient composition and microorganisms living in
it.
○ Examples: Dead organic material in the soil changes the structure of the soil.
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● Allogenic Succession:
○ It is driven byabiotic factors or external factors.
○ Primary succession begins with allogenic succession and proceeds to autogenic
succession.
○ Examples: Volcanic eruption, flood, etc
Importance of ecological succession:
● Ecological succession is important for the growth and development of an ecosystem.
● It initiates colonization of new areas that have been destroyed due to certain biotic and
climatic factors.
● Ecological succession is important for the adaptation of changes and learning of species in
changing environments.
Biogeochemical Cycle:
● The movement of nutrients and another element between biotic and abiotic factors is
known as the biogeochemical cycle.
● In this cycle, energy flows in a unilateral direction, and nutrients flow in a cyclic direction.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycle:Based on the nature of reservoirs the biogeochemical cycle can
be classified into two types:
● Gaseous cycle:
○ Reservoir in atom:: Its examples are as follows:
■ Water cycle or Hydrologic cycle
■ Oxygen cycle
■ Carbon cycle
■ Nitrogen (N2) cycle
● Sedimentary cycle:
○ Reservoirs in rock:Its examples are as follows:
■ Phosphorus cycle
■ Sulfur cycle
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Environment
Lecture 06: Biogeochemical Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle:
● Air comprises 78% of nitrogen.
● Nitrogen gas has a nitrogen-nitrogen
triple bond.
● Nitrogen is an inert gas which means it
cannot be used by animals and plants
directly.
● Nitrogen compound is the base of DNA,
RNA, and Protein (Amino acid).
● The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical
cycle that describes the transformation
of nitrogen and nitrogen-containing
compounds in nature.
● Atmospheric nitrogen is the biggest
source of nitrogen.
● Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and nitrites from the soil and water.
Animals get nitrogen when they feed on plants.
● Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids in living organisms.
Nitrogen Fixation:
● Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia.
● As we can see in the figure. above, nitrogen can be fixed in two ways:
○ Biological Nitrogen Fixation: This is the natural process by which certain
microorganisms convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃).
○ Industrial nitrogen fixation: This refers to synthetic processes that convert
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, primarily for fertilizer production.
○ Electrical Nitrogen Fixation: This is an emerging method that uses electrical
energy to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
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● Nitrogen Assimilation:
○ Nitrates and ammonia are assimilated into tissues or body parts of algae and higher
plants known as nitrogen assimilation.
○ Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates to prepare amino acids. This nitrogen
is then taken up by the animals in the form of proteins through the food chain.
● Ammonification:
○ The proteins in the body of the animals are broken down into simpler forms like
urea and ammonia.
○ These are then removed from the body along with urine and excreta.
○ Dead plants and animals also return nitrogen to the soil as ammonium compounds.
These ammonium compounds are then converted to ammonia by ammonifying
bacteria.
● Nitrification:
○ The conversion of ammonia into nitrates by bacteria is called nitrification.
○ Nitrifying bacteria like Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas found in the soil convert
ammonia into nitrate.
○ Some other bacteria present in the soil convert ammonia into nitrites. Some of
these nitrates and nitrites are again taken up by the plants for their nutrition.
○ Nitrifying bacteria → Convert Ammonia to Nitrate (Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas)
● Denitrification:
○ The conversion of nitrate back into atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria(denitrifying
bacteria) is known as denitrification.
○ Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas and Clostridium living in the soil reduce the
soil nitrites and nitrates into nitrogen which is returned into the atmosphere.
○ Denitrifying bacteria → Reduce Nitrates and Nitrites to Nitrogen (Pseudomonas,
Clostridium).
○ Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas and Clostridium living in the soil reduce the
soil nitrites and nitrates into nitrogen which is returned into the atmosphere.
Water Cycle:
● It is a cycle where water keeps going from one component of an ecosystem to another
component in a cyclic manner.
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● Stages of the water cycle:
○ Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, and
rivers turns into vapor due to heat from
the sun.
○ Transpiration: Plants release water vapor
into the atmosphere through their leaves.
Water will convert into vapor in the
atmosphere.
○ Condensation: Water vapor cools and
transforms back into liquid droplets,
forming clouds.
○ Precipitation or deposition: Tiny water
droplets or ice landing on the ground.
○ Infiltration: Absorption of rainwater in the ground.
○ Runoff: Rainwater flows and merges down into the river.
○ Plant uptake: water taken by plants.
Carbon Cycle:
● It is a biogeochemical cycle by which carbon
is exchanged between the soil, water, and
atmosphere (air) of the earth.
● It is the most important cycle of the Earth
and allows for carbon to be recycled by all of
its organisms.
Stages of the carbon cycle:
● Atmospheric carbon is absorbed by plants for
the photosynthetic process known as carbon
fixation(leading to the formation of
biomass).
● Plant biomass is consumed by animals leading to the accumulation of carbon in animals.
● Respiration and decomposition in plants and animals will return carbon to the atom.
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● Some parts of decomposition will sink into the ground to become fossil fuels.
● Fossil fuel combustion will release carbon back into the atmosphere.
Oxygen Cycle:
● The movement of Oxygen through the Atmosphere (air), Biosphere (plants and animals),
and Lithosphere (the Earth's crust) is known as Oxygen Cycle.
Stages of oxygen cycle:
● Animals and plants consume atmospheric oxygen
through the respiration process.
● Industrial combustion(burning of fossil fuel) consumes
atmospheric oxygen.
● Photosynthesis by green plants and algae releases
oxygen into the atmosphere.
● Sunlight induces photolysis and also releases some
oxygen in the atmosphere.
● Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by processes like
combustion, respiration, decomposition, and rusting.
Photolysis of water:
● Photolysis of water is the process by which water molecules are split into oxygen,
protons, and electrons using light energy, typically in the context of photosynthesis.
● The absorbed light energy drives the photolysis of water (H₂O), breaking it down into
Oxygen (O₂).
● The oxygen produced is released as a byproduct into the atmosphere.
Phosphorus Cycle:
● Phosphorus is essential for life because it is part of DNA, RNA, and ATP.
● It is a part of bone and teeth in the animals.
● Phosphorous is present in rock and soil. The atmosphere does not play a role in the
atmospheric cycle.
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● Process of Phosphorus Cycle:
○ Weathering of Rocks: Rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions
and other minerals over time.
This inorganic phosphate is
subsequently distributed in soils
and water.
○ Absorption by Plants: Plants
take up inorganic phosphate
from the soil and then these
plants are consumed by animals.
Phosphate is incorporated into
organic molecules such as DNA
in plants and animals. When the
plants and animals die, it decays
and the organic phosphate is returned to the soil.
○ Absorption by Animals: In the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made
available to plants by bacteria that break down organic matter into inorganic forms
of phosphorus. This process is known as mineralization.
○ Return to the Environment by Decomposition: Phosphorus from the soil can enter
streams and eventually the seas. It can then be absorbed into sediments over time.
Human impact on the Phosphorus cycle
● Phosphorus fertilizer is raising the phosphorus level in the soil and overuse of it is
decreasing soil fertility and detrimental to soil microbes.
● Washed-out fertilizers are posing threats to aquatic life.
● It promotes Eutrophication (It is a process that is characterized by an excessive
accumulation of nutrients, primarily nitrogen, and phosphorus).
● These nutrients often come from human activities like agricultural runoff, industrial
discharge, and sewage discharge.
● When these nutrients enter the water, they can lead to accelerated growth of aquatic
plants, especially algae, in a phenomenon known as algal bloom.
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Sulfur Cycle:
● Sulfur is part of amino acids and proteins.
● Sulfur is present in the hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and atmosphere.
● Sulfur is released into the atmosphere by
colonic eruptions and the burning of fossil
fuel
● Overuse of sulfur fertilizer is human
intervention.
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6
Environment
Lecture 07: Major Biomes or Ecosystems
Biome:
● A biome is a large geographical region with a biotic community of plants and animals
found in specific climatic conditions.
● Specific climatic conditions determine the boundary of the biome.
● The parameters of the biome are:
○ Climate
○ Geographical distribution
○ Plant community
○ Animals
○ Tribes or Indigenous group
Major Biome (Ecosystems) of the World:
Forest Ecosystem (Biome):
● Trees distribution and number in a forest ecosystem are
determined by soil type, climatic condition, and local
physiography.
Classification of Forest Biome or Ecosystem:
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Conifer Forest (Boreal forest or Taiga forest):
● These are evergreen coniferous forest
● Taiga Forest is also called a Boreal Forest or Coniferous Forest.
● Taiga is found between temperate forests in the
south and tundra in the north.
● Taiga is characterized by conifer forests, which
produce tall, straight, and uniform trees.
● The leaves of this tree can last for many years, and
the bark is thick.
● Coniferous trees are conical in shape, so snow does
not accumulate.
● Leaves are tiny, thick, and needle-shaped to minimize
transpiration or water loss.
● Winters are long and harsh and the days are short.
● Taiga is characterized by low temperatures (Summer temperature up to 20 degrees and
winter temperature up to -40 to -50 degrees Celsius) and heaviest snowfall in winter.
● There is evenly distributed precipitation(annual average precipitation is 25 to 125cm).
Temperate Deciduous Forest
● This forest is present from 45 to 60 degrees north and south of the equator.
● The World's largest deciduous forest is typically present in the Northern Hemisphere, but a
small portion of it is present in the Southern Hemisphere.
● It is mostly present on the western margins of the
continents. It is also characterized by the British type
of climate (average annual precipitation is 50 to 150
cm, summer temperature 18 to 20 degrees Celsius,
and winter temperature is below 0-degree Celsius)
● In the Northern Hemisphere, it is present in regions
of North America, Europe, Russia, China, and Japan.
● Temperate deciduous forests are distributed all over
the world, so their temperatures will differ based on
their location.
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● The average temperature of deciduous forests is roughly 10 degrees Celsius, whereas the
average annual rainfall is between 30 and 60 inches.
● In India, temperate deciduous forests are found in the Himalayan Foothills and Western
Ghats.
● Temperate deciduous forest experiences all four seasons.
● Natural vegetation consists of deciduous forests with hard and durable wood.
● Trees shade leaves in the Ottoman season.
● Common tree species are oak, maple, basewood beech etc. These trees are highly priced for
their timber and rain.
Temperate Evergreen Forest:
● Temperate evergreen forests can be found in both hot and cold climatic conditions.
● Temperate evergreen forests are spread across the northern and
southern hemispheres.
● Temperate evergreen forests are found in milder regions which
are close to the equator hence they receive more rainfall than
temperate deciduous forests.
● They can be found throughout North America, Canada, Europe,
and Asia.
● The northern and southern evergreen forests have different
climates
● The northern part will have typically lengthy, cold, snow-dominated winter
● The average annual rainfall is 30 to 90 cm, and the temperature range is between -40 and
20 degrees centigrade.
● Temperate evergreen forests in India lie in the Western Ghat, Islands of Lakshadweep,
Andaman and Nicobar, Coastal Area of Tamil Nadu, and Assam.
Temperate Rainforest
● Temperate rainforests exist in temperate climates where they
receive a lot of rain but the average temperature is lower.
● The Pacific Coast of North America is the world's largest
temperate rainforest.
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● Southeast coast of chilly South America. Some areas in the United Kingdom, New Zealand,
Japan, Norway, and South Australia are temperate rainforests.
● The climatic conditions are mild, which means not too cold or too hot.
● The average temperature is around 0 to 20 degrees, whereas this forest receives good
rainfall as much as 350 cm but the annual average rainfall is around 200 cm.
Tropical Rainforest or Tropical Evergreen forest:
● This region has an equatorial type of climate.
○ This region gets direct sun rays almost throughout the year.
● The average annual temperature in tropical rainforests is 22 to 27 degrees Celsius, whereas
average annual rainfall is between 200 cm.
● In India, temperate rainforests are present at higher altitudes in
hilly regions.
● In terms of structure and diversity, the tropical rainforest is the
most complex ecosystem or biome in the world.
● They receive plenty of rain, and the temperature is high all around
the year.
● Tropical rainforest is present between 0 to 10 degrees north and
south of the equator, and it is just spread over Asia, Australia, South America, Central
America, and the Pacific Islands.
● They are very dense firest having vertical stratification of vegetation up to three to four
layers.
● This forest has evergreen trees which are hardwood type. Trees found in the evergreen
forests are macaroni, rosewood, etc,
● Adaptation of certain plants in the form of climbers like wines are also found in this
forest.
● Tropical rainforests cover about 6 to 7 percent of the earth's surface and they contain half
the world's biodiversity (rich in diversity)
● South America's Amazon rainforest is the world's largest rainforest.
● Rainforests help in balancing the global climate. They are home to many plants and
animals and are extremely rich in biodiversity.
Tropical Deciduous Forest
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● This forest is characterized by a monsoonal type of climate due to the differential heating
of land and water in different seasons.
● It has three distinct seasons.
○ The average temperature of a hot summer is more than
40 degrees Celsius.
○ The average temperature of the rainy season is 30 to 35
degrees Celsius.
○ The average temperature of a dry winter is 20 to 25
degrees Celsius.
● The average annual precipitation of tropical deciduous forests is
25 to 200 cm.
● This biome lies between 10 to 30 degrees north and south of
the equator.
● Vegetations are deciduous trees that usually shade their lives in
dry summer.
● They have hardwood-type trees that provide valuable timber.
