H/Definition of a vector

Vector is a physical quantity that has both direction and magnitude. In other words,
the vectors are defined as an object comprising both magnitude and direction. It
describes the movement of the object from one point to another. The below figure
shows the vector with head, tail, magnitude and direction.

There are 10 different types of vectors that are generally used in maths and science.
The various vector types that are covered here are as follows.

Types of Vectors List

There are 10 types of vectors in mathematics, which are:
1. Zero Vector
2. Unit Vector
3. Position Vector
4. Co-initial Vector
5. Like and Unlike Vectors
6. Negative of a Vector
7. Equal Vector
8. Co-planar Vector
9. Collinear Vector
All these vectors are extremely important and the concepts are frequently required
in mathematics and other higher-level science topics. The detailed explanations on
each of these 10 vector types are given below.
Zero Vector
A zero vector is a vector when the magnitude of the vector is zero and the starting
point of the vector coincides with the terminal point.

In other words, for a vector ⃗

AB the coordinates of the point A are the same as that
of the point B then the vector is said to be a zero vector and is denoted by 0.
This follows that the magnitude of the zero vector is zero and the direction of such
a vector is indeterminate.

Unit Vector
A vector, which has a magnitude of unit length, is called a unit vector. Suppose if ⃗x
is a vector having a magnitude |x| then the unit vector is denoted by ^x in the
direction of the vector ⃗x and has the magnitude equal to 1.
⃗x
Therefore, ^x =|x|.

It must be carefully noted that any two unit vectors must not be considered as
equal, because they might have the same magnitude, but the direction in which the
vectors are taken might be different.

Position Vector
If O is taken as reference origin and P is an arbitrary point in space then the
vector ⃗
OP is called as the position vector of the point.
Position vector simply denotes the position or location of a point in the three-
dimensional Cartesian system with respect to a reference origin.

Co-initial Vectors
The vectors that have the same starting point are called co-initial vectors.

The vectors ⃗AB and ⃗

AC are called co-initial vectors as they have the same
starting point.

Like and Unlike Vectors

The vectors having the same direction are known as like vectors. On the contrary,
the vectors having the opposite direction with respect to each other are termed to
be unlike vectors.

Co-planar Vectors
Three or more vectors lying in the same plane or parallel to the same plane are
known as co-planar vectors.
Collinear Vectors
Vectors that lie along the same line or parallel lines are known to be collinear
vectors. They are also known as parallel vectors.

Two vectors are collinear if they are parallel to the same line irrespective of their
magnitudes and direction. Thus, we can consider any two vectors as collinear
vectors if and only if these two vectors are either along the same line or these
vectors are parallel to each other in the same direction or opposite direction. For
any two vectors to be parallel to one another, the condition is that one of the
vectors should be a scalar multiple of another vector. The below figure shows the
collinear vectors in the opposite direction.

Equal Vectors
Two or more vectors are said to be equal when their magnitude is equal and also
their direction is the same.

The two vectors shown above, are equal vectors as they have both direction and
magnitude equal.
Negative of a Vector
If two vectors are the same in magnitude but exactly opposite in direction then
both the vectors are negative of each other. Assume there are two
vectors a and b, such that these vectors are exactly the same in magnitude but
opposite in direction then these vectors can be given by

a=–b
Vector Operations
Vectors are fundamental quantities in physics and mathematics, that have
both magnitude and direction. So performing mathematical operations on them
directly is not possible. So we have special operations that work only with vector
quantities and hence the name, vector operations.

Addition of Vectors
Vectors cannot be added by usual algebraic rules. While adding two vectors, the
magnitude and the direction of the vectors must be taken into account. Triangle
law is used to add two vectors, the diagram below shows two vectors “a” and “b”
and the resultant is calculated after their addition. Vector addition follows
commutative property, this means that the resultant vector is independent of the
order in which the two vectors are added.
a⃗ + ⃗b=⃗c l
The commutative property of vector addition states that,
a⃗ + ⃗b= ⃗b+ a⃗

Subtraction of Two Vectors

Two vectors can be easily subtracted using the vector addition rules. A negative
vector is considered a vector with an opposite direction so it is easily solved by
reversing its direction and applying the Triangle Law of Vector Addition.
Two vectors a and b are subtracted easily as shown in the image added below:
Triangle Law of Vector Addition
For the Triangle Law of Vector Addition, Consider the vectors given in the
figure above. The line AB represents the vector “a”, and BC represents the vector
“b”. The line AC represents the resultant vector. The direction of AC is from A to
C.
Line AC represents,
a⃗ + ⃗b
The magnitude of the resultant vector is given by,
|⃗a . b⃗|=√|⃗a|2 +|b⃗| −2|⃗a||⃗b|cos θ
2

The θ represents the angle between the two vectors. Let Φ be the angle made by
the resultant vector with the vector p.
qsinθ
tanΦ=
p+qcosθ
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
According to the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition if, the “Adjacent side of a
parallelogram represents two vectors then the diagonal starting from the same
initial point represents the resultant of the vector.” This is represented by the image
added below:
Here, vector A and vector B represent the sides of parallelogram PQ and QR
respectively and QS represents the resultant sum vector C.

Multiplication of Vectors with Scalar

Multiplying a vector a with a constant scalar k gives a vector whose direction is the
same but the magnitude is changed by a factor of k.
The figure shows the vector after and before it is multiplied by the constant k. In
mathematical terms, this can be rewritten as,
|k ⃗a|=k |⃗a|
if k > 1, the magnitude of the vector increases while it decreases when k < 1. The
image added below shows the scaler multiplication of vector a with a scaler
number k where k is any constant greater than 1. (k>1)

Product of Vectors
Product of vectors is of two types. A vector has both magnitude and direction and
based on this the two product of vectors are:

i. The dot product of two vectors. The dot product of two vectors is also referred to
as scalar product, as the resultant value is a scalar quantity.
ii. The cross product of two vectors. The cross product is called the vector product
as the result is a vector, which is perpendicular to these two vectors.
Product of Vectors
The two product of vectors, the working rules, properties, uses, examples of these
product of vectors. We can multiply two or more vectors by dot product and cross
product.