● Common trees are neem, teak, season, sal, mahua, bamboo, and voluptuous.
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Environment
Lecture 08: Major Biomes or Ecosystem (Part 02)
Grassland Ecosystem:
● The Grassland ecosystem is Dominated by grasses and Herbaceous (non-woody) plants.
● It can have some trees or no trees.
● Grasslands are present on every continent except Antarctica.
● Grasslands can be found in both Tropical and Temperate regions where rainfall is
insufficient.
● Low rainfall hinders the growth of big trees, but it is enough to support the growth of
grass and herbaceous plants.
● Grasslands cover about 20% of the World's land surface.
● Temperature and soil conditions influence the types of plants in grassland.
● Grasslands are found in places with minimum rainfall, poor soil quality, and poor soil depth.
● The Annual rainfall in grassland is between 25 and 75 cm.
● Grassland plays an important role in ecosystems and World Economics
● Wheat, Rice, and Corn are three main plants that grow over grasslands all over the World.
● Some grasslands are designated as nature reserves and National Parks and they are being
promoted as Tourist destinations because of their biodiversity and hunting activities. E.g.-
Savanna.
Types of Grassland:
Tropical Grassland(Savannah):
● Tropical grassland lies between 10 to 20 degrees north and south of the equator.
● This region has a warm continental climate, with an average temperature below 20 degrees
Celsius.
● Summers are wet(experience rainfall).
● The average annual precipitation of tropical grassland is 25 to 125 cm.
● Examples of Tropical Grasslands are
○ East Africa: Savanna
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○ Brazil: Campos
○ Venezuela: Llanos
● Fire is an important part of savanna grassland as it helps in the annual regeneration of
grasses.
Temperate Grassland:
● Temperate grasslands are known by different names in different areas for example
○ Steppes: Eurosia
○ Prairies: North America
○ Pampass: South America
○ Veild: South Africa
○ Dowsn(Murray): Australia
● The average annual rainfall of temperate grassland is 25 to 75 cm.
● Temperate grasslands are considered to be the wheat baskets of the world.
● It is a major cattle-rearing region.
● Grasslands are home to the world's largest concentration of big animals.
Tundra Biome:
● It is the World's coldest Ecosystem.
● It is characterized by low rainfall and extremely low temperatures.
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● The soil in Tundra is permafrost and lacks Nutrients.
● It lies beyond the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere.
● It is characterized by permafrost regions found in
Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere.
● This region has simple vegetation like mosses and lichens
which dominate in tundra.
● This region has a short summer season and in summer
few flowering and beribering plants will grow.
● This region experiences very long winters lasting up to 10
months, with average winter temperatures between -30 and -40 degrees Celsius, while
summer temperatures can reach up to 10 degrees Celsius.
● The average annual precipitation of tundra is less than 25cm.
Desert Ecosystem
● The desert ecosystem covers around 17 % of the earth's surface.
● Desserts are found in regions with less than 25 cm of Annual rainfall.
Types of desert:
● Hot Desert(Tropical Desert):
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○ Tropical desert lies between 20 to 30 degrees north and south of the
equator(which receives extremely low rainfall).
○ The largest single stretch of desert is the Sahara desert.
○ Examples: Sahara Desert, Great Australian Desert, Arabian desert, Thar, Kalahari,
Namib, Mohave, Sonoran, Atacama desert.
○ Plants and animals are adapted to dry and hot climatic conditions, where the
plants will be known as Xerophytic Plants. It includes Cactus, thorny buses, Palm,
Acacia, Scrubs, etc.
● Cold desert(temperate desert):
○ Cold deserts are Found in high-altitude (cold) or temperate regions.
○ The condition is cold and dry with very little rainfall (dry)
○ Example:
■ North America – Great Basin
■ South America – Atacama Desert, Patagonian desert
■ Manoloa and North China- Gobi desert,
■ Africa – Namib Desert
■ India - Ladakh desert
■ Western USA- Great Basin desert
○ In cold deserts, summers are short and warm, and winters are long and cold.
○ The average winter temperature is around 0 degrees whereas summer temperature
can go up to 20 degrees Celsius.
○ Snowfall is common during the winter season.
○ Average rainfall is below 25 cm.
○ The cold desert has cold and saline soil. In some places, the soil is leached out and
some plants such as grass species can grow.
○ Ladakh, a cold desert in the eastern part of Jammu and Kashmir, is bordered by
the Karakoram range to the north and the Zanskar range to the south and is
traversed by several rivers, with the Indus being the most significant.
○ The desert ecosystem supports a diverse range of plant and animal species and
many of them are Endemic
○ Deserts are rich in mineral resources, such as natural gas.
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4
Environment
Lecture 09: Aquatic Biomes or Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem:
● In a Freshwater ecosystem, Salt concentration is less than 5 parts per thousand (PPT).
● It covers 20% of the earth's surface.
● Freshwater is home to 41% of fish species.
Types of Freshwater Ecosystems:
● Lentic Ecosystem: A lentic(Still) ecosystem refers to a freshwater environment
characterized by standing water, such as lakes, ponds, and marshes.
● Lotic Ecosystem: A lotic ecosystem refers to a freshwater environment characterized by
flowing water, such as rivers, streams, and creeks. These ecosystems are dynamic and play
a vital role in the overall health of the environment.
Significance of Freshwater Ecosystem:
● It is crucial for the survival of our Planet.
● It is a source for storing and purifying water for wildlife and human life.
● It is a source of water for crops, irrigation, industry, Hydroelectric power plants, and even
Transportation.
● Freshwater ecosystems help in the prevention of erosion and waste disposal.
● It acts as a protection from erosion and natural floods.
● They create a natural trash disposal system.
Threats to Freshwater Ecosystem:
● Over-exploitation of freshwater resources such as lakes, rivers, etc.
● Freshwater ecosystems are being impacted by water pollution.
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● Habitat destruction and degradation. According to a World Wildlife Fund Report(WWF),
freshwater vertebrates declined 83% from 1970 to 2014.
● Threats from invasive foreign species.
○ For example: The introduction of Nile Perch into Lake Victoria. Nile perch can be
called an alien species or an invasive species, and when they are introduced, they
flourish very well.
○ Introduction of Amazon Catfish in Kolkata wetlands, it is also an invasive species.
● Acidification of fresh water due to pollution.
● Eutrophication is a significant threat to freshwater ecosystems, primarily driven by nutrient
overloading, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.
Marine Ecosystem:
● If the Salt concentration is more than 35 ppt in water it is known as a marine ecosystem.
● It covers 70% of the Earth's surface.
● 97% of the total water supply is in marine ecosystems.
● It provides 90% of the habitable space on the planet.
● The average temperature of marine ecosystems is 4 degrees Celsius.
● Water is the main habitat in aquatic ecosystems, where aquatic organisms are classified
according to their zone of occurrence.
Zones of Marine Ecosystem Based on Sunlight:
● Euphotic Zone:
○ It is a top layer up to 200 meters.
○ It receives enough light.
○ Presence of most of the marine life ecosystem.
● Disphotic Zone:
○ It is the middle layer and extends from 200 to 1000 meters.
○ This zone helps diffuse lights.
○ It has photosynthesis but marine life will gradually decrease with depth.
○ It has lesser biodiversity in terms of animal and plant life.
● Aphotic Zone:
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○ It is the lowest layer below 1000 meters.
○ Absence of photosynthetic process in this zone.
○ It has very little marine life diversity.
Marine Food Chain:
● It starts with primary producers, such as phytoplankton, which convert sunlight into energy
through photosynthesis.
● This energy is then passed on to primary consumers (like zooplankton), secondary
consumers (small fish), tertiary consumers (larger fish), and finally to apex predators
(such as sharks and marine mammals).
● Each level of the food chain plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance and health of
marine ecosystems.
Significance of Marine Ecosystems:
● It helps balance the global climate.
● It contributes to the water cycle process.
● It helps sustain and support biodiversity.
● It acts as an important food source for the global population and provides the cheapest
way of transportation.
● It is a source of energy such as wave energy, tidal energy, and ocean thermal energy.
● From ancient times this has been an important place to practice fisheries and aquaculture.
● It provides offshore oil and gas trade.
● It provides opportunities for tourism and recreation.
Threats to Marine ecosystem
● Overfishing: Unsustainable fishing practices deplete fish populations, disrupt food webs, and
threaten the livelihoods of communities that rely on fishing.
● Habitat loss: Coastal development, dredging, and destructive fishing practices (like bottom
trawling) damage critical habitats like coral reefs and mangroves.
● Invasion by Alien or invasive species: Non-native species can outcompete native species,
disrupt ecosystems, and alter habitats.
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● Ocean acidification: Increased CO2 absorption lowers pH levels, affecting shellfish and
coral growth.
● Ocean warming: Ocean warming refers to the increase in ocean temperatures due to
climate change, primarily driven by rising greenhouse gas emissions.
Classification of Aquatic Organism:
● Neuston: Organism living at the water-air interface. Eg. Beetles and floating insects.
● Periphyton: Organisms attached to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants are known as
periphyton. E.g.- Insects, Labeotropheus, Trewavasae, and Pseudotropheus zebra.
● Planktons: Planktons are Microscopic plants (phytoplanktons, Algae) and animals (eg,
Zooplanktons, Jellyfish) which flow passively with water current.
● Nekton: Nektons are Swimming animals (eg, Frogs, Fish).
● Benthos: Organisms at the bottom of water bodies (eg, seastar, crabs, sea snail etc,)
Important topics related to aquatic ecosystems:
● Biological oxygen demand(BOD)
● Chemical oxygen demand(COD)
● Eutrophication
● Algal bloom
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
● The amount of oxygen required by bacteria for their own respiration and biological oxidation
of organic material in water is known as BOD.
● When sewage is mixed with river water BOD level will rise.
● It measures the amount of oxygen that microorganisms will consume while decomposing
organic matter in a water sample over a specific period.
● BOD indicates the degree of water pollution. Higher BOD values suggest higher levels of
organic pollution, which can deplete oxygen in water bodies, harming aquatic life.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
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● COD is the amount of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of both organic and
inorganic substances present in water.
● COD will always be higher than BOD.
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Environment
Lecture 10: Wetland Ecosystem
Eutrophication:
● Eutrophication is a process in which there is an overabundance of nutrients in a water
body resulting in excessive growth of simple plant life like algae.
● This process is indicated by algae's hypergrowth, known as an algal bloom in the
waterbody.
● Eutrophication is a severe environmental concern because it leads to water quality
degradation and an increase in biological oxygen demand.
● Eutrophication eventually will turn water bodies into a dead zone that can not sustain life.
● Eutrophication is caused by the addition of nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate to
aquatic ecosystems, through fertilizers, sewage, etc, such nutrients are known as problem
nutrients.
Steps of Eutrophication:
● Nutrient load up: Excessive nutrients from
fertilizers are flushed from the land into
rivers or lakes by rainwater.
● Plants flourish: These pollutants cause
aquatic plant growth of algae, duckweed,
and other plants.
● Algae blooms, oxygen is depleted: Algae
blooms, preventing sunlight from reaching
other plants. The plants die and oxygen in
the water is depleted.
● Decomposition further depletes oxygen:
Dead plants are broken down by bacteria decomposers, using up even more oxygen in the
water.
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● Death of the ecosystem: Oxygen levels reach a point where no life is possible. Fish and
other organisms die.
Mitigation of Eutrophication:
● Implementing precision farming techniques to optimize fertilizer use, promoting cover crops,
and adopting crop rotation can minimize runoff.
● Upgrading treatment facilities to remove nutrients before they enter water bodies.
● Algae growth can be controlled by some chemicals such as copper sulphate and sodium
arsenite.
Terms Related to Eutrophication:
● Eutrophic lake or waterbody: An eutrophic lake or waterbody is characterized by high
levels of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, which can lead to excessive growth
of algae and aquatic plants.
● Oligotrophic lake: An oligotrophic lake is characterized by low nutrient levels, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus.
● Dead zone or hypoxia: A dead zone, or hypoxic zone, refers to areas in aquatic
environments where biological oxygen demand is so low that it cannot support marine life.
● Harmful algal bloom: Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are hypergrowth of certain algae in
water bodies, due to the addition of a problem nutrient.
● Red Tide: A red tide is a harmful algal bloom (HAB) that occurs when algae rapidly grow
and accumulate in coastal waters, causing the water to discolor.
Wetland Ecosystem:
● Wetlands are those areas where the soil is covered with water at ground level throughout
the year.
● Wetland ecosystems are transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,
they can be considered “Ecotones”, and they support both terrestrial and aquatic
species.
● Wetlands are unique ecosystems with open standing water which means water is at surface
level and vegetation is adapted to soil saturation conditions.
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● The vegetation of wetlands is adapted to soil saturation conditions and is known as
Hydrophyte.
● Wetlands can be
○ Permanent or temporary
○ Natural or manmade
○ Freshwater or brackish water(salt water)
Types of Wetlands:
● Coastal Wetlands
● River Wetlands
● Lake Wetlands
● Swamps and Marshes
● Bogs and Fens
Marshes:
● These are wetlands with non-woody vegetation, like grasses.
Swamp Wetlands :
● These wetlands are with woody vegetation, like trees.
Bogs:
● These wetlands are present in North America, and are
rich in peat and mosses with acidic water, and they are
low in nutrients, so they can't support plant growth.
Fen:
● These wetlands have less peat and more nutrients.
Significance of Wetlands:
● They are rich in biodiversity and enrich ecosystem services.
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● Wetlands play a vital role in the nutrient cycle.
● They also play an important role in water recharge.
● They act as carbon sinks.
● Wetlands store more carbon than any other ecosystem.
● They act as a shield, protecting against urban flooding.
● They act as natural shock absorbers because they act as a buffer and protect us from
extreme weather events like floods and droughts.
● Wetland products:
○ Wetlands can supply a diverse quantity of plants, animals, and minerals.
○ It provides fish as a source of protein.
○ It helps in rice and honey production.
Major Threats Faced By Wetlands:
● Encroachment due to unplanned and unscientific urbanization.
● Overexploitation of wetlands water for agriculture.
● Pollution from various sources such as solid waste disposal, Industrial discharge, Agri-runoff
water, and dumping of domestic savages all led to the eutrophication of wetlands.
● Invasion by exotic species.
● Adverse Impact on wetland due to climate change.
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4
Environment
Lecture 11: Mangrove Ecosystem
Mangroves:
● A mangrove is a small tree or shrub that grows along coastlines, where roots of the plant
is under in saline water.
● The term mangrove also refers to the environment as a whole.
● Mangroves are a type of littoral plant found along tropical and subtropical coastlines.
● Mangroves are a salt-resistant and heat-resistant plant group.
● Mangroves are more prevalent in areas with high rainfall and temperatures.
● Mangrove species have various adaptations in their morphology, anatomy, and physiology to
enable them to survive wet soil, high salinity, stores, and tide surges.
Characteristics of Mangrove:
● It is a part of the wetland forest ecosystem
● It is found primarily between 25 degrees north to 25 degrees south in the tropics and
subtropics.
● Plants grow up to 8m to 20 m tall.
● Mangroves have a complex root system where the root can filter salt, and they are present
over the surface and known as breathable roots.
● They have special breathable roots or pneumatic roots(above ground/water level) to collect
oxygen from the atmosphere.
● They have aerial roots with pneumatophores.
● This is a highly productive ecosystem.
● Magroeve has a viviparity mode of reproduction.
Plant Vivipary:
● Mangrove forests have a viviparity mode of reproduction where the seed germinates within
the fruits when the fruit is attached to the stem, in other words, seeds germinate within
the tree before the falling. This is known as vivipary germination.
● This is an adaptation to overcome the saline water germination challenge.
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● Succulent leaves: Mangroves, like desert plants, store fresh water in their flashy and thick
leaves. A waxy covering on leaves reduces evaporation.
Significance of Mangroves:
● Mangroves act as buffers between marine and terrestrial
ecosystems.
● Mangroves acts as natural barriers against storms, waves,
tides, and flooding.
● It prevents coastal erosion.
● It improves water quality by filtering pollutants and trapping
sediments from the land.
● Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and they provide locals with wood, firewood,
medicinal plants, food, etc.
● Mangroves are rich in biodiversity(transitional zone or ecotone, edge effect).
● Mangroves provide habitat and breeding grounds for fish and birds.
● It is a source of income from wood, honey, wax, and medicine for the coastal population
● Mangroves are less than 2 percent of marine ecosystems, but they account for 10 to 15%
of carbon sinks as blue carbon storage.
● It provides opportunities for tourism and research.
Threats to Mangroves:
● Overexploitation for agriculture, fuel, fodder, and wood.
● These forests are in danger because of the increase in land acquisition for agriculture and
industry near the coast, as well as the discharge of untreated domestic sewage, industrial
effluents, and pesticide residues from agricultural fields.
● Oil spills and industrial pollutants from marine ecosystems.
● Unscientific practices such as aqua culture like shrimp farming.
● Biotic pressure and natural disasters have a significant negative impact on mangrove
ecosystems.
● Sea level rise is due to the impact of climate change and global warming.
● Natural disasters, such as cyclones, tsunamis, flooding, and draught-like conditions.
● Industrial pollution and agricultural pesticides are threats to mangroves.
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Mangroves in the World:
● According to the Global Forest Resource Assessment Report, in 2022 113 countries have
forests of 14.8 million hectares.
● More than 40% of mangroves are present in four countries Indonesia (19%), Brazil (9%),
Nigeria (7%), and Mexico (6%).
● Asia has more mangroves as compared to Africa.
Mangroves in India:
● International Day for Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems is celebrated every year on July
26.
● As per the Indian state report, IFSR 2021, mangrove cover in India is 4992 square
kilometers which is 0.15 percent of the total geographical area (India).
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Sunderban Mangrove:
● The Sunderbans (West Bengal) are the largest mangrove forest in the world and it is listed
as a World Heritage site.
● Over 10000 sq km in India and Bangladesh.
● Important species found here are the royal Bengal tiger, gigantic dolphin, and saltwater
crocodile.
● The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna Godavari, and Kaveri rivers contain mangrove
forests.
● Top 5 states that contain mangroves: West Bengal (40% of India's mangroves), Gujarat,
Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha
Bhitarkanika Mangrove:
● It is the second-largest mangrove in India.
● An important species is saltwater crocodile.
● Largest known nesting site of olive ridley sea turtle.
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Environment
Lecture 12: Ramsar Convention and Coral Reef
Ramsar Convention: The Ramsar Convention was adopted in 1971 with the aim of conserving and
promoting the wise use of wetlands through local and national actions and international
cooperation. India became a party to the convention in 1972.
The Ramsar Convention is founded on three pillars:
● Wise Use of Wetlands(sustainable use)
● Listing of Wetlands of International Importance
● International Cooperation
Two Major Parameters Used by the Ramsar Convention for Declaring Wetlands of International
Importance:
● Wetlands Supporting Rich Biodiversity: The wetlandmust have a diverse range of species,
including plants, animals, and microorganisms.
● Rare and Unique Wetlands: The wetland should haverare or unique features that make it
ecologically or scientifically valuable.
Examples:
● Ramsar Sites in India: India has a total of 85 Ramsarsites (as of 2024), the highest
number in South Asia.
○ Tamil Nadu (TN): Tamil Nadu has the highest numberof Ramsar sites in India,
with 16 sites, followed byUttar Pradesh (UP)with10 sites.
○ Sundarbans, West Bengal: The Sundarbans is the largestwetland in India.
○ Renuka Wetlands, Himachal Pradesh: Recognized as thesmallest Ramsar site in
India.
○ Chilika Lake, Odisha: Chilika Lake was the first and oldest wetland in India to be
recognized as a Ramsar site. It is well-known for its biodiversity and unique
ecosystem.
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Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are marine ecosystems foundin warm tropical seawater. Although they
cover less than one percent of the marine area, they provide habitat for 25% of marine species
and are often referred to as the "tropical rainforests of the ocean.
Formation of Coral Reef:Coral reefs are formed bythe gradual accumulation of calcareous
(calcium carbonate) skeletons of corals over long periods.
● Corals: These areinvertebrate animalsbelonging tothephylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria).
● Corals are in symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae Zooxanthellae which lives on
corals.
● Coral reefs form through asymbiotic relationshipbetween:
○ Coral Polyps: These are the colourless living organismsthat form the structure of
the reef.
■ They provide aprotected environmentfor their symbioticpartners.
○ Zooxanthellae: These are brightly coloured algae livingwithin coral tissues.
■ They providenutrientsto the coral polyps throughphotosynthesis.
■ Zooxanthellae live in the tissues of coral polyps.
○ Symbiotic Relationship: Coral polyps and zooxanthellaedepend on each other for
survival.
■ The polyps offer a safe habitat and carbon dioxide, while zooxanthellae
supply oxygen and organic products of photosynthesis, which are essential
for coral growth.
●
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Conditions for Survival of Coral Reefs:Coral reefsare fragile ecosystems which can survive in a
narrow range of environment conditions.
● Temperature: Coral reefs flourish in warm tropicalseas with temperatures ranging from
25-27°C, typically found between30°N to 30°Slatitude.
● Ocean Water Salinity: Coral reefs need water salinitylevels of32-35 parts per thousand.
● Ocean Water Depth: Coral reefs generally grow in shallowwaters, at a depth of60-80
metres, where sunlight can reach them.
● Clean and Clear Water: Coral reefs require clean,clear water without pollution or oil spills
to allow sunlight penetration and avoid contamination.
Coral Bleaching:Wherever environmental conditionsdegrade the coral polyps expel Zooxanthellae
algae from their tissue and this causes discoloration of the coral reef and it is known as coral
bleaching.
● Coral bleaching indicated degrading marine ecosystems and marine environments.
● Corals are indicator species.Indicator species are those species which are the first one to
indicate degradation in the ecosystem.
● According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), more than 70% of
coral reef ecosystems will be degraded by the end of this century. If the temperature rises
by 2 degrees, more than 90% of coral reefs will be degraded.
Major Reasons for Coral Bleaching:
● Climate Change: Anincrease in water temperaturedueto global warming leads toheat
stress on corals, causing them to expel zooxanthellae,resulting in bleaching.
● Increase in Tropical Cyclones:Physical damage toreefscaused by tropical cyclones,
which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, also contributes to
coral bleaching.
● Fluctuations in Water Salinity: Changes in salinitylevels stress coral reefs. This can be
due to:
○ Global Warming: Higher temperatures lead to anincreasein evaporation rates,
resulting in higher salinity levels.
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○ Melting of Glaciers: As glaciers melt, rivers overflow, adding more freshwater to
oceans, which canlower salinitylevels near coralreefs.
● Ocean Acidification:IncreasedCO₂ in the atmosphereinteracts with the ocean surface.
This results in the formation ofcarbonic acid (H₂CO₃),leading toocean acidification.
● Impact on pH: Thenormal pH of ocean wateris around8.2.
○ If the pH falls to8.1, it can cause a30% degradationin coral reefs.
● Effect on Coral Reefs: Acidification leads to adecreasein the rate of
calcification, which is essential for coral skeletonformation.
○ This weakens coral reefs, making them more susceptible to erosion and
damage.
● Marine Pollution: Oil spills, plastic pollution, agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and
sewage disposalare major sources of marine pollution.
○ Effects of Pollution:Pollution obstructs sunlight,which is essential for
photosynthesis inzooxanthellae algae(symbiotic algaein corals). This leads to a
lack of photosynthesis, resulting in thesmotheringof coral reefs.
● Destructive Fishing Practices:Ocean bottom trawlingandcyanide fishingare harmful
practices that physically damage coral reefs.
○ Bottom trawling (also known as ‘dragging’)refers to the process of pulling a big
fishing net along the seafloor, catching all sea creatures that reside there.
■ Bottom Trawling doesn’t distinguish between specific species, which means
that young fish, turtles, and inedible species are accidentally caught and die
(by-catch). A
○ Cyanide Fishing:This fishing technique uses a cyanidemixture sprayed into a fish’s
environment to stun and capture them alive.
■ However, cyanide fishing doesn’t just harm the intended fish; it also affects
other marine organisms nearby. In coral reefs, its impact can be particularly
damaging.
● Mining and Shipping: These activities contribute tohabitat destruction and pollution,
further endangering coral reefs.
Ecosystem Services of Coral Reefs:Coral reefs providenumerous ecosystem services, including:
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● Fisheries: Support fish populations, which are vital for food and livelihoods.
● Tourism: Attract tourists, generating revenue forlocal economies.
● Medicinal Products: Source of unique compounds forpharmaceutical uses.
● Storm Protection: Buffer coastal areas from stormsurges and erosion.
● Coastal Protection: Prevent coastal erosion, safeguardinghuman settlements.
● Habitat for Flora and Fauna: Provide habitat and breedinggrounds for diverse species.
● Nutrient Capturing: Trap and recycle nutrients, supportingmarine productivity.
Major Initiatives for Coral Reef Protection
● UNFCCC and CBD:UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change)
andCBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)haveprovisions to indirectly address threats
to coral reefs under climate and biodiversity goals.
● The Coral Triangle Initiative: A partnership (signedin 2006 by Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua
New Guinea and Solomon Island) that promotes coral reef conservation and sustainable use
of coral reef resources.
● International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI):It is an informal partnership between nationals
to preserve coral reefs.
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Environment
Lecture 13: Ozon Depletion
Major Initiative for Coral Reef Conservation:
● Bio Rock Technology or Mineral Accretion Technology:In this technology, electrodes emerge
in oceanwater and low voltage currentpasses throughthem, this causes minerals to
crystalize and form biorock. Thisbiorock serves asa habitat for coral polypsand it can grow
the coral polyps at a faster rate.A Bio Rock experiment was done by scientists at the coast of
the Gulf of Kutch January 19.
Coral reefs are found in several areas of India:
Ozone Layer Depletion:
What is Ozone?
● Ozone (O3)is a highly reactive molecule containingthree oxygen(Allotropes of oxygen)
atoms.
● It is a natural gas present at two atmospheric levels:
○ Tropospheric Ozone (Known as Bad Ozone):
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■ Ground-levelozonecanformthroughchemicalreactionsbetweenlocalairpollutants
such asnitrous oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds(VOCs)andsunlight.
■ Theseairpollutantsareemittedfrommotorvehicleexhausts,industrialprocesses,
electric utilities, and chemical solvents.
■ Concentrationsofozonecanbehigherveryclosetothesurfaceatlocallevels;there
it forms as anair pollutantand can negatively impacthuman health.