Dot Product
The dot product of vectors is also called the scalar product of vectors. The resultant
of the dot product of the vectors is a scalar value. Dot Product of vectors is equal to
the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors, and the cosine of the angle
between the two vectors. The resultant of the dot product of two vectors lie in the
same plane of the two vectors. The dot product may be a positive real number or a
negative real number.

Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, and θ be the included angle of the vectors.
Then the scalar product or dot product is denoted by a.b, which is defined as:
a⃗ . ⃗b=|a⃗||⃗b|cosθ .

Here, |⃗a| is the magnitude of a⃗ , |b⃗| is the magnitude of b⃗ , and θ is the angle between
them.
Working Rule for Dot Product of two Vectors
For the dot product of two vectors, the two vectors are expressed in terms of unit
vectors, i, j, k, along the x, y, z axes, then the scalar product is obtained as follows:

^ b1 ^j+c 1 k^ and b=a

If a⃗ =a 1 i+ ⃗ ^ ^ ^
2 i+ b2 j +c 2 k , then

a⃗ . ⃗b=( a1 i+b
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
1 j+c 1 k )( a2 i+b 2 j+ c 2 k )

^ a1 b2 i^ . ^j+ a1 c 2 i^ . k^ +b 1 a2 ^j. i+
^ i+
¿ a 1 a 2 i. ^ b1 b 2 ^j. ^j +b 1 c 2 ^j. k^ + c1 a2 k^ . i+c
^ 1 b2 k^ . ^j

+c 1 c 2 k^ . k^

a⃗ . ⃗b ¿ a 1 a 2 +b 1 b 2 +c 1 c2
Cross Product
Cross Product is also called a Vector Product. Cross product is a form of vector
multiplication, performed between two vectors of different nature or kinds. When
two vectors are multiplied with each other and the product is also a vector quantity,
then the resultant vector is called the cross product of two vectors or the vector
product. The resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two given
vectors.

We can understand this with an example that if we have two vectors lying in the X-
Y plane, then their cross product will give a resultant vector in the direction of the
Z-axis, which is perpendicular to the XY plane. The × symbol is used between the
original vectors. The vector product or the cross product of two vectors is shown
as:

a⃗ × ⃗b=⃗c

Here a⃗ and b⃗ are two vectors, and c⃗ is the resultant vector. Let θ be the angle
formed between a⃗ and b⃗ and n^ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing both a⃗ and b⃗ . The cross product of the two vectors is given by the
formula:

a⃗ × ⃗b=|⃗a||b⃗|sinθ n^

^ b1 ^j+c 1 k^
Let us assume that a⃗ and b⃗ are two vectors, such that a⃗ =a 1 i+
⃗
and b=a ^ ^ ^
2 i+ b2 j+c 2 k , then by using determinants, we could find
the cross product and write the result as the cross product formula using the
following matrix notation.
 | |
i j k
a⃗ × ⃗b= a1 a2 a 3
b1 b2 b 3
Working Rule for Cross Product of two Vectors
The cross product of two vectors is also represented using the cross product
formula as:
a⃗ × ⃗b=i^ ( b1 c 2−b 2 c 1 )− J^ ( a1 c2−a2 c 1) + k^ ( a1 b2−a2 b1 )

Note: i^ , J^ and k^ are the unit vectors in the direction of x axis, y-axis, and z -axis
respectively.
Properties of Product Of Vectors
The dot product of the unit vector is studied by taking the unit vectors i^ along the
x-axis, ^j along the y-axis, and k^ along the z-axis respectively. The dot product of
unit vectors i^ , ^J and k^ follows similar rules as the dot product of vectors. The
angle between the same vectors is equal to 0º, and hence their dot product is equal
to 1. And the angle between two perpendicular vectors is 90º, and their dot product
is equal to 0.
^ ^j. ^j=k^ . k=1
 i^ . i= ^
^ k^ . i=0
 i^ . ^j= ^j . k= ^
The cross product of unit vectors i^ , ^J and k^ follows similar rules as the cross
product of vectors. The angle between the same vectors is equal to 0º, and hence
their cross product is equal to 0. And the angle between two perpendicular vectors
is 90º, and their cross product gives a vector, which is perpendicular to the two
given vectors.
^ i=
 i× ^ ^j × ^j=k^ × k=0
^
The cross product of two vectors follow a cyclic order as in the below image. The
cross product of two vector in the cyclical sequence gives the third vector in
sequence.
 ^ ^j= k^ ; ^j × k=i
 i× ^ ; k^ × i=
^ j
^j × i=−
^ k^ ; k^ × ^j=−i ; ^ k^ =− j
i×
The properties of the product of vectors are helpful to gain a detailed
understanding of vectors multiplication and also to perform numerous calculations
involving vectors, A few important properties of product of vectors are listed here.

 The cross product of two vectors is given by the formula a⃗ × ⃗b=|⃗a||b⃗|sinθ

 The dot product of two vectors is given by the formula a⃗ . ⃗b=|a⃗||⃗b|cosθ .
 The dot product of two vectors follows the commutative property: a⃗ . ⃗b=⃗b . ⃗a
 The cross-product of two vectors do no follow the commutative property:
a⃗ × ⃗b ≠ ⃗b ×⃗a
 Anti-commutative property: a⃗ × ⃗b=− ⃗b × a⃗
 Distributive property: a⃗ × ( ⃗b+ ⃗c ) =( a⃗ × ⃗b ) + ( ⃗a × ⃗c )
 Cross product of the zero vector: a⃗ × ⃗0=0⃗
 Cross product of the vector with itself: a⃗ × ⃗a= ⃗0
 Multiplied by a scalar quantity: k . ( a⃗ × ⃗b ) =k . ⃗a × b=⃗ ⃗ a × k . b⃗
 The dot product of two vectors is a scalar and lies in the plane of the two
vectors.
 The cross product of two vectors is a vector, which is perpendicular to the
plane containing these two vectors.

Solved Examples of Vector Operations

Problem 1: A vector is given by, v = 2i + j. Find the magnitude of the vector when
it is scaled by a constant of 0.4.
Solution:
For any vector (v) = ai + bj, its magnitude is given as
|k ⃗a|=k |⃗a|
|0.4 ⃗a|=0.4|( 2 i+ j )|=|0.4 ( 2 i+ j )|=|0.8 i+ 0.4 j|
|0.4 ⃗a|=√ 0.82 +0.4 2
|0.4 ⃗a|=√ 0.64+0.16
|0.4 ⃗a|=√ 0.80
|0.4 ⃗a|=0.89
Hence, the magnitude of the vector, v = 2i + j when it is scaled by a constant of 0.4
is 0.89

Problem 2: Two vectors with magnitude 5 and 10. These vectors have a 60° angle
between them. Find the magnitude of the resultant vectors.
Solution:
Let, two vectors be a⃗ and b⃗ . Then the magnitude of the resultant vector “r” is given
by:
|⃗a . b⃗|=|⃗r|= √|⃗a|2 +|b⃗| + 2|⃗a||b⃗| cosθ
2

Given,
|⃗a|=5
|b⃗|=10

⇒ |r⃗|=√|5| +|10| + 2|5||10|cos 60°

°
θ=60

⇒ |r⃗|=√ 25+100+|5||10|
2 2

⇒|r⃗|=√ 25+100+50
⇒|r⃗|=√ 175= √25 ×7=5 √ 7
The magnitude of resultant vector is |r⃗|=5 √ 7

Problem 3: Two vectors with magnitude 4 and 4. These vectors have a 60° angle
between them. Find the magnitude of the resultant vectors and the
angle made by the resultant vector.
Solution:
Let, two vectors be a⃗ and b⃗ . Then the magnitude of the resultant vector “r” is given
by:
|⃗a . b⃗|=|⃗r|= √|⃗p|2+|⃗q|2+2|⃗p||⃗q|cosθ
Given,
|⃗p|=4
|q⃗|=4

⇒ |r⃗|=√|4| +|4| +2|4||4|cos 60°

°
θ=60

⇒ |r⃗|=√ 16+16+|4||4|
2 2

\⇒|r⃗|=√ 16+16+16
⇒|r⃗|=√ 48
The magnitude of resultant vector is |r⃗|=4 √3=6.93

Angle made by resultant:

qsinθ
tanΦ=
p+qcosθ

2 × √ 3 4 × 0.8660 3.4641
°
4 sin 60
tanΦ= = = = =0.5774
4 +4 cos 60
°
4 +2 6 6

−1
Φ=tan 0.5774
°
Φ=30

Problem 4: Two vectors are given by, a = 2i + j + k and b = i + j + k. Find the dot
product of these two vectors.
Solution:
Given that a = 2i + j + k and b = i + j + k
Dot Product = a.b
⇒ a.b = (2i + j + k ).(i + j + k)
⇒ a.b = 2.1i2 + 1.1j2+ 1.1k2
⇒ a.b = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4
Hence, dot product of the given two vectors is 4.

Problem 5: Two vectors are given by, a = 2i + j + k and b = i + j + k. Find the

cross product of these two vectors.
Solution:
Given that a = 2i + j + k and b = i + j + k
Cross Prodcut of Vector = (2i + j + k) × (i + j + k)

| |
i j k
A × B= 2 1 1 =i ( 1−1 ) − j ( 2−1 ) +k ( 2−1 )=0 i− j+ k
1 1 1
A × B=0i− j+k
Uses of Product of Vectors
The following are some of the important uses of the product of vectors. Let us
understand about each of these uses in the below paragraphs.
 Projection of a Vector
 Angle Between Two Vectors
 Triple Scalar Product
 Triple Cross Product
 Area of a Parallelogram
 Volume of a Parallelepiped
Projection of a Vector
The dot product is useful for finding the component of one vector in the direction
of the other. The vector projection of one vector over another vector is the length
of the shadow of the given vector over another vector. It is obtained by multiplying
the magnitude of the given vectors with the cosecant of the angle between the two
vectors. The resultant of a vector projection formula is a scalar value.
Here a⃗ and b⃗ are two vectors and θ is the angle between the two vectors. The
projection of a⃗ on b⃗ is |⃗a| cosθ. This can be further simplified to obtain the
following formula for the project of a vector.
⃗a . ⃗b ⃗a . ⃗b
Thus, projection of a⃗ on b⃗ ¿ and the projection of b⃗ on a⃗ ¿
|⃗b| |⃗a|
Angle Between Two Vectors in 2D and 3D
The angle between two vectors is calculated as the cosine of the angle between the

vectors. The cosine of the angle between two vectors is equal to the sum of the
product of the individual constituents of the two vectors, divided by the product of
the magnitude of the two vectors. The formula for the angle between the two
vectors is as follows.
For Dot or Scalar product
^
⃗a . ⃗b ( a1 i+a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
2 j+ a3 k )( b1 i+b 2 j+ b3 k )
Cosθ= =
|⃗a|.|b⃗| √ a12 +a 22 + a32 . √ b12 +b22 +b32
 a 1 b1 +a 2 b 2 +a 3 b 3
Cosθ=
√a 1
2
+a 2 + a3 . √ b1 +b2 +b 3
2 2 2 2 2

For Dot or Scalar product

^
⃗a . ⃗b ( a1 i+a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
2 j+ a3 k )( b1 i+b 2 j+ b3 k )
Cosθ= =
|⃗a|.|⃗b| √ a12 +a 22 + a32 . √ b12 +b22 +b32

θ=cos
−1

[√ 2
a1 b1 +a2 b2 +a3 b3
a1 +a2 +a 3 . √ b1 + b2 +b3
2 2 2 2 2
]
Example 1:
Given that a = i + 2j + 3k and b = 3i - 2j + k. Find the angle between two vectors
a and b.
a . b=( 1 ,2 , 3 ) ( 3 ,−2 , 1 )=1 ( 3 ) +2 (−2 )+ 3 (1 )
|a|= √12 +22 +32=√ 1+4 +9=√14
|b|= √32 + (−2 ) +12= √9+ 4+1=√ 14
2