■ It causes theformation of smog.
○ Stratospheric ozone (known as Good Ozone):
■ TheOzonelayerinthestratosphereplays(actsasshield)acrucialroleinabsorbing
potentiallydangerousultraviolet(UV-B)radiationfromthesun.(Iftheamountof
UV-B increases in solar radiation then it may cause damage to plant animals and
ecosystems.)
■ Its higher concentration is crucial to ensure life at Earth’s surface.
■ Stratospheric ozone is depleting and this poses a threat related to ultraviolet
radiations.
Ozone Depletion:
● Thinning of Ozone at the stratosphere is called Ozone depletion.
● Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are halogen gases containing chlorineand/orbromine
which have the potential to break down ozone in the stratosphere.
● Ozone depleting substances include:
○ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):CFCs are used in refrigerators,cleaning agents etc.
○ Nitrogen Oxides: Nitrogen Oxides come from agriculture fertilisers, Industrial waste and
hydrogen bomb explosion. Oxides of Nitrogen reach the stratosphere and destroy ozone.
● Other ODS:
○ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
○ Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
○ Hydro bromofluoro carbons (HBFCs)
○ Halons(Halons are Bromine and Florine with Carbon).
○ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), Halons are contain
Halogen like chlorine, bromine, fluorine. They all are used in refrigerators, ACs and fire
extinguishers
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○ These are going to promote chemical reaction where ozone will broken down to oxygen.
Conditions Which Promote Ozene depletion in Stratosphere:
● DuetoemissionofODS,ozonedepletionwasfirstreportedoverAntarcticaandtheArctic
region.
● Conditions which promote chemical reaction causing ozone depletion in Stratosphere:
○ Very low temperature of less than -78 degree centigrade (found over polar
stratospheric cloud).
○ Availability of sunlight (in late winter and early spring)
■ Due to Polar stratospheric clouds during winter and spring seasons:The cloud
particles in the stratosphere convert chlorine into reacting chlorine which catalyzes
ozone depletion. Polar stratospheric clouds act as a catalyst and convert less dangerous
chlorine into active free radicals which is more harmful.
○ Extremely low temperature at polar areas allows polar stratospheric cloud formation
below 20 km.
○ Polar Vortex:A ring of rapidly circulating air thattraps Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
in the polar regions.
*NOTE:
● Ozone depletion is occurring both at the south pole and north pole.
● At South pole ozone depletion is more severe because:
○ South pole is older than north pole, hence -78 degree Centigrade is easily
achieved).
○ Polar vortex longevity.
○ Formation of polar stratospheric clouds due to low temperature.
Impacts of Ozone Depletion:
● Due to ozone depletion, more and more UV rays are able to reach the earth. This harmful rays
can cause following effects:
○ On humans: Ozone is a potent carcinogenic agent that can cause skin cancer, cataract
cornea defect, fast aging and also leads to weakening of the immune system.
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○ On plants:Ultraviolet B rays directly impact the growth of the plant that will bring
smaller leaf size, destruction of chlorophylls, low photosynthesis, low biomass production or
crop. UV rays also damage sensitive crops such as soybeans, which can impact food supply.
○ Aquatic ecosystem:Marine phytoplanktons which are the basis of marine food chain are
harmed by UV radiations and it may lead to decreased productivity of marine ecosystems.
They may affect fish, shrimps, crabs and food. They also affect other Marine animals
including amphibians.
Measurement of Ozone Layer:
● Measurement of O₃ (ozone) is conducted using a Jobson Spectrophotometer. The unit of
measurement is the Dobson Unit (DU), with an average reading of approximately 300 DU.
The typical range for ozone levels falls between 230 and 550 DU, below this considered as
ozone depletion.
Initiative to Tackle Ozone Depletion:
● Vienna Convention of 1985:
○ The Vienna Convention for protection of the ozone layer was an international agreement in
which United Nations members recognised the criticality of stratospheric ozone damage
fromhuman activities.
○ India signed the Vienna convention in 1991.
● Montreal Protocol of 1987:
○ The Montreal Protocol supplementary to Vienna Convention with the aimtocontroland
regulate global consumption and production of ozone depleting substances.
○ Under The Montreal Protocol, existing ODs were replaced by Hydroflourocarbon (HFC)
which are group of 19 gases in the refrigeration and air conditioning industry.
○ HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons) do not cause ozone depletion; however, they are potent
greenhouse gases and significantly contribute to global warming.
○ India became part of Montreal protocol in 1992.
● Kigali Amendment:
○ It was adopted in 2016 but came into force in 2019.
○ It also has provisions for penalties for non-compliance.
○ The aim of Kigali Amendment is toachievephasedowninglobalconsumptionofHFCby
80-85% by 2040.
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○ HFC replaced by such compounds which neither cost global warming nor ozone depletion.
○ It is legally binding and it is based on common but differentiated responsibilities where
different countries have different timeline to achieve Kigali Amendment:
■ India and Gulf: by 2047.
■ China: 25% of total HFCs → by 2045.
■ USA:more than 30% of total responsibilities → by 2034.
■ EU→ by 2034.
○ Kigali Amendment was ratified by Cabinet of India in 2021.
India’s Efforts:
● India signed theVienna Convention in 1991 and the Montreal Protocol in 1992.
● India has completely phased outCFCs, carbon tetrachloride,and halons.
● India approved the Kigali Amendment in 2021. According to this amendment, India must phase
down HFCs startingin 2028 and reduce HFC levels by15% of 2024-26 levels by 2047.
● A dedicated Ozone Cell exists within the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Acid Rain:
● It is the precipitation of acid in the form of rain due to air pollution.
● There are two types of acid deposition:
○ Wet deposition:In wet deposition, sulfuric acid andnitric acid formed in the atmosphere
combine with rain, snow, fog, and other forms of precipitation.
○ Dry deposition:In dry deposition, acidic gases andparticles settle on surfaces under dry
weather conditions.
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Environment
Lecture 14: Acid Rain and Biodiversity
Acid Rain
● Acid Rainis a form of precipitation with higher than normal levels of acidic components,
primarily sulfuric and nitric acids.
● It forms when emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) from industrial
processes, power plants, and vehicles combine with water vapor and other chemicals in the
atmosphere.
● This results in rain, snow, sleet, or fog that is more acidic than natural precipitation.
Causes of Acid Rain
● CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ (Carbonic Acid)
● SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric Acid)
ₙ
● NₓO + H₂O → HNO₃ (Nitric Acid)
Normal Rainwater pH is5 to 6 andAcid Rain pH isAround 4.
Source of Acid Rain
● Sources of Sulphur Compounds (SO₂), which contributesto acid rain:
● Natural Source:Volcanic eruptions
● Man-made Sources:Combustion of coal and petroleum
○ Smelting of metals and Use of fertilisers
● SO₂ combines with rainwater to form sulfuric acid, which contributes to acid rain.
● Sources of Nitrogen Compounds (Oxides of Nitrogen),another contributor to acid rain:
● Natural Sources:Lightning, volcanic activity, andbiological processes.
● Man-made Sources:Forest fires and Combustion of oiland coal
● Nitrogen oxides combine with rainwater to form nitric acid, which also contributes
to acid rain.
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Carbon dioxide and carbonic acid are not considered contributors to acid rain, as they are naturally
present in the atmosphere. Because of this, rainwater typically has a pH below 7. If rainwater has
a pH of 5 or 6, it is considered normal. However, when the pH drops to around 4, it is usually due
to sulfuric and nitric acids. Acid rain is causing the Taj Mahal to turn yellow.
Impact of Acid Rain
● Nutrient Leaching in Soil:Acid rain causes nutrients to leach from the soil, resulting in
infertile soil.
● Damage to Buildings and Monuments:Acid rain damages structures, particularly those
made of limestone and marble e.g Taj Mahal.
● Impact on Plants and Crops:Acid rain harms plantsby damaging leaves and other plant
parts.
● Impact on Humans and Wildlife:Acid rain leads tohealth issues, such as skin diseases,
eye diseases, and respiratory problems.
● Aquatic and Marine Acidification:Acid rain contributesto the acidification of water
bodies, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
Biodiversity:Biodiversity is the variety and variabilityof life on earth. Biodiversity as defined by
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the sum total of genes, species, and
ecosystems in a region.
● It indicates that biodiversity encompasses various levels, from genetic variation within
species to the diversity of entire ecosystems.
Types of Biodiversity:The biodiversity classifiedinto three main types.
● Genetic Diversity:The variety of genes within individualsof the same species, including
unique genetic features within a species. Genetic diversity is crucial as it allows species to
adapt to changing environments and evolve over time.
● Species Diversity:The number of different speciesfound in a given area.
● Ecosystem Diversity (or Community Diversity):Thevariety of ecosystems or
communities in a specific area.
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○ Each ecosystem (such as forests, deserts, wetlands, and oceans) has unique
communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms, along with their interactions
and environmental conditions.
○ Ecosystem diversity ensures the resilience of environments and contributes to the
overall stability of the biosphere.
Measurement of the Biodiversity:It has 2 components. To effectively measure biodiversity,
especially species diversity, two main components are analysed.
● Species Richness: The total number of different species present in an area. High species
richness indicates a wide variety of species, which contributes to a more resilient
ecosystem.
● Species Evenness: The relative abundance of each specieswithin that area, which
indicates how evenly individuals are distributed among species. Higher evenness means a
more balanced ecosystem, while lower evenness can indicate dominance by a few species.
Types of Diversity:Biodiversity is also categorisedbased on spatial scales, to understand variation
within and between ecosystems across a larger landscape.
● Alpha Diversity: Refers to thediversity within aspecific ecosystem or site.It measures
the species richness within a localised area (like a forest or pond), giving an insight into
the variety of species within that single environment.
● Beta Diversity: It measures thediversity betweenecosystems or sites.It captures the
extent of species turnover between two different habitats or areas. High beta diversity
indicates significant differences in species composition between the areas, reflecting
ecological uniqueness.
● Gamma Diversity: Represents thetotal diversity of a large area or landscape,
encompassing all ecosystemswithin it. It is a cumulative measure of both alpha and beta
diversity, representing the overall biodiversity of a region.
The relationship between these diversity types can be summarised as:
● Gamma > Beta > Alpha–Gamma diversity covers the full landscape, beta measures
differences between ecosystems, and alpha represents localised diversity within a single
ecosystem.
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Services Provided by Biodiversity
Biodiversity offers numerous benefits to humans, known as biodiversity services, which can be
grouped into three main categories:Ecosystem Services,Biological Services, andSocio-Cultural
Services.
● Ecosystem Services:
These are fundamental ecological functions that sustain life and environmental stability.
They include:
○ Preservation of the water cycle
○ Soil formation and fertility maintenance
○ Nutrient storage and recycling
○ Waste degradation and pollutant breakdown
○ Climate regulation and carbon sequestration
○ Land stabilization to prevent erosion
● Ecosystem services ensure clean air and water, pollination of plants, and healthy soils. For
instance,carbon sequestrationcaptures and storesatmospheric carbon dioxide, helping to
mitigate climate change.
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● Biological Services:
Biodiversity provides essential resources that support human survival and development, such
as:
○ Food, clothing, building materials, and freshwater
○ Energy sources like wood, biofuel, and fiber
○ Medicinal resources, includingquinine(for malariatreatment),penicillin
(antibiotic), andmorphine(pain relief)
● These services supply genetic resources and natural products crucial for health, agriculture,
and industry.
● Socio-Cultural Services:
Biodiversity also enriches human culture, education, and recreation through:
○ Opportunities for research and education
○ Tourism and recreational activities
○ Preservation of cultural values, traditions, and identity
● These services foster a connection between societies and their natural environment,
providing aesthetic, spiritual, and recreational experiences that enhance quality of life.
Biodiversity Loss:
● Biodiversity loss is defined as the reduction in biological diversity within species,
ecosystems, and across the entire planet. It also refers to the extinction of species from
Earth. Throughout the planet’s evolutionary history, biodiversity loss has occurred due to
natural selection and other natural processes.
● Additionally, Earth has experienced five episodes of mass extinction over the past 500
million years. These mass extinctions were triggered by catastrophic natural events, such as
volcanic eruptions and meteorite impacts.
● Since the Industrial Revolution, the human ecological footprint has increased rapidly, and
global ecosystems are experiencing significant degradation. This includes phenomena such
as global warming, rising sea levels, deforestation, ozone depletion, and land degradation.
○ As a result, some scientists suggest that we may currently be experiencing a sixth
mass extinction episode.
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Environment
Lecture 15: Biodiversity (Part 02)
As perLiving planet report 2020byWWF:
● Decline of 68% in the population of different species from 1970 to 2016.
● Current rate of Biodiversity loss is 100 to 1000 times faster than the natural rate of
extinction.Therefore it is comparable to mass extinction.
Major Reasons for Biodiversity Loss:
● Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:This is the primary driver of biodiversity loss and occurs
when natural habitats are converted for human activities such as agriculture, urban
development, and infrastructure projects. Fragmentation of large habitats into smaller,
isolated patches disrupts the living conditions of species and impedes migration and
reproduction.
● Overexploitation:This occurs when natural resourcesare harvested at unsustainable rates,
often due to activities like hunting, fishing, logging, and poaching.Overharvesting can reduce
population sizes to levels that threaten species survival, disrupting ecosystems and food
chains.