θ=cos
−1

[√ 2
a1 b1 +a2 b2 +a3 b3
a1 +a2 +a 3 . √ b1 + b2 +b3
2 2 2 2 2
]
θ=cos
−1
[√ 1 ( 3 ) +2 (−2 ) +3 ( 1 )
1 + 2 +3 . √ 3 + (−2 ) + 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 ] [
=cos
−1 2
√ 14 . √14 ]
θ=cos−1
[]
1
7
= cos−1 0.1429=81.79°

For Vector or Cross product

Sinθ=
|a ×b|
=
|[| |]|
|a|.|b| √a 12 + a22+ a32 . √ b12 +b 22 +b 32
i j k
a 1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
 [ |[| |]| ]
i j k
a 1 a2 a3
b 1 b2 b3
−1
θ=sin
√a 1
2
+ a2 + a3 . √ b 1 +b 2 + b3
2 2 2 2 2

Example 1:
Given that a = i + 2j + 3k and b = 3i - 2j + k. Find the angle between two vectors
a

and b.
Solution

| |
i j k
a × b= 1 2 1 =i (−4−3 )− j (−2−1 ) + k (3−2 )=−7 i+3 j+ k
1 3 −2

|a|= √12 +22 +32=√ 1+4 +9=√14

|b|= √32 + (−2 ) +12= √9+ 4+1=√ 14
2

[ |[| |]| ]
i j k
a 1 a2 a3
b 1 b2 b3
θ=sin−1
√a 1
2
+ a2 + a3 . √ b +b 2 + b3
2 2
1
2 2 2
=sin−1
[√ √ √ ]
59
14 . 14
θ=sin−1
[√ √ √ ]
59
14 . 14
=sin−1 0.5487=33.27°

Important Points on Angle Between Two Vectors:

 The angle (θ) between two vectors a and b is found with the formula

θ=cos
−1
[ ]⃗a . b⃗
|a⃗| .|⃗b|

 The angle between two equal vectors is 0 degrees as θ=cos

−1
[ ⃗ . ⃗a
a
|a⃗| .|⃗a| ]
[ ]
2
|a⃗|
θ=cos−1 2
=cos−1 [ 1 ] =0 °.
|a⃗|

−1 a⃗ . k ⃗a
The angle between two parallel vectors is 0 degrees as θ=cos |a⃗| .|k ⃗a| [ ]
[ ]
2
−1 k |⃗a|
θ=cos 2
=cos−1 [ 1 ]=0° .
k |⃗a|
 The angle θ between two vectors a and b using the cross product is

θ=sin
−1
[ ]
|⃗a × b⃗|
|⃗a|.|b⃗|
.

 For any two vectors a and b, if a · b is positive, then the angle lies between 0°
and 90°;
 if a · b is negative, then the angle lies between 90° and 180°.
 The angle between each of the two vectors among the unit vectors i, j, and k is
90°.

Triple Cross Product

The cross product of a vector with the cross product of the other two vectors is the
triple cross product of the vectors. The resultant of the triple cross product is a
vector. The resultant of the triple cross vector lies in the plane of the given three
vectors. If a, b, and c are the vectors, then the vector triple product of these vectors
will be of the form:

( ⃗a × ⃗b ) × ⃗c =( ⃗a . ⃗c ) ⃗b−( ⃗b . ⃗c ) a⃗

Practice Problems on Vector Triple Product

Problem 1: Given three vectors a = 2i – 3j + 4k, b = – i + 2j – 3k, and

c = i + 3j – 2k, find (a × b) × c.
Solution (Method 1):
First, let us find a × b:
a × b = (2i – 3j + 4k) × (– i + 2j – 3k)
= (2i × – i) + (2i × 2j) + (2i × – 3k) + (– 3j × – i) + (– 3j × 2j) + (– 3j × –3k)
+ (4k × – i) + (4k × 2j) + (4k × – 3k)
a × b = 0 + 4k + 6j – 3k + 0 + 9i – 4j – 8i + 0 = 9i – 8i + 6j – 4j + 4k – 3k
a × b = i + 2j + k
Now, let us compute (a × b) × c:
(a × b) × c = (i + 2j + k) × ( i + 3j – 2k)
(a × b) × c = (i × i) + (i × 3j) + (i × – 2k) + (2j × i) + (2j × 3j) + (2j × –2k)
+ (k × i) + (k × 3j) + (k × – 2k)
(a × b) × c = 0 + 3k + 2j – 2k + 0 – 4i + j – 3i + 0 = –4i – 3i + 2j + j + 3k – 2k
(a × b) × c = –7i + 3j + k
Solution (Method 2) Determinant approach:
 | |
i j k
a × b= 2 −3 4
−1 2 −3
¿ i ( (−3 ) (−3 )−( 2 ) ( 4 ) )− j ( ( 2 )(−3 )−(−1 ) ( 4 ) ) +k ( ( 2 ) ( 2 )−(−1 ) (−3 ) )
¿ i ( 9−8 )− j (−6+ 4 )+ k ( 4−3 )=i ( 1 )− j (−2 )+ k (1 )
¿ i+2 j+k
Similarly,

| |
i j k
( a × b ) ×c= 1 2 1
1 3 −2
¿ i ( ( 2 )(−2 )−( 1 )( 3 ) )− j ( ( 1 ) (−2 )− (1 )( 1 ) ) +k ( (1 )( 3 ) −( 1 )( 2 ) )
¿ i (−4−3 )− j (−2−1 ) +k ( 3−2 )=i (−7 )− j (−3 )+ k ( 1 )
¿−7 i+3 j+ k

Problem 2: Given vectors p = 3i + 2j - k, q = 2i - 4j + 3k, and r = -i + 3j + 2k,

find (p × q) × r.
Solution:
Solution (Determinant approach):
p = 3i + 2j - k, q = 2i - 4j + 3k, and r = -i + 3j + 2k

| |
i j k
p ×q= 3 2 −1
2 −4 3
¿ i ( ( 2 )( 3 )−(−1 ) (−4 ) )− j ( ( 3 )( 3 )−( 2 ) (−1 ) )+ k ( ( 3 ) (−4 )−( 2 ) ( 2 ) )
¿ i ( 6−4 ) − j ( 9−2 )+ k (−12−4 )=i ( 2 )− j ( 7 )+ k (−16 )
¿ 2 i−7 j−16 k
Similarly,

| |
i j k
( p ×q ) × r= 2 −7 −16
−1 3 2
¿ i ( ( 2 )(−7 )−( 3 ) (−16 ) ) − j ( ( 2 ) ( 2 )−(−1 ) (−16 ) ) + k ( ( 2 )( 3 )−(−1 ) (−7 ) )
¿ i (−14 +48 )− j ( 4−16 ) +k ( 6−7 )=i ( 34 )− j (−12 ) +k (−1 )
¿ 34 i−12 j−k

Vector Triple Product Exercises

Q1. Given vectors u = 5i - 2j + 3k, v = 4i - j + 2k, and w = 2i + j - k,
find (u × v) × w.

Q2. Given vectors x = i - 3j + 2k, y = -2i + j + 3k, and z = 4i + j - k,

find find (x × y) × z.

Q3. Given vectors m = i + 2j - 3k, n = 3i - j + 2k, and o = -i + 3j + 2k,

find (m × n) × o.

Q4. Given vectors a = i + j + k, b = 7i - j + 6k, and c = i + 8j - 9k, find (a × b) × c.

Q5. Given vectors a = 2i + 2j + 2k, b = 4i + 5j + 6k, and c = i - 8j + 9k,

find (a × b) × c.

Q6. Prove the Vector Triple Product Identity.

Q7. Prove that if a, b, and c are mutually orthogonal unit vectors, then
a × (b × c) = -c

Q8. Given vectors a = i - j + k, b = i + j + k, and c = 7i + 8j - 9k, find

(a × b) × c.

Vector triple product, a × (b × c), simplifies to (a ⋅ c)b - (a ⋅ b)c, yielding a

Conclusion

vector perpendicular to both b and c. This formula helps solve problems

involving three vectors. Practice problems illustrate its application, confirming
that careful step-by-step calculations lead to accurate results. Understanding this
product is essential in vector algebra.

Area of a Triangle and Parallelogram in vector form

Theorem 3.3: If θ is the angle formed by u and v, then
 || u×v|| = || u|| || v|| sin θ

Let us consider two applications of Theorem 3.3. First, if u and v are parallel,
then θ=0° and u×v = 0.

Second, the parallelogram spanned by u and v can be cut into two parts which
form a rectangle with height || v|| sinθ and base || u|| ,

Thus, the area of the parallelogram formed by u and v is || u|||| v|| sin( q) . Indeed,
we have the following:

The latter result follows from the fact that u-v bisects the parallelogram formed
by u and v.

The area of the parallelogram can be calculated using different formulas when
either the sides or the diagonals are given in vector form:
When two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are represented by the vectors a⃗
and b⃗ and an angle between them θ, the area of the parallelogram is the magnitude
of the vector or cross product of the base and the height of the parallelogram. Let
us consider the base of the parallelogram as |⃗a|, and the height of the parallelogram
as |b⃗|sin θ.
Here Base = |⃗a|, Height = |b⃗ sin θ|, and the Area of the parallelogram = Base x
Height
 Area of a Parallelogram when there is an angle between the two vectors a⃗
and b⃗ is:
Area (A) = |⃗a × ⃗b|=|a⃗||⃗b| sinθ
 The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the vectors a and b is
Area (A) = |a× b|.
 The area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are given by the

vectors d1 and d2 is Area( A)= | d2× d2

2 |.

Consider a parallelogram ABCD as shown in the figure below,

Area of parallelogram in vector form using the adjacent sides is, |a × b|,
where, a and b are vectors representing two adjacent sides.
By the triangle law of vectors,
a + b = d1 (i)
b + (– a) = d2
or b – a = d2 (ii)
⇒ d1 × d2 = (a + b) × (b – a)
= a × (b – a) + b × (b – a)
=a×b–a×a+b×b–b×a
Since a × a = 0, and b × b = 0
⇒a×b–0+0–b×a
Since a × b = – b × a,
d1 × d2 = (a × b) – (– (a × b))
d1 × d2 = (a × b) + (a × b)
d1 × d2 = 2(a × b)
d 2 ×d 2
a × b=
2
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram when diagonals are given in vector form:

|a× b|= | d2× d2

2 |
, where d 1 and d 2 are diagonals.

Example 1: Find the area of a:

i. parallelogram
ii. triangle
whose adjacent sides are vectors A = 2i + 5j and B = 7i – j
Solution

| |
i j k
i. A × B= 2 5 0
7 −1 0

A × B=i ( 0−0 )− j ( 0−0 )+ k (−2−35 )

A × B=i ( 0 ) − j ( 0 ) +k (−37 )

A × B=0i−0 j−37 k

| A × B|=√ 02 +02 + (−37 )

2

| A × B|=√ 1369=37
Therefore, the area of Parallelogram is 37 unit square
 | |
A × B | A × B| 37
ii. Area ( A ) = 2 = 2 = 2 =18.5 unit square

Example 2: Find the area of a:

i. parallelogram
ii. triangle
with vertices at P1( 2,2) , P2( 4,4) , and P3(6,1) .

Solution:
i. It is easy to see that P1 P 2=u=( ( 4−2 ) , ( 4−2 ) )= ( 2, 2 ) and
P1 P 3=v =( ( 6−2 ) , ( 1−2 ) )=( 4 ,−1 ). As vectors in R3, we have

u=( 2 ,2 , 0 ) and v=( 4 ,−1 , 0 ). Thus, their cross product is

| |
i j k
u × v= 2 2 0
4 −1 0
u × v=i ( 0−0 )− j ( 0−0 ) +k (−2−8 )
u × v=0 i−0 j−10 k= ( 0 , 0 ,−10 )

|u × v|= √0 2+ 02+ (−10 ) =√ 100=10

2

ii. Since the triangle has half of the area of the parallelogram formed by u and v,
the
area of the triangle is

|u ×2 v |=|u ×2 v|= 102 =5 unit square

Area ( A ) =

Example 3: Find the area of a:

i. parallelogram
ii. triangle
with vertices at P1( 3,0,2) , P2( 4,6,1) , and P3(0,5,4).