● Alien Species Invasion:The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem can
disrupt local species by outcompeting them for resources, spreading diseases, or predating
on them.Invasive species often lack natural predators in the new environment, allowing
them to spread unchecked and dominate ecosystems, leading to a decline in native
biodiversity.
● Co-extinction: Co-extinction refers to the extinction of one species causing the extinction
of others that rely on it, such as symbiotic partners, predators, or dependent plants and
animals.The loss of one key species can trigger a domino effect, impacting many others
within the ecosystem, thus reducing biodiversity.
● Climate Change: Changes in climate affect temperature and precipitation patterns, leading
to habitat shifts and alterations in the timing of biological events (e.g., breeding and
migration).Species unable to adapt to new conditions may face population declines or
extinction, especially those with limited distribution or specific habitat needs.
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● Environmental Pollution:Pollutants such as chemicals, heavy metals, plastics, and pesticides
can contaminate air, water, and soil, creating toxic environments that are harmful to living
organisms. Pollution can cause immediate harm (e.g., oil spills) or chronic effects (e.g.,
bioaccumulation of toxins), leading to reduced reproductive success, genetic damage, or
mortality in various species.
The Evil Quartet:
They are the four main causes for the loss of biodiversity:
● Habitat Loss & Fragmentation:
○ The key contributors for habitat loss aresettlement,agriculture, industry, Mining, etc.
○ Habitat Loss & Fragmentation are key contributor toloss of species diversity and
extinction of plants and animals. It also leads to man animal conflict. Man-animal conflict
means human beings are threatened and being killed by these creatures.
○ According to living planet report:
■ In the last40 years, there has been a 30% declinein wetlands, where wetlands
have been reclaimed for agriculture and urban settlement.
■ Approximately 50% of tropical/subtropical forest and 45% of temperate grassland
have been cleared for human settlement.
● Over Exploitation of Natural Resources and Species:
○ Excessive use of natural resources, such as overfishing, overharvesting, overhunting, and
habitat loss due to human activities, is leading to species extinction.
● Introduction of Alien Species / Invasion:
○ Alien species are non-native species introduced from foreign environments that often
reproduce or proliferate rapidly, outcompeting native species. While 90% of alien species
may not survive, some adapt well and reproduce rapidly. These species may lack natural
predators or competitors, allowing them to thrive and disrupt local ecosystems.
○ Examples:
■ The Water Hyacinth (an aquatic plant native to the Amazon) was introduced to India
by the British for beautification purposes.
■ Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati Kikar), native to the Americas, was introduced to North India.
● Co-extinction:
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○ Co-extinction occurs when twospecies are closely related to each other and when one
speciesbecomeextinctthenotherspecieswillalsogetextinct.Example:HostanParasite,
Plant and Pollinator, Symbiotic Association etc.
Along with these, two more reasons are there in loss of biodiversity. They are: climate change,
environment pollution.
● Climate Change:
○ HabitatLoss:Shrinkingofpolariceislinkedtohabitatlossanddeclinepopulationofpolar
bear.
○ Change in environmental Condition: Changes will be very fast and adoptation by species
will be slow. I will lead to extinction of species.
● Environmental Pollution:
○ Environmentalpollutionadverselyimpactreproductivesuccessratethatwillleadtodecline
in population and may lead to extinction. Example: sea gull
Biodiversity Conservation:
● There are two approaches of BiodiversityConservation:
○ In-Situ Conservation
○ Ex-Situ Conservation
In Situ Conservation:
● It refers to conservation of species in their natural habitat i.e. ecosystem.
● Example: protected area network i.e.:
○ National Park
○ Wildlife Sanctuary
Ex- Situ Conservation:
● Ex- Situ refers to conservation of species outsidetheir natural habitat.
● Example:CaptiveBreedingProgramforvulturesinPinjore(Haryana),pygmyhog(wildpig)in
Assam.
● Vultureswerethreatenedbytheuseofpainkiller“Diclofenac"incattleswhichultimatelyleads
to kidney failure of vultures after consuming that dead cattle.
● Ex- Situ is adopted when the population goes tooless.
Protected Area Network (PAN):
● They are specifically demarcated geographical areasor long term conservation of nature.
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● 5% of the total geographical area of India is designatedas PANs.
● There are:
○ More than 100 National parks (106)
○ More than 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries (573)
○ 18 Biosphere Reserves.
● Protected Area Network (PAN) includes: (in decreasing order of stringent actions
implementation):
○ National parks (Most protected)
○ Wildlife Sanctuaries (Increasing Protection Term)
○ Reserved Forest (Increasing Protection Term)
○ Protected forest (Least Protected)
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Environment
Lecture 16: Biodiversity Conservation
ProtectedAreaNetwork(PAN)includes:(indecreasingorderofstringent
actions implementation):
○ National parks
○ Wildlife Sanctuaries
○ Reserved Forest
○ Protected forest
● Both National parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries are declared by the State Government based
upon their ecological significance as per their provision of Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
● Both National parks andWildlifeSanctuariesaimatIn-SituconservationofBiodiversityby
regulating human activities and restricting humanpresenceinsideNationalParksandWildlife
Sanctuaries.
National Park:
● In theNational Park,no rights are allowed.
● No human activities are allowed.
● It has more stringent rules and regulation.
● No grazing or firewood collection is allowed in it.
● No settlement is allowed in the core areaof the nationalpark.
● It has a definite boundary.
● The national park is for the protection ofboth plantand animal species presented there.
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Wildlife Sanctuary:
● Less stringent rules thanNational Park.
● Human activities are allowed only if the state government gives permission.
● InWildlife Sanctuary,grazing & firewood collectionby tribals are allowed.
● Settlement is not allowedin the Wildlife Sanctuary(Few exceptions of tribal settlements).
● It is for the protection ofWild Animals.
● The boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not clearly defined.
● Wildlife sanctuaries are home to many endangered spices.
● In wildlife sanctuaries, hunting or fishing activities are banned/strictly controlled.
● It ismaintained by the state government.
● Wildlife sanctuaries can be promoted to National Park.
Reserve Forest:
● Reserve forests arethoseforestsinwhichhuntingandgrazingactivitiesarebannedunless
specific orders are issued by the state government.
Protected Forest:
● Right to hunting and grazing activities is sometimes given to communities living on the
fringes of forest.
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ):
● Eco-sensitiveareas,aspertheNationalWildlifeActionPlan(2017-2031),areregionslocated
within 10 km of protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
● Eco-sensitive zones are also known asecologicallyfragile zones.
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● ESZs are notified and regulated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate
Change (MoEF&CC)under the Environment ProtectionAct, 1986.
● Thepurposeof Eco-sensitive-Zoneistoprovidemoreprotectiontotheparksbyactingas
“shock absorbers” to prevent ecological damage caused by developmental activities in such
areas and protect them by minimising the negative impact on the ecosystem.
Biosphere Reserve:
● BiosphereReserve(BR)isaninternationaldesignationbyUNESCOunderitsManBiosphere
Programme (MAB).
● Man and Biosphere programme is an intergovernmental scientific programme which was
started in 1971 to improve therelationship betweenman and his environment.
● Biosphere Reserve has three objectives:
o Conservation
o Logistics (It means research and monitoring).
o Development- it means sustainable development along with the tribal people.
Structure of Biosphere Reserve:
● There are three types of structure like:
● Core Area:It is forconservation,andfree from humaninterference.
● Buffer Zone: Research, Monitoring, and Eco tourismis allowed over there.
● TransitionZone:Inthisareadevelopmentalactivities,homeoftribals,collectionofforest
products, and agriculture are allowed.
UNESCO’s Criteria for Designation of Biosphere Reserve:
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● It must have a minimally disturbed core area.
● It should preferably have primitive tribal groups.
● It should preferably have certain endemic species.
Endemic Species:
● EndemicSpeciesarethosethataregeographicallyrestrictedtoaparticularregionandnot
found anywhere else.
● There are such examples:
○ Lion-Tailed Macaque (Western Ghat)
○ Nilgiri tahr (Western Ghat)
○ Red Sanders (Eastern Ghat)
Note:
● Thereare18biospherereservesinIndiaoutofwhich12biospherereserveshavebeen
internationally recognised by UNESCO.
● The latest Biosphere reserve from India to get international recognition is Panna
Biosphere Reserve in Madhya Pradesh in 2022.
● TheUnionGovernmentdesignatesbiospherereserveattheNationallevel;afterthat,
the Ministry of Forest Environment Climate Change puts appeal to UNESCO for
international recognition.
● International recognition by UNESCOgives the followingbenefits:
○ International acknowledgement and soft power.
○ Better prospects of ecotourism.
○ Enhancement and scientific knowledge and research.
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○ Functional assistance in conservation.
Difference between National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere
Reserve:
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries Biosphere Reserve
● State GovernmentJurisdiction ● Central governmentjurisdiction
● Designation as per Wildlife Protection ● International designation by UNESCO
Act, 1972 (when we declare it there is no law in
the country).
● Exclusive conservation that means only ● Inclusive conservation (Man and
conservation. Development).
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (Major Objectives):
● Protection of wildlife by controlling and regulating wildlife trade.
● Establishment of National park and Wildlife sanctuaries.
● Better management of zoos in the country.
● TheWildlifeProtectionActhassixscheduleswhichgivevaryingdegreesofprotectiontoboth
flora and fauna species.
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Environment
Lecture 17: Internatinal Convention on Biodiversity
Wildlife Protection Act of India: Schedules
● The Wildlife Protection Act of India is a crucial legal framework aimed at conserving the
country’s rich biodiversity.
● It classifies species into six schedules, each with varying degrees of protection for both
flora and fauna, as well as specific penalties for violations.
Schedule I
● Provideshighest protection to critically endangeredspecies.
● Hunting or exploitation isstrictly prohibited.
● Violators face severe penalties.
○ Examples: Blackbuck, Snow Leopard
Schedule II
● Offershigh protection, though slightly less strictthan Schedule I.
● Includes species that need safeguarding but are not critically endangered.
○ Examples: Assamese Macaque, Himalayan Black Bear,Indian Cobra
Schedules III and IV
● Covers species that are not critically endangered but requiremoderate protection.
● Penalties for violations are less severe compared to Schedules I and II.
○ Examples: Flamingo, Falcon, Kingfisher, Magpie
Schedule V
● Includesspecies classified as vermin, which can belegally hunted.
● These animals are considered harmful to crops or human activities.
○ Examples: Common Crow, Fruit Bats, Mice, Rats
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Schedule VI
● Focuses onprotected plant speciesthat require regulatedcultivation.
● Cultivation or propagation of these plants requires a license or approval from authorities.
○ Examples: Red Vanda, Blue Vanda, Pitcher Plant, Beddomes' Cycad
NOTE:
Species listed underSchedule I and Part II of ScheduleIIreceiveabsolute protection, meaning
any form of hunting, poaching, trading, or exploitation is strictly prohibited under the Wildlife
Protection Act. These species are given the highest level of legal protection, and violations
attract severe penalties, including imprisonment and fines.
Examplesof species receiving this level of protectioninclude:
● Indian Elephant, Asiatic Lion, Tiger, Leopard, One-Horned Rhinoceros,Ganges River
Dolphin, Great Indian Bustard, Blackbuck
International Conventions on Biodiversity Conservation
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
● The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international, legally binding treaty
that underscores the importance of conserving biological diversity for the benefit of
humanity.
● It was opened for signature during the Earth Summit on June 5, 1992, in Rio de Janeiro
and officially came into force in 1993.
Objectives of the CBD:
● Conservation of biodiversity.
● Sustainable use of biodiversity.
● Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
Supplementary Agreements to the CBD:
a) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety:
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Adopted as a supplement to the CBD, it came intoforcein 2003.
● Aimed at protecting biological diversity from the risks posed byLiving Modified Organisms
(LMOs)resulting from modern biotechnology.
This protocol:
● Establishes international regulations for the transboundary movement of LMOs.
● Ensures that exporters cannot shipgenetically modified(GM)varieties without the prior
consent of the importing country.
b) Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS):
Signed in 2010and entered intoforce in 2014.
● Provides a transparent and legal framework to implement the third objective of theCBD-
fair and equitable sharing of benefitsderived fromthe utilization of genetic resources.
Key features:
● Promotes fair distribution of benefits, particularly for indigenous communities with
traditional knowledge linked to genetic resources.
● Helps prevent the exploitation of indigenous knowledge and expertise by external entities.
Significance:
● Together, the CBD and its supplementary protocols address global concerns about
biodiversity conservation, equitable resource sharing, and protection against biopiracy.
● They represent a comprehensive approach to balance human needs with the protection of
ecosystems and traditional practices.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
● CITES is a multilateral agreement between governments, designed to regulate international
trade in wildlife and plants to ensure their survival in natural habitats.
● It came intoeffect in 1975and currently has184Parties as members.
Objective:
● The primary goal of CITES is to prevent international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants from threatening their survival in the wild.
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● By regulating and monitoring trade, it helps conserve biodiversity and maintain ecological
balance.
CITES Appendices
The CITES framework categorizes species into three Appendices, each with distinct levels of
protection:
Appendix I:
● Includes:Species that are critically endangered andthreatened with extinction.
● Trade Rules:
○ International commercial trade in these species is prohibited.
○ Trade is permitted only under exceptional circumstances, such as scientific research
or conservation.