Solution:
i. As vectors in R3, it is easy to see that:
P1 P 2=u=( ( 4−3 ) , ( 6−0 ) , ( 1−2 ) )=( 1 , 6 ,−1 ) and

P1 P 3=v =( ( 0−3 ) , ( 5−0 ) , ( 4−2 ) ) =(−3 ,5 , 2 ) .

Thus, the cross product is

| |
i j k
u × v= 1 6 −1
−3 5 2
u × v=i (12+5 )− j ( 2−3 )+ k ( 5+18 )
u × v=17 i+1 j+23 k= (17 ,1 , 23 )
|u × v|= √17 2+12 +23 2=√289+ 1+ 529=√ 819=28.6182
ii. Since the triangle has half of the area of the parallelogram formed by u and v,
the
area of the triangle is

Area ( A ) =|u ×2 v |=|u ×2 v|= 28.6182

2
=14.31 unit square

The scalar triple product

The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, and c is (a × b)⋅ c. It is a scalar
product because it evaluates to a single number. (In this way, it is unlike the cross
product, which is a vector.) The scalar triple product is important because its
absolute value |(a×b)⋅c| is the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by a, b,
and c (i.e., the parallelepiped whose adjacent sides are the vectors a, b, and c ).

We can write the scalar triple product of a=a 1 i+ a2 j+a 3 k , b=b1 i+ b2 j+b3 k ,
c=c1 i+ c 2 j+ c3 k as the determinant

| |
c1 c 2 c 3
( a × b ) . c= a 1 a2 a3
b 1 b2 b3

| | | | | |
( a × b ) . c=c 1
a2 a3
b2 b 3
a a a a
−c2 1 3 + c3 1 2
b 1 b3 b1 b2

Volume of a Parallelepiped
A parallelepiped is a six-sided figure, each of whose sides is a parallelogram. The
opposite side parallelograms are identical. The volume V of the parallelepiped can
be obtained from the side of edges a, b, c. The volume of a parallelepiped can be
obtained from the product of the area of the base and the height of the
parallelepiped. The formula for the calculation of the volume of a parallelepiped is
as follows.
The formula results from properties of the cross product: the area of the
parallelogram base is ∥a × b∥ and the vector a × b is perpendicular to the base. The
height of the parallelepiped is ∥c∥ |cosϕ|. The angle ϕ between c and a×b could be
larger than π/2, depending on the order of a and b, so we must take the absolute
value in the definition of the volume.
This formula for the volume can be understood from the above figure. From
the geometric definition of the cross product, we know that its magnitude, ∥a×b∥, is
the area of the parallelogram base, and that the direction of the vector a×b is
perpendicular to the base. The height of the parallelepiped is the component of c in
the direction normal to the base, i.e., in the direction of a×b. Hence the height
is ∥c∥ |cosϕ|, where ϕ is the angle between c and a×b. (Why do we need the
absolute value? If we swapped the locations of a and b, in the above figure,
then a×b would point downward. The angle ϕ would be larger than π/2,
and cosϕ would be negative). Therefore, The volume of a parallelepiped spanned
by the vectors a, b and c is the absolute value of the scalar triple product (a×b)⋅c.
The volume of the parallelepiped (V )=‖a ×b‖‖c‖|Cosϕ|=|( a × b ) . c|
 | |
c1 c2 c3
Volume ( V ) =|( a × b ) . c|=Det a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

|| | | | | |
Volume ( V ) =|( a × b ) . c|= c 1
a2 a3
b2 b3
a a a a
−c 2 1 3 + c 3 1 2
b1 b3 b1 b 2

Collinear Vectors
Any two given vectors can be considered as collinear vectors if these vectors
are parallel to the same given line. We can consider two parallel vectors as
collinear vectors since these two vectors are pointing exactly in the same direction
or opposite direction. For any two vectors to be parallel to one another, the
condition is that one of the vectors should be a scalar multiple of another vector.

In the above diagram, the vectors that are parallel to the same line are collinear to
each other and the intersecting vectors are non-collinear vectors.

Conditions of Collinear Vectors

⃗ ( b ,b ,b ) to be collinear, they need to
For any two vectors: a⃗ =( a x , a y , a z ) and b= x y z

satisfy certain conditions. Here are the important conditions of vector collinearity:
 Two vectors a ⃗ ( b ,b ,b ) are collinear if there exists a
⃗ =( a x , a y , a z ) and b= x y z

number n, such that a⃗ = n · b⃗ .

 Two vectors are collinear if relations of their coordinates are equal,
ax ay az
i.e. b = b = b .
x y z

Note: This condition is not valid if one of the components of the vector is zero.
 Two vectors are collinear if their cross product is equal to the NULL Vector.
Let us consider two collinear vectors a⃗ =( a x , a y , a z )
and b=⃗ ( b ,b ,b )=( n a , na , na ) . We can find the cross product between
x y z x y z

them as:
 | || |
i j k i j k
a⃗ × ⃗b= a x a y a z = a x a y a z
b x b y b z n a x na y na z
¿ i ( a y b z−az b y )− j ( ax b z−az b x ) +k ( ax na y −a y b x )
¿ i ( a y na z−a z na y ) − j ( a x naz −a z n a x )+ k ( a x b y −a y n a x )
¿ 0 i+0 j+0 k =0
Example 1:
Are the vectors: x=4 i+ 8 j+12 k and y=8i+16 j+ 24 k collinear?
Solution:

Condition 1:
Vectors: x=4 i+ 8 j+12 k and y=8i+16 j+ 24 k
y=8i+16 j+ 24 k =2 ( 4 i+ 8 j+12 k )=2 x , n=2 is the scalar.
Condition 2:
Two vectors are considered to be collinear if the ratio of their corresponding
coordinates are equal.
x1 4 1
= =
x2 8 2
y1 8 1
= =
y 2 16 2
z1 5 12
= =
z2 10 24
x1 y 1 z 1
Since x = y = z , the vectors ⃗x and ⃗y can be considered as collinear vectors.
2 2 2

Condition 3:

| || |
i j k i j k
⃗x × ⃗y= x 1 y 1 z 1 = 4 8 12
x 2 y 2 z 2 8 16 24
¿ i ( 8× 24−12× 16 )− j ( 4 ×24−8× 12 )+ k ( 4 × 16−8× 8 )
¿ i ( 192−192 )− j ( 96−96 )+ k ( 64−64 )
¿ i ( 0 )− j ( 0 )+ k ( 0 )=0
Therefore, since the cross product of the two vectors is equal to zero, then they are
collinear

Example 2:
Find if the given vectors are collinear vectors. ⃗P= (3 , 4 , 5 ), ⃗
Q= ( 6 , 8 ,10 ).

Solution: Two vectors are considered to be collinear if the ratio of their

corresponding coordinates are equal.
 P1 3 1
= =
Q1 6 2
P2 4 1
= =
Q2 8 2
P3 5 1
= =
Q3 10 2
P1 P 2 P3
Since Q = Q = Q , the vectors ⃗P and ⃗
Q can be considered as collinear vectors.
1 2 3

Example 3: Find if the given vectors are collinear vectors. ⃗P=i+ j+ k ,

⃗
Q=−i− j−k

Solution: Two vectors are considered to be collinear vectors if one vector is a

scalar multiple of the other vector.

Vector ⃗
Q=−i− j−k=−( i+ j+ k )=−(Vector P)

⇒ Vector Q is a scalar multiple of vector P.

P1 P2 P3
Also, since Q = Q = Q =−1 , the vectors ⃗P and ⃗ Q can be considered as collinear
1 2 3

vectors.
Example 4:
Are the vectors: x=4 i+ 8 j+12 k and y=8i+16 j+ 24 k collinear?

Solution
Input: x1 = 2, y1 = 8, z1 = -4, x2 = 4, y2 = 16, z2 = 8
Output: No
Explanation: The given vectors: 2i + 8j – 4k and 4i + 16j + 8k are not collinear.

Coplanar
There are two words in geometry that start with "co" and sound similar and
confusing. They are collinear and coplanar. In each of these words, "co" means
together, "linear" means lying on a line, and "planar" means lying on a plane. Thus,
collinear means that together lie on a line and coplanar means that together lie on a
plane.
The Meaning of Coplanar
The word "coplanar" means "lying on the same plane". So obviously,
"noncoplanar" means "do not lie on the same plane". In geometry, we study about
two things with respect to coplanarity:
 Coplanar points
 Coplanar lines

Coplanar and Non Coplanar Points

The points that lie on the same plane are called coplanar points and hence the
points that do NOT lie on the same plane are called non-coplanar points. We
know that two points in 2D can always pass through a line and hence any two
points are collinear. In the same way, three points in 3D can always pass through a
plane and hence any 3 points are always coplanar. But four or more points in 3D
may not be coplanar. So we define the coplanar points and non-coplanar points as
follows with respect to the following example:

Coplanar Points Definition in Geometry

Four or more points that lie on the same plane are known as coplanar points.
Remember that given any two points are always coplanar and given any three
points are always coplanar. Here are some coplanar points examples from the
above figure:
 A, B, C, and D are coplanar points.
 But each of F and E are NOT coplanar with A, B, C, and D.
 If any 3 points are taken at a time, a plane can pass through all those 3 points,
and hence they are coplanar. For example:
A, B, and E are coplanar.
C, D, and F are coplanar.
A, B, and E are coplanar, etc.

Non Coplanar Points Definition in Geometry

Any four or more points are non-coplanar if they do not lie on a plane. For
example, in the above figure, A, B, E, and F are non-coplanar points.

How to Determine Whether Given 4 Points are Coplanar

There are several methods to determine whether any 4 given points are coplanar.
Let us learn each method. Consider the following example in each of the methods.

Example: Determine whether the four points A(1, -1, 2), B(3, -2, 5), C(1, 1, 4),
and D(4, -2, 7) are coplanar.

Method 1 for Determining Coplanar Points

For any four points to be coplanar, find the equation of the plane through any of
the three points and see whether the fourth point satisfies it.

Let us first find the equation of the plane through the first three points:
(x1,y1,z1) = (1, -1, 2)
(x2,y2,z2) = (3, -2, 5)
(x3,y3,z3) = (1, 1, 4)

For this, we use the equation of the plane formula:

| |
x−x 1 y− y 1 z−z 1
x 2−x 1 y 2 − y 1 z 2−z 1 =0
x 3−x 1 y 3 − y 1 z 3−z 1

| |
x−1 y +1 z−2
3−1 −2+1 5−2 =0
1−1 1+1 4−2

| |
x−1 y +1 z−2
2 −1 3 =0
0 2 2

( x−1 ) (−2−6 )−( y +1 ) ( 4−0 )+ ( z−2 ) ( 4−0 ) =0

( x−1 ) (−8 ) −( y+ 1 )( 4 ) + ( z−2 )( 4 ) =0

−8 x +8−4 y −4+ 4 z−8=0

8 x +4 y−4 z + 4=0

Divide both sides by 4 ,

2 x+ y−z+ 1=0

Now, we will substitute the fourth point (x, y, z) = (4, -2, 7) in it and see whether it
is satisfied.

2 ( 4 ) + (−2 )−7+ 1=0

8−2−7+ 1=0

0=0, it satisfied

Therefore, the given points are coplanar.

Method 2 for Determining Coplanar Points

For any given four points A, B, C, and D, find 3 vectors, say ⃗
AB , ⃗
BC , and ⃗
CD to be
coplanar see whether their scalar triple product (determinant formed by the
vectors) is 0.

Let us find the vectors ⃗

AB , ⃗
BC , and ⃗
CD .