● Examples:Gorillas, tigers, and some species of orchids.
Appendix II:
● Includes:Species not currently at risk of extinctionbut could become endangered without
proper regulation.
● Trade Rules:
○ Requires an export permit or re-export certificate.
○ Import permits are generally not required, except under national legislation.
● Examples:Certain types of sharks, mahogany, and reptiles.
Appendix III:
● Includes:Species listed at the request of individualCITES member countries to protect
them from overexploitation or illegal trade.
● Trade Rules:
○ Requires appropriate permits or certificates.
○ Monitoring and control are based on the Party's request to regulate trade.
● Examples:Walrus (listed by Canada), and species locallyat risk in specific regions.
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Importance of CITES
● Conservation Impact:Prevents over-exploitation ofwildlife for commercial purposes.
● International Collaboration:Encourages cooperationamong member countries for
effective enforcement.
● Awareness and Education:Helps in educating stakeholdersand the public on the
importance of biodiversity conservation.
CMS (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species)
(Also known as the Bonn Convention)
CMS is the only global convention dedicated to the conservation of migratory species, including
birds, their habitats, and migratory routes.
● It serves as a critical framework for the protection and sustainable management of
terrestrial, aquatic, and avian migratory species across their migratory range.
Objective:
● The primary aim of CMS is to ensure the survival and protection of migratory species by
addressing threats along their migratory routes, fostering international cooperation, and
promoting habitat conservation.
History:
● CMS came into force in 1983, establishing itself as a pioneer in global efforts for the
conservation of migratory species.
Appendices of CMS
● Appendix I:
○ Includes species facing avery high risk of extinctionin the wild.
○ These species receive the highest level of protection under the convention, including
strict conservation measures to address habitat loss, poaching, and other threats.
● Appendix II:
○ Covers migratory species that requirelesser protectioncompared to Appendix I
species.
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○ Conservation efforts for these species focus on coordinated actions and sustainable
management.
COP-13 at CMS (Gandhinagar, 2020):
The Gandhinagar Declaration:
● Adopted during COP-13, it highlighted the urgent need forenhanced protection of
migratory speciesacross their entire ecological andmigratory range.
● It emphasized global cooperation and strengthened the framework forsustainable
management and habitat preservation.
Species Added to Appendix I:
During COP-13,three key species from Indiawere listedunder Appendix I:
● Bengal Florican
● Great Indian Bustard
● Indian Elephant
This recognition underscored India's critical role in conserving endangered migratory species and
their habitats.
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Environment
Lecture 18: Climate Change
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
● The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List is the world’s most
comprehensive database on the global extinction risks faced by species.
● It provides scientific assessments to determine species' conservation status, aiding global
efforts to monitor biodiversity.
Classification:
● Species are evaluated and placed into one of the following categories:
based on the risk of extinction:
● Extinct (EX):No known individuals remaining (e.g., Passenger Pigeon, Woolly Mammoth).
● Extinct in the Wild (EW):Species survive only in captivity or controlled conditions (e.g.,
Guam Rail, Panamanian Golden Frog).
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Threatened Categories (species facing significant risk of extinction):
● Critically Endangered (CR):Facing an extremely highrisk of extinction. Examples
include the Mountain Gorilla and California Condor.
● Criteria:
○ ≥80% population decline over 10 years or three generations.
○ Range less than 100 km².
○ Population size fewer than 50 mature individuals.
● Endangered (EN):Facing a very high risk of extinction.Examples include the Blue Whale
and Black Rhino.
● Criteria:
○ ≥50% population decline over 10 years or three generations.
○ Range less than 5,000 km².
○ Population size fewer than 250 mature individuals.
● Vulnerable (VU):High risk of extinction in the wild.Examples include the Polar Bear and
African Elephant.
● Criteria:
○ ≥30% population decline over 10 years or three generations.
○ Range less than 20,000 km².
○ Population size fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.
Other Categories:
● Near Threatened (NT):Species close to qualifyingfor a threatened category. Examples
include the Albacore Tuna and Monarch Butterfly.
● Least Concern (LC):Species at relatively low riskof extinction. Examples include the
Gray Wolf and Bald Eagle.
● Data Deficient (DD):Insufficient information available to assess the risk of extinction.
● Not Evaluated (NE):Species not yet assessed by theIUCN.
Significance of the Red List:
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● It serves as a critical indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity.
● Provides information for conservation planning, policymaking, and prioritizing species
protection efforts.
The IUCN Red List highlights that 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct.
It currently tracks69 species listed as Extinct inthe Wild.
Current Status:
Over 77,000 species assessed:
● The IUCN Red List has assessed a significantly higher number of species. As of recent
updates, it has assessed over 150,300 species, with efforts ongoing to expand its coverage
across underrepresented groups like plants, invertebrates, fungi, and marine species
35,000 listed as "Least Concern":
● While exact numbers for species under "Least Concern" and "Near Threatened" categories
aren't explicitly highlighted in the sources, these categories typically include a large
proportion of the assessed species.
830 species have been documented as extinct since 500 AD:
● According to the IUCN, about 902 species are currently listed as extinct or extinct in the
wild, covering documented cases since the year 1500.
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Climate Change
Definition:
● Climate change refers to a significant shift in long-term weather patterns, including
changes in temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns, occurring over extended periods,
typically exceeding 10 years.
● According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change is
real and predominantly caused by human activities (anthropogenic factors).
Scope of Climate Change:
● Climate change encompasses all forms of climatic variability, such as alterations in average
temperatures, shifting precipitation levels, and changing wind patterns.
● It extends beyond isolated weather events to reflect trends and variations that persist over
decades or longer.
Fundamental Reasons Behind Climate Change
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGs):
● The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane
(CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the atmosphere is a major driver of climate change.
● These gases enhance the greenhouse effect, wherein more heat energy is trapped in the
atmosphere, leading to a rise in global temperatures, a phenomenon known as global
warming.
Human Activities:
● Burning fossil fuels for energy, industrial processes, deforestation, and large-scale
agricultural practices significantly contribute to the accumulation of GHGs in the
atmosphere.
Global warming
Global warming refers to the gradual increase in the Earth's surface, ocean, and atmospheric
temperatures over time.
Cause:
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● The primary cause of global warming is the greenhouse effect, which results from the
rising concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
● Key greenhouse gases include water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄),
nitrous oxide (N₂O), and ozone (O₃).
Mechanism:
● The Earth's heat budget, which is the balance between incoming solar radiation absorbed
by the Earth and outgoing heat radiated back into space, is being disrupted.
● Greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation reflected by the Earth's surface, preventing it from
escaping into space. This results in a warming effect.
Impact:
● The disturbance in Earth's heat budget leads to rising global temperatures, changes in
weather patterns, melting polar ice, rising sea levels, and other environmental consequences.
Greenhouse Gases and Their Role
Definition:
Greenhouse gases are atmospheric gases that absorb and emit infrared radiation, contributing to
the greenhouse effect.
Examples:
● Water Vapor (H₂O)
● Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
● Methane (CH₄)
● Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
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● Ozone (O₃)
Significance:
● Greenhouse gases are essential for maintaining a habitable climate on Earth.
● Without these gases, the Earth's average temperature would plummet to around -18°C,
making it uninhabitable, compared to the current average of 15°C.
Human Impact:
● Anthropogenic (human-induced) activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial processes, are increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
● This heightened concentration amplifies the greenhouse effect, leading to accelerated global
warming and associated environmental challenges.
Greenhouse Gases
Water Vapor
● Key Role:The most significant contributor to thegreenhouse effect overall.
● Abundance:It is the most abundant greenhouse gasin the atmosphere, both by volume
and weight.
● Human Contribution:Unlike other greenhouse gases,humans do not directly influence
the levels of water vapor in the atmosphere.
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
● Significance:A major heat-trapping gas responsiblefor a substantial portion of global
warming.
● Sources:
○ Human activities such as the extraction and combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil,
and natural gas).
○ Natural processes, including wildfires and volcanic eruptions, also contribute to CO₂
levels.
Methane (CH₄)
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● Potency:A highly potent greenhouse gas, significantly more harmful than carbon dioxide
in terms of heat-trapping potential.
● Human Contribution:Around60% of global methane emissionsare linked tohuman
activities, including:
○ Oil and gas industries
○ Agriculture (e.g., rice cultivation, animal husbandry)
○ Landfills and wastewater treatment
○ Coal mining
● Natural Emissions:Methane is also emitted naturallyfrom wetlands.
Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
● Presence:Naturally found in the atmosphere as partof the nitrogen cycle.
● Human Contribution:Elevated levels result from activitiessuch as:
○ Agriculture (e.g., use of fertilizers)
○ Transportation
○ Industrial processes
Ozone (O₃)
● Tropospheric Ozone:
○ The third most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and
methane.
○ Unlike other gases, it is not directly emitted. Instead, it is formed through chemical
reactions between pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight.
Other Gases Contributing to Global Warming
Fluorinated Gases:
● These include Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulfur
Hexafluoride (SF₆).
● Though present in smaller quantities compared to CO₂, these gases are extremely potent
greenhouse gases with a high global warming potential (GWP).
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● They are primarily used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and industrial processes.
Black Carbon (Soot):
● Black carbon refers to solid particles or aerosols produced during the incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
● It absorbs sunlight and directly warms the atmosphere, contributing significantly to
global warming.
● It also settles on ice and snow, reducing their reflectivity and accelerating melting, which
indirectly intensifies warming.
Brown Carbon (Brown Smoke):
● Brown carbon is formed during the combustion of organic matter, such as wood,
agricultural residue, and other plant-based materials.
● It coexists with black carbon and, while it absorbs sunlight less efficiently, it still
contributes to atmospheric warming.
● It also impacts cloud formation and precipitation patterns, influencing regional climate
systems.
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Environment
Lecture 19: Climate Action
Post-Industrial Revolution Climate Impact:
The Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in human history, profoundly altering
the Earth's climate system.
Key developments include:
Increased Emission of Greenhouse Gases:
● Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes, led to a
sharp rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
Changes in atmospheric composition(Data from theWorld Meteorological Organization):
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
● Pre-Industrial Revolution level:280 parts per million(ppm)
● Current level:410 ppm, a substantial increase.
Methane (CH4):
● Present levels are 250% higher compared to pre-Industrial times.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O):
● Atmospheric levels have risen by 130% since pre-Industrial times.
Reduction in Carbon Sinks
● The Earth's ability to trap carbon in natural reservoirs (such as the lithosphere and
hydrosphere) has diminished.
● Deforestation, soil degradation, and ocean acidification have further weakened these vital
carbon sinks.
Global Temperature Rise
● According to theIPCC Special Report, human activities have led to an increase in global
average temperature by approximately1°Ccomparedto pre-Industrial levels.
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● This warming trend contributes to more extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and
widespread ecological changes.
Consequences of Climate Change
Impacts on Natural Systems
Climate change has significant and widespread effects on natural systems, including:
● Increased Frequency and Intensity of Climate Disasters:Events such as hurricanes,
floods, and droughts are becoming more severe and frequent, posing serious threats to
ecosystems.
● Sea Level Rise:With a current rise rate of 3mm peryear, projections from the IPCC
suggest sea levels could increase by 2-3 meters by the end of this century, submerging
low-lying areas such as the Maldives, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Mumbai, and Chennai.
● Loss of Biodiversity:Many species face extinctiondue to habitat destruction and
changing environmental conditions, disrupting ecological balance.
● Ecological Degradation:Fragile ecosystems like coralreefs, mangroves, and wetlands are
deteriorating, reducing their ability to provide vital services like carbon sequestration and
storm protection.
Impacts on Human Systems
The consequences of climate change extend deeply into human society, affecting livelihoods, health,
and infrastructure:
● Loss of Life and Assets:Increased natural disastersresult in human casualties and
widespread destruction of homes, infrastructure, and livelihoods.
● Climate Migration:Environmental stressors such asprolonged droughts, rising sea levels,
and floods force millions to leave their homes, creating a class of climate refugees. These
migrations exacerbate poverty and strain urban resources in host regions.
● Adverse Impacts on Agriculture:Erratic weather patterns and extreme conditions harm
crop yields, disrupt food supply chains, and threaten food security.
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● Health Impacts:Rising temperatures and changing ecosystems promote the spread of
vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue. Heatwaves also exacerbate cardiovascular
and respiratory health issues.
● Water and Food Scarcity:Melting glaciers and alteredrainfall patterns lead to water
shortages, while declining agricultural productivity heightens food insecurity.
Environmental and Climate Migration
Climate migration, also termed environmental migration, refers to theforced displacement of
people due to adverse environmental conditions like long-term droughts and rising sea levels.
Affected individuals are often labeled asenvironmentalrefugees or climate refugees.
● Future Implications:Climate migration is expectedto become a key driver of poverty as
displaced populations lose access to land, resources, and employment opportunities.
● Economic Strain:Host communities and nations facesignificant challenges in integrating
migrants, including providing housing, healthcare, and employment.
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Sustainable Development
Effects on Crop Production
According to theEconomic Survey 2017-18, climatechange poses a significant threat to
agricultural productivity in India,impacting bothrabi (winter) and kharif (monsoon) crops:
● Temperature Shocks:Increasing frequency of heatwavescauses heat stress on crops,
reducing their growth, yield, and overall productivity.