 ⃗
AB = B - A = (3, -2, 5) - (1, -1, 2) = (2, -1, 3)
 ⃗
BC = C - B = (1, 1, 4) - (3, -2, 5) = (-2, 3, -1)
 ⃗
CD = D - C = (4, -2, 7) - (1, 1, 4) = (3, -3, 3)

Now, their scalar triple product is nothing but the determinant formed by these
three vectors. Let us find it and see whether it is 0.

| |
2 −1 3
−2 3 −1 =2 ( 9−3 ) +1 (−6+3 ) +3 ( 6−9 ) =2 ( 6 ) +1 (−3 )+ 3 (−3 )
3 −3 3

¿ 12−3−9=0

Therefore, the given four points are coplanar.

Method 3 for Determining Coplanar Points

For any given 4 points (x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2), (x3,y3,z3), and (x4,y4,z4) to be coplanar,
see if the 4x4 determinant

| || |
x1 y1 z1 1 1 −1 2 1
x2 y2 z2 1 3 −2 5 1
=
x3 y3 z3 1 1 1 4 1
x4 y4 z4 1 4 −2 7 1
 | | | || || |
−2 5 1 3 5 1 3 −2 1 3 −2 5
¿ 1 1 4 1 − (−1 ) 1 4 1 +2 1 1 1 −1 1 1 4
−2 7 1 4 7 1 4 −2 1 4 −2 7

¿ 1 ( 6 ) +1 (−3 ) +2 (−3 )−1 (−3 ) =6−3−6+3=0

But this process may be difficult because calculating the 4x4 determinant is
difficult.

Coplanar and Non Coplanar Lines

Two or more lines are said to be coplanar if they lie on the same plane, and the
lines that do not lie in the same plane are called non-coplanar lines. Consider the
following rectangular prism.

Coplanar Lines in Geometry

In the above rectangular prism, here are some coplanar lines:
 AD and DH as they lie on the left side face of the prism (i.e., on the same
plane).
 AB and CD as they lie on the bottom face of the prism (i.e., on the same plane).
 BC and FG as they lie on the right side face of the prism (i.e., on the same
plane).

Non-Coplanar Lines in Geometry

In the above rectangular prism, the following are some non-coplanar lines as they
do not lie on the same plane (i.e., they do not lie on the same rectangle in this
case).
 AD and GH
 AB and CG
 BC and EH
How to Determine Whether Given 2 Lines are Coplanar
Two lines are said to be coplanar if they are present in the same plane. Here are the
conditions for two lines to be coplanar both in vector form and cartesian form.The
cartesian form helps to represent geometric entities in the cartesian plane. The
cartesian form helps in representing a point, a line, or a plane in a two-dimensional
or a three-dimensional plane. A point, a line, or a plane can easily be represented in
a three-dimensional plane across the x-axis, y-axis, z-axis in cartesian form. The
cartesian form of representing a point is (x, y, z), the line is (x - x 1)/a = (y - y1)/b =
(z - z1)/c, and the plane is ax + by + cz = d. The simplest form of cartesian form of
the equation of a line is the vector form of the position vector of point A in the
three-dimensional cartesian plane is ⃗A=x i+ ^ y ^j+ z k^ , which is also represented in
cartesian form as a point A(x, y, z).

Condition For Coplanarity of Lines in Vector Form

If the vector equations of two lines are of the form ⃗ r 2= ⃗b+k q⃗ then they
r 1=⃗a +k ⃗p and ⃗
⃗ a ) . ( ⃗p × q⃗ )=0 .
are coplanar if and only if ( b−⃗
Condition For Coplanarity of Lines in Cartesian Form
x−x 1 y− y 1 z−z 1
If the cartesian equations of two lines are of the form = =
a1 b1 c1
x−x 2 y− y 2 z−z 2
and = = , then the lines are coplanar if and only if the
a2 b2 c2

| |
x 2−x 1 y 2− y 1 z 2−z 1
a1 b2 c 2 =0
a2 b2 c2

Important Notes on Coplanar

 Any two points are always coplanar.
 Any three points are always coplanar.
 Four or more points are coplanar if they all are present on one plane.
 Two or more lines are coplanar if they all are present on one plane.

EXAMPLES
 Example 1: Determine whether the following lines/points are coplanar. (a) The
minute hand, second hand, and hour hand of a clock (b) Three points on a wall
and two points on the floor of a room.
 Solution:

(a) Since all minute hand, second hand, and hour hand of a clock lie on the
same (circular) plane, they are coplanar.

(b) The points on the wall and the points on the floor cannot be on the same
plane and hence they are non-coplanar.

Answer: (a) Coplanar (b) Non-coplanar.

 Example 2: If the point (2, -1, 5) is coplanar with the plane whose equation is
3x − y + 2z + k = 0, find k.

Solution:
Since the point lies on the plane, it should satisfy the plane equation. So
3(2) − (−1) + 2(5) + k = 0
6 + 1 + 10 + k = 0
k + 17 = 0
k = −17
Answer: k = −17.
 Example 3: Determine whether the following lines are coplanar.
x−1 x−2 x−3 x−3 x −1 x +1
L1: −1 = 2 = 4 and L2: 1 = 4 = −2 .
Solution:
1 1 1 x−x y− y z−z x−x 2 y− y 2 z−z 2
Comparing the lines with form a = b = c and a2
=
b2
=
c2
, we
1 1 1

get:

( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =( 1 ,2 , 3 ); ( a 1 , b 1 , c 1 )=(−1 , 2 , 4 ) ;
( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) =( 3 , 1,−1 ); ( a 2 , b 2 , c 2 )=( 1 , 4 ,−2 )

| |
x 2−x 1 y 2− y 1 z 2−z 1
Now, we will check the condition: a1 b2 c 2 =0
a2 b2 c2

| || |
3−1 1−2 −1−3 2 −1 −4
−1 2 4 = −1 2 4
1 4 −2 1 4 −2
¿ 2 (−4−16 )+1 ( 2−4 )−4 (−4−2 )
¿ 2 (−20 ) +1 (−2 )−4 (−6 )
¿−40−2+24
¿−18 ≠0

So the given lines are not coplanar.

Answer: The given lines are non-coplanar lines.