● Precipitation Shocks:Erratic rainfall patterns, includingperiods of both very high and
very low rainfall, disrupt the sowing and harvesting cycles, further compounding the
challenges faced by farmers.
● This dual shock threatens food security, particularly in regions heavily reliant on agriculture
as a primary livelihood source.
Challenges in Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
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Climate change severely compromises progress toward achieving the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, particularly those related to poverty, hunger, health, and
environmental sustainability:
● SDG 1 (No Poverty):Agricultural disruptions increaserural poverty as farmers face
reduced incomes and heightened vulnerability to climate risks.
● SDG 2 (Zero Hunger):Declines in crop yields challengefood availability, affordability,
and accessibility, exacerbating hunger and malnutrition, especially among vulnerable
populations.
● SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being):Erratic climateconditions contribute to
malnutrition, waterborne diseases, and mental health issues among communities dependent
on stable weather conditions for their livelihoods.
● SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation):Reduced rainfalland extreme weather events
strain freshwater resources, making access to clean water more difficult.
● SDG 13 (Climate Action):The need for immediate androbust adaptation measures to
combat these effects grows critical, necessitating accelerated investments in
climate-resilient agricultural practices.
● SDG 15 (Life on Land):Land degradation, loss of biodiversity,and changing ecosystems
due to agriculture-related climate stress further hinder progress toward sustainable land
use.
Climate Action Strategies:
Addressing climate change requires a dual approach involving mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Each plays a crucial role in combating the adverse effects of climate change while ensuring
sustainable development.
Mitigation
The primary objective of mitigation is to reduce the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases
(GHGs), which are the key drivers of global warming. This can be achieved through the following
measures:
● Afforestation and Biological Sequestration
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○ Planting trees and restoring forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
acting as natural carbon sinks. This process helps in balancing GHG levels.
● Promotion of Renewable Energy
○ Transitioning to clean energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower reduces
dependency on fossil fuels, thereby lowering GHG emissions.
● Geological Sequestration: Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
○ This technological method involves artificially capturing GHGs emitted from
industrial sources and storing them in geological reservoirs such as sedimentary
rocks. It prevents the release of these gases into the atmosphere.
Adaptation
Adaptation focuses on modifying human behavior and systems to minimize the adverse effects of
climate change on societies and ecosystems. This involves proactive measures such as:
● Effective Disaster Management
○ Enhancing preparedness and response mechanisms for natural disasters like floods,
cyclones, and droughts reduces their impact on human lives and infrastructure.
● Adoption of Micro-Irrigation Systems in Agriculture
○ Technologies like drip irrigation and sprinklers optimize water use, helping farmers
cope with water scarcity and erratic rainfall patterns caused by climate change.
● Encouraging Public Transport and E-Vehicles
○ Promoting the use of efficient and eco-friendly transportation systems reduces
reliance on fossil fuel-powered vehicles, thereby curbing urban air pollution and GHG
emissions.
International Efforts for Climate Change
1992: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED)
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● Held in Rio de Janeiro, this conference, also known as theEarth Summit, laid the
foundation for global environmental cooperation.
● The summit adopted theUnited Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change
(UNFCCC),which came into force in 1994.
● Objective of UNFCCC:Tostabilize atmospheric concentrationsof greenhouse gasesat
a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system.
● Conference of Parties (COPs):Annual meetings underthe UNFCCC framework to
assess progress and negotiate new commitments.
Landmark COPs
COP-3 (1997): Kyoto Protocol
● Adopted at COP-3 in Kyoto, Japan, the Kyoto Protocol was thefirst legally binding
international agreementfor reducing greenhouse gasemissions.
● Target:Developed countries committed toreducingemissions by 5% below 1990 levels
during thefirst commitment period (2008–2012).
● Limitation:The protocol placed binding targets onlyon developed countries, leaving out
major emitters like China and India.
COP-18 (2012): Doha Amendment
● The Doha Amendment extended theKyoto Protocol foran additional 8 years
(2013–2020).
● It introduced new emission reduction commitments for developed countries.
● Status:The amendmentnever came into forceas itlacked sufficient ratifications.
COP-21 (2015): Paris Agreement
● The Paris Agreement, adopted at COP-21, marked a significant shift in global climate
action.
● Key Target:To limit theglobal average temperaturerise to 2°C above pre-industrial
levelswhile striving tolimit it further to 1.5°Cby the end of the century.
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● Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs):
○ Both developed and developing countries committedtovoluntary emission
reduction targets.
○ However, the UN Emissions Gap Report highlighted that the initialNDCs were
insufficient, potentially leading to a3°C rise inglobal temperature, farexceeding
the 2°C target.
Steps recommended by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Special Report:
● Global emissions must bereduced by 45% by 2030,comparedto2010 levels.
● Achievenet-zero emissions by 2050, meaningemissionsshould be fully offset by
carbon capture technologies and natural carbon sinkslike forests.
Significance and Challenges
● While these international efforts represent critical milestones, challenges such as
inadequate commitments, lack of enforcement mechanisms, and unequal responsibilities
among nations hinder progress.
● Stronger collaboration and higher ambition in future COPs are essential to bridge the gap
between commitments and the 1.5°C target.
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Environment
Lecture 20: Climate Change and India
Landmark COPs
COP 26 (Glasgow, 2021)
● Glasgow Pact:Glasgow pact is a commitment toreducecoal usesand phase out
inefficient fossil fuels, marking thefirsttime coalwas addressed in a UN climate
agreement.
COP 28 (Dubai, 2023)
● Loss and Damage Fund:COP 28 launched a Loss and Damagefund to support nations
suffering from climate disaster. A fund was created of $650 mn from wealthy nations.
COP 29 (Baku, 2024)
● COP 29 focuses on several key areas of climate actions like
○ Climate Finance: Establishing a new collective quantifiedgoal to mobilize financial
resources to support climate efforts in developing countries.
○ Mitigation and adaptation: Enhancing commitments toreduce greenhouse gas
emissions while implementing strategies to adapt to the impact of climate change.
○ Technology Transfer: Promoting the exchange of climatefriendly technologies to
boost global mitigation and adaptation initiatives.
○ Global Stocktake: Evaluating collective progress towardslong-term objectives of
Paris agreement.
Important Terms Related To Climate Actions:
Climate Finance:
● It refers to money from both public and private sources either as debt or equity by
developed countries and least developed countries for their climate action.
● It was formally adopted in COP 15 in 2009 at Copenhagen.
● It was based on the principle of Trading climate justice and equity.
Common but Differentiated responsibilities (CBDR):
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● It implies that both the developed and developing countries have collective responsibilities
towards climate actions but the efforts of the counties should be proportional to damage
caused by them.
● Therefore, developed countries should be putting more efforts than developing countries.
● It is based on principles of climate justice and equity.
Carbon Market based Mechanism:
● This originated under the Kyoto Protocol to facilitate the developing countries in meeting
their target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
● It is of three types:
1. Emission Trading
2. Clean Development Mechanism
3. Joint Implementation
Emission Trading:
● 1 Ton Carbon Dioxide = 1 Carbon Credit (Tradable). This Carbon Credit can be traded by
the country which earning this Carbon Credit to those countries which are not able to fulfil
their carbon emission reduction.
● For example., the target for developed countries isto reduce carbon dioxide emissions by
10 unitsanddeveloping countries have a target of5 units.
● Developed countries could achieve 8, and developing countries could achieve 7.
● It means the +2 unit of developing countries can be sold to developed countries so that it
can meet the target, and after selling it both countries are at the actual target.
Country Carbon Reduction Target Achieved Result
Developed Country A 10 Unit 8 Unit -2
Developing Country B 5 Unit 7 Unit +2
Clean Development Mechanism:
● Let’s assume a developed country (A) has a target to meet, and there is no target to
meet in a developing country (B).
○ A developing country (B) sets up a carbon sequestration project, and with this,
they get 10 units of carbon credit per year.
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○ These 10 units can be sold to
developed country (A), which will
help the developed country (A) to
achieve its target.
● Here, the developed country will first pay
the money.
● Developing countries will use this money to
set up a carbon sequestration project, and
then the carbon credit it has earned will
be sold to developed countries, and the money will be compensated.
Joint Implementation:
● Developed and developing countrieswill
jointly set up a carbon sequestration
project.
● Let's assume 5 units of carbon credit are
there, and now the carbon credit earned
will be divided between the two countries
in the pre-decided ratio.
● This project will be set up in developing
countries.
India and Climate action:
● Biggest Contributor : China> USA> India
● India’sAverage per capita emission is 4.76 tons.
● India’s per capita greenhouse gas emission islessthan one-third of world’s per capita
emissionand far below than many developed and developingcountries.
● India is one of the climate change vulnerable countries.But being a developing country,
large population is into land-water based economy such as agriculture, forestry, aquaculture,
fisheries etc and it puts India at high risk of climate change.
● ThoughIndia is the third largest emitter in absoluteterms,yet India’ per capita
emission are below global average.
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● A number of initiatives have been undertaken from time to time for climate action in the
country.
India’s initiatives for addressing Climate change
India’s Panchamrit:
● India presented Panchamrit or points in COP 26 in 2021 at Glasgow. They are-
○ Net zero carbon emission by 2070.
○ Non fossil energy capacity of 500 GW by 2030.
○ 50% of energy requirement from non-fossil fuel by 2030.
○ Reduction in carbon emission by 1 bn ton by 2030.
○ Reduction in carbon based intensity in the economy by 45% by 2030.
International Solar Alliance (ISA):
● The ISA was conceived as a joint effort byIndia andFranceto mobilize efforts against
climate change through deployment of solar energy solutions.
● By 2030,total global installed solar capacity shouldbe 1000GW.
● It was conceptualized on the sidelines of the21stConference of Parties (COP21)to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held inParisin2015.
● With the amendment of its Framework Agreement in 2020, all member states of the
United Nationsare now eligible to join the ISA.
● At present,116 countriesare signatories to the ISAFramework Agreement, of which94
havebecome full members.
Green Grid Initiative at C0P 26:
● It was jointly launched by India and the UK.
● This is a concept of aninterconnected transnationalgrid systemin which countries with
solar energy can be connectedto resolve the demand-supplymismatch.
National Hydrogen Mission:
● It was announced by the Finance Minister in Budget 2021- 22.
● Hydrogen is efficient and clean fuel but it needs to be extracted from water.
Types of Hydrogen:
● Brown/Grey hydrogenis produced through a processcalled steam methane reforming
(SMR) or other methods that use fossil fuels, such as natural gas.
● Blue hydrogenis also produced through steam methanereforming (SMR) or other
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methods using fossil fuels, but the carbon emissions are captured and stored using
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.
● Green hydrogenis produced through the process ofelectrolysis, using renewable energy
sources such as solar, wind, or hydropower to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Ethanol Blending Program:
● The current blending ratio is 5% in petrol.
● Target to increase the blending to 20% by 2025.
● It will bring effects like reduction in carbon emission, less air pollution, etc.
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ENVIRONMENT
LECTURE-21: Environmental Impact Assessment
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008
● The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), launched in 2008, is a
comprehensive framework developed by the Government of India to address the challenges
of climate change while promoting sustainable development.
● It serves as anumbrella program, encompassing severalsector-specific missions and
initiatives aimed at mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.
The key components of the NAPCC are as follows:
National Solar Mission (NSM)
● Aims to promote the use of solar energy for power generation, thereby reducing dependence
on fossil fuels.
● Targets large-scale deployment of solar panels, solar power plants, and solar-powered
technologies.
National Water Mission (NWM)
● Focuses on the conservation and sustainable management of water resources.
● Aims to enhance water-use efficiency by 20% through innovative technologies and
practices.
National Mission for Green India (GIM)
● Seeks to increase forest and tree cover, restore degraded ecosystems, and enhance
ecosystem services.
● Promotes afforestation as a climate mitigation and adaptation strategy.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
● Focuses on promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices.
● Encourages sustainable farming techniques, soil health management, and efficient water
use.
National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE)
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● Aims to improve energy efficiency in various industrial and domestic sectors.
● Promotes market-based mechanisms like Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) and
energy-efficient technologies.
National Mission on Sustainable Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE)
● Focuses on preserving and adapting to the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
● Supports biodiversity conservation, natural resource management, and sustainable livelihoods
in the region.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH)
● Emphasizes sustainable urban planning and waste management.
● Promotes energy-efficient buildings, urban public transport systems, and renewable energy
use in cities.
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)
● Aims to improve understanding of climate science and develop knowledge-sharing
mechanisms.
● Focuses on building research and innovation capacities to address climate challenges.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
● Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a scientific study designed to predict the
potential impacts of a proposed project on the environment.
● It serves as a decision-making tool, comparing various alternatives for a project to identify
the one with the best combination of socio-environmental benefits and economic gains.
Historical Background of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India
● The concept of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India began in
1976-77 when the Planning Commission directed the Department of Science and
Technology to evaluate river valley projects from an environmental perspective.
Until 1994, environmental clearance was an administrative decision without
legislative backing.
● On 27 January 1994, the Union Ministry of Environmentand Forests issued an
EIA notification under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986, making
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Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for new projects or the expansion of
activities listed in Schedule 1.
● In September 2006, the Ministry revised the EIA process, introducing several
changes:
● Projects such as mining, thermal power plants, infrastructure, and industries were
required to obtain clearance.
● The process was decentralized, delegating project clearance to state governments
based on the project's size and capacity.
Categories of Developmental Projects Under EIA Notification (2006)
Projects are categorized into two main groups based on their environmental clearance requirements:
a. Category A:
● These projects require mandatoryenvironmental clearancefrom the Central Government.
● A detailed EIA is necessary for approval.
b. Category B:
● Category B projects are further divided intotwo subcategories:
i. Category B1:
○ Requiresa detailed EIA.
○ Environmental clearance is granted by theState Government.
ii. Category B2:
○ Doesnot requirean EIA.
○ Environmental clearance is granted by theState Government.
Projects Requiring Prior Environmental Clearance
As per the 2006 EIA notification, the following types of projects require prior environmental
clearance:
● Mining activities
● River valley projects
● Thermal power plants
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● Infrastructure projects (railway projects are exempted)
● Chemical fertilizer industries
● Metallurgical industries
● Nuclear industries
● Oil and gas exploration
EIA Process and Steps in India
Step 1: Screening
● Determines whether a project requires an EIA.
● Projects are classified as Category A or Category B based on their size, scope, and potential
environmental impact.
Step 2: Scoping
● Defines theTerms of Reference (ToR)for the EIA,which outline the key issues to be
investigated.
● Expert environmental consultants prepare the draft EIA report after finalizing the ToR.
Step 3: Public Consultation and Hearing
● Organized by theState Pollution Control Boardtoaddress the concerns of local
communities.
● Based on the outcomes of public hearings, the EIA report is analyzed, and an
Environmental Management Plan (EMP)is developed.
○ The EMP includescommitments from the project proponentfor responsible
environmental management.
Step 4: Appraisal
● A thorough examination and scrutiny of the final EIA report and EMP are conducted by
expert appraisal committees:
○ Category A projects:Appraised by committeesconstitutedby the Central
Government.
○ Category B1 projects:Appraised by committeesconstituted by the State
Government in consultation with the Central Government.
Step 5: Decision-Making
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● For Category A projects, final approval is granted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change(MoEFCC).
● ForCategory B1projects, the decision is made bytheState EIA Authority.
Monitoring and Compliance
● After environmental clearance is granted, the project proponent must comply with
environmental regulations and commitments made under the EMP.
● Regular monitoring is conducted, and half-yearly compliance reports must be submitted to
the decision-making authority.
Exemptions from Public Consultation
Certain projects do not require public consultation, including:
● Modernization of agricultural projects
● Projects located in industrial parks
● Expansion of roads and highways without land acquisition
● Area development and township projects
● Projects related to national defense
Issues Related to the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process
As highlighted in theComptroller and Auditor General(CAG) Performance Audit Report (2017),
several concerns plague the current EIA process:
Non-Transparency of the Process:
● The existing structure of the EIA process lacks transparency, leading to concerns about its
effectiveness in safeguarding environmental interests.
Quality of EIA Reports:
● Many EIA reports were found to be prepared by non-accredited consultants, compromising
the credibility and technical quality of the assessments.
Public Hearings as Mere Formalities:
● Public hearings have become procedural formalities, often conducted without ensuring
meaningful participation from affected communities.
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● Additionally, there is no quorum requirement (minimum quorum), undermining the
legitimacy of the process.
Unfulfilled Commitments:
● Project proponents often fail to fulfill their commitments, as there are no time-bound
provisions to enforce compliance.
Weak Post-Implementation Monitoring:
● In many cases, post-implementation monitoring of projects is insufficient or absent,
resulting in unchecked environmental damage.
Recommendations by the CAG
To address these issues, the CAG made several recommendations to strengthen the EIA process:
Timely Addressal of Local Concerns:
● The concerns of local communities must be adequately addressed in a time-bound manner
to ensure their voices are heard and considered.
Enhanced Public Hearing Requirements:
● Public hearings should have a quorum requirement to ensure legitimacy.
● These hearings should be conducted in the local language, making them accessible and
inclusive for affected communities.
Strengthening Post-Implementation Monitoring:
● Robust post-implementation monitoring mechanisms should be established to track and
ensure compliance with environmental standards.
Surprise Checks:
● A system of surprise inspections should be instituted to ensure adherence to environmental
guidelines by project proponents.
Conditional Environmental Clearance:
● Environmental clearance should be granted only after verifying compliance with
preconditions set for project proponents, ensuring accountability.
EIA Notification 2020
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The EIA Notification 2020 replaces the 2006 notification and introduces several significant changes
in the environmental clearance process.
Its key features:
Reduction in Public Hearing Time
● The time allotted for public hearings has been reduced from the earlier period tojust 20
days.
● This change aims to expedite the environmental clearance process but may limit the
public's ability to provide feedback.
Post-Clearance Compliance Changes
● The timeline for addressing post-clearance compliance issues has been extended.
● Earlier, firms were required to resolve these issues withinsix months, but the 2020
notification extends this period to one year.
Exemptions from Public Hearings
● Several types of projects are now exempted from the requirement of conducting public
hearings, including:
○ Small and medium cement projects
○ Offshore and onshore oil, gas, and coal exploration projects
○ Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW capacity
Restricted Reporting for Non-Compliance
● Non-compliance issues will no longer be open for public reporting.
● Only reports submitted by project promoters, government authorities, or appraisal
committees will be considered.
● This change raises concerns about transparency and public accountability in monitoring
violations.
Penalties for Violations
● Firms found violating environmental regulations under this notification will be required to
pay penalties.
● However, the effectiveness of this provision depends on stringent enforcement and
monitoring mechanisms.
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ENVIRONMENT
LECTURE 22: Current Developments in Environment
Darjeeling Zoo’s Innovative Conservation Drive for Endangered Himalayan
Species
● Padmaja Naidu Zoological Park, also known as Darjeeling Zoo, is at the forefront of
conservation efforts for endangered Himalayan species, with a particular focus on the Red
Panda.
● In addition to the Red Panda, the zoo is also working to conserve the Himalayan Newt,
another species facing the threat of extinction.
● The zoo's efforts include habitat protection, breeding programs, and research to understand
the species better and develop effective conservation strategies.
● In June 2024, the zoo established India's first genetic biobank, a groundbreaking initiative
aimed at preserving the DNA of endangered species to combat extinction through genetic
diversity.
Genetic Biobank Initiative:
● The genetic biobank is a state-of-the-art facility designed to store DNA samples from
endangered Himalayan species. These samples are collected from tissues and cells and
preserved in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196 degrees Celsius.
● This process ensures the long-term safeguarding of genetic material, which can be used for
various purposes, including research and breeding programs.
Key Features of the Genetic Biobank:
● Preservation of Genetic Material: By storing DNA samples at extremely low temperatures,
the genetic biobank protects the genetic diversity of endangered species.
● Research Support: The preserved DNA can be utilized for scientific research, contributing
to a better understanding of these species and aiding in their conservation.
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● Breeding Programs: The genetic material can be used in breeding programs to enhance the
genetic diversity of the captive populations, thereby improving their resilience and chances
of survival.
Adaptation Gap Report 2024
● The Adaptation Gap Report 2024, published by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), highlights the urgent need for enhanced climate adaptation efforts
globally, especially as vulnerable nations face increasing climate impacts.
● The report underscores the critical importance of addressing climate change-related
financial commitments, emphasizing this at the recent COP 29.
● Despite ongoing efforts, current adaptation financing remains insufficient to meet the needs
of developing countries.
● UNEP calls for a significant increase in financial support to help these nations cope with
and adapt to the escalating effects of climate change.
Combating Greenwashing In Advertisements
● Greenwashing refers to deceptive marketing tactics used by
corporations to appear more environmentally friendly than
they actually are.
● Companies often use terms like "natural," "sustainable," and
"eco-friendly" without any scientific backing, misleading
consumers and undermining genuine sustainability efforts.
● To address this issue, the Central Consumer Protection
Authority (CCPA) has issued new guidelines targeting
misleading advertisements to combat greenwashing. These
guidelines restrict the use of vague environmental claims in
advertisements.
● Companies are now required to provide scientific evidence or third-party certification to
support any environmental claims they make.
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● This move aims to ensure transparency and honesty in advertising, protecting consumers
and promoting genuine environmental responsibility.
Fossil Fuel Expansion Threatens Coral Triangle Biodiversity
● A critical report presented at COP 16 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has
highlighted the significant threat posed by fossil fuel expansion to the biodiversity of the
Coral Triangle.
● Known as the "Amazon of the
Seas," the Coral Triangle is
home to 76% of the world's
coral species and supports over
120 million people.
● Currently, more than 100
offshore oil and gas blocks are
operational in this region, with
an additional 450 blocks under
exploration. This expansion
poses a severe risk, potentially
impacting 16% of the Coral
Triangle in the future.
● A major oil spill incident in 2023 already affected over 20 marine protected areas and
displaced more than 20,000 families.
● The CBD report recommends urgent action to protect this vital area. Key recommendations
include imposing a moratorium on oil and gas mining and industrial activities in sensitive
areas.
● Additionally, the Coral Triangle should be classified as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area
(PSSA) to ensure it receives special protection against harmful activities.
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Asiatic Golden Cat
● The recent discovery of the Asiatic Golden Cat in Manas
National Park, Assam, marks a significant conservation
milestone, as the species was last spotted in the park in 2007.
● This medium-sized wild cat is known for its adaptability,
inhabiting various ecosystems across southern China, Southeast
Asia, and northeast India.
● The ability of the Asiatic Golden Cat to thrive in different
environments underscores its resilience, although it is still
classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
● This classification highlights the ongoing need for conservation efforts to protect the
species and its habitat.
● The rediscovery in Manas National Park emphasizes the park's ecological importance and
the value of continued preservation efforts in the region.
River Skimmer
● The recent sighting of around 200 rare Indian Skimmer birds
at the Lower Manair Dam in Telangana is a remarkable event,
marking the first recorded presence of these birds in the
state.
● Classified as endangered by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to habitat loss and other
environmental pressures, the Indian Skimmer is a species of
significant conservation concern.
● The Lower Manair Dam reservoir is emerging as a site of rich biodiversity, providing a
habitat for various resident and migratory species.
● This development underscores the ecological importance of the area and highlights the need
for continued conservation efforts to protect and preserve its diverse wildlife.
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Diamond Dust Proposed As Geoengineering Solution For Global Warming
● Diamond dust, referred to as a Solar Radiation Management (SRM) material, is being
proposed as a potential geoengineering solution to combat global warming.
● A new study published in the Geophysical Research Letters suggests that diamond dust
could be an effective SRM material.
● These materials are capable of reflecting solar radiation back into space, thereby reducing
the amount of heat absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.
● Previous studies have explored various SRM materials, including sulfur, calcium, and sodium
chloride, each with its own set of advantages and drawbacks.
● However, diamonds have emerged as a promising option due to their unique properties.
Researchers propose that spraying 5 million tons of diamond dust annually into the upper
atmosphere could achieve a temperature reduction of 1.6 degrees Celsius.
● Geoengineering involves large-scale interventions to alter the Earth's climate system, aiming
to counteract the effects of global warming. It employs two main strategies:
○ Solar Radiation Management (SRM): This strategy focuses on reflecting solar
radiation away from the Earth to cool the planet.
○ Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR): This strategy aims to remove carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere through methods such as carbon capture and storage (CCS),
carbon sequestration, and direct air capture.
● Studies indicate that relying solely on CDR to meet climate goals may be impractical and
costly. Therefore, a combination of SRM and CDR is recommended to effectively address
global warming.
Koalas Facing Extinction
● Koalas, small marsupials similar to kangaroos, are facing
imminent extinction due to habitat loss and disease.
Australia, known as the extinction capital of the world, has
seen approximately 100 unique species vanish over the past
120 years.
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● Koalas are particularly affected by habitat destruction caused by urban development and
agriculture.
● Additionally, a chlamydia infection, which is sexually transmitted, leads to infertility and
death among koalas.
● Researchers are actively developing vaccines to combat the spread of chlamydia. In
response to these threats, the Australian government has started implementing various
measures to protect koalas and ensure their survival.
Forever Chemical
● A recent study has revealed the presence of toxic "forever
chemicals" in drinking water worldwide, affecting both tap and
bottled water in major cities across the UK and China.
● These chemicals, known as PFAs (Perfluoroalkyl Substances), are
synthetic compounds that do not easily break down in the
environment.
● PFAs are widely used in products such as non-stick cookware,
water-repellent clothing, and stain-resistant fabrics.
● PFAs can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin
absorption. Exposure to these chemicals has been linked to serious health issues, including
liver damage, increased cancer risks, low birth rates, and weakened immune responses.
● Although boiling water and using carbon filters can remove up to 90% of these chemicals,
this is not a complete solution.
● In response to the health risks posed by PFAs, some of these chemicals have been banned.
However, many are still in use, continuing to pose a threat to public health and the
environment.
Cassowary
● The cassowary, often referred to as the most dangerous
bird in the world, is at risk of extinction due to hunting
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and habitat loss. This large, flightless bird is native to New Guinea and Northern Australia.
● It is considered dangerous because of its strong legs and sharp claws, which can inflict
serious injuries.
● Despite its fearsome reputation, the cassowary plays a crucial role in the environment. It
helps spread seeds in rainforests through its droppings, contributing to regeneration of
these ecosystems.
● The conservation of cassowaries is therefore important not only for the survival of the
species but also for maintaining the biodiversity and ecological balance of their habitats.
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