Quantitative Reasoning

Ms. Zunaira Khurrum

Statistics Department

(Only the main points are covered on the slides. Please ensure the
use of reference books also)
Grouped Frequency Distribution
• Grouped frequency distribution can be formed using two methods:

• If upper limit of the first class is • If upper limit of the first class is
not same as the lower limit of the same as the lower limit of the
next class. For e.g. next class then the next class will
10-19 absorb the observation. For e.g.
20-29 10-20 20
excluded
30-39 20-30
• Class limits 30-40
• Class boundaries

Inclusive This value

is
Exclusive The
observation

method included
in the
interval
method 20 will fall
in this
interval
Constructing a frequency distribution
Considering the following data:
2.7 2.4 4.3 3.5 4.5 3.2 3.7 3.0
3.7 3.3 1.6 3.1 3.3 3.8 3.1 4.8
3.2 2.5 4.4 3.4 3.8 2.9 3.3 3.8
3.4 3.3 3.2 3.8 4.3 3.1 4.1 1.9
3.5 4.7 3.9 3.4 2.6 3.9 3.0 4.4
1. Range, R= Max-Min= 4.8-1.6 =3.2
2. No. of classes, k=√n= √40=6.32≈7
3. Class interval width, h=R/k =3.2/7 = 0.46 ≈ 0.5

lower limit of the second class−upper limit of the first class 2.0−1.9
4. Class boundaries= = = 0.5
2 2

5. Subtracting 0.5 from the lower limits and adding 0.5 to the upper limits will give us class
boundaries.
6. Now constructing the frequency table using the above information
 Frequency Table Exclusive
method
Inclusive
Class limits Class Midpoint/ Tally frequency
method
boundaries class mark
1.5-1.9 1.45-1.95 1.7 // 2
2.0-1.5=0.5
(class width) 2.0-2.4 1.95-2.45 2.2 / 1
2.5-2.9 2.45-2.95 2.7 //// 4
3.0-3.4 2.95-3.45 3.2 //// //// //// 15
3.5-3.9 3.45-3.95 3.7 //// //// 10
4.0-4.4 3.95-4.45 4.2 //// 5
4.5-4.9 4.45-4.95 4.7 /// 3
Total 40
Cumulative Frequency

1 2
• When the • When the
Less-than

More-than
frequencies frequencies
are are
cumulated cumulated
from lowest from highest
to highest. to lowest.
(Added) (Subtracted)
Constructing a less-than-cumulative frequency distribution
Class limits Class frequency Less- than Cumulative
boundaries type frequency
20-24 19.5-24.5 2 Less than 24.5 2
25-29 24.5-29.5 1 Less than 29.5 2+1=3
30-34 29.5-34.5 4 Less than 34.5 3+4=7
35-39 34.5-39.5 13 Less than 39.5 7+13=20
40-44 39.5-44.5 10 Less than 44.5 20+10=30
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 Less than 49.5 30+5=35
50-54 49.5-54.5 3 Less than 54.5 35+3=38
55-59 54.5-59.5 2 Less than 59.5 38+2=40
40
Considering
Upper
boundaries
Constructing a more-than-cumulative frequency distribution
Class limits Class frequency More- than Cumulative
boundaries type frequency
20-24 19.5-24.5 2 More than 19.5 40
25-29 24.5-29.5 1 More than 24.5 40-2=38
30-34 29.5-34.5 4 More than 29.5 38-1=37
35-39 34.5-39.5 13 More than 34.5 37-4=33
40-44 39.5-44.5 10 More than 39.5 33-13=20
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 More than 44.5 20-10=10
50-54 49.5-54.5 3 More than 49.5 10-5=5
55-59 54.5-59.5 2 More than 54.5 5-3=2
60-64 59.5-64.5 0 More than 59.5 2-2=0 Considering
lower
40
boundaries
More-Than Cumulative frequency is not the reverse of Less-Than Cumulative frequency
Relative frequency distribution
The frequency of a class is divided by the total frequency.

𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇
Rf= =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 ∑𝒇

Class limits frequency Relative % Relative

frequency frequency
1.8-1.9 2 2/40=0.05 0.05*100=5
2.0-2.4 1 1/40=0.025 0.025*100=2.5
2.5-2.9 4 4/40=0.1 0.1*100=10
3.0-3.4 15 15/40=0.375 0.375*100=37.5
3.5-3.9 10 10/40=0.25 0.25*100=25
4.0-4.4 5 5/40=0.125 0.125*100=12.5
4.5-4.9 3 3/40=0.075 0.075*100=7.5
Total 40 1 100
Always 1 Always 100
Relative Cumulative frequency distribution
The cumulative frequency of a class is divided by the total frequencies of all classes.

𝑪𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑪𝒇𝒊

Rcf= =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 ∑𝒇

Class limits frequency Cumulative Relative % Relative

Frequency Cumulative frequency
frequency
1.75-1.95 2 2 2/40=0.05 0.05*100=5
1.95-2.45 1 2+1=3 3/40=0.075 0.075*100=7.5
2.45-2.95 4 3+4=7 7/40=0.175 0.175*100=17.5
2.95-3.45 15 7+15=22 22/40=0.55 0.55*100=55
3.4-3.95 10 22+10=32 32/40=0.8 0.8*100=80
3.95-4.45 5 32+5=37 37/40=0.925 0.925*100=92.5
4.45-4.95 3 37+3=40 40/40=1 1*100=100
Total 40
Always 1 Always 100
Graphical Representation
• A visual representation of • A visual representation of
a system or structure. data to understand trends
• Shows qualitative and relationships.
relationships. • Displays quantitative
• Examples are bar charts, data.
Pie chart • Examples are Histogram,
frequency polygon

Diagram Graph
Diagram

Simple bar

Bar Chart Multiple bar chart

Simple component
Diagram
chart
Pie chart Component/subdivided

% component chart
Simple bar chart
1. Determine the data: Identify the data you
want to display (e.g., categories and
values).
2. Choose a scale: Select a suitable scale for
the x-axis (categories) and y-axis (values).
3. Draw the axes: Draw two perpendicular
lines to create the x and y axes.
4. Plot the bars: For each category, draw a
bar that represents the corresponding value.
5. Label the axes: Label the x-axis with
category names and the y-axis with value
labels.
6. Add a title: Give the chart a title that
describes the data.
Multiple bar chart
1. Determine the data: Identify the data for
each group or category.
2. Choose a scale: Select a suitable scale for
the x-axis (categories) and y-axis (values).
3. Draw the axes: Draw two perpendicular
lines to create the x and y axes.
4. Plot the bars: For each category, draw
multiple bars side by side, representing
different groups or sub-categories.
5. Label the axes: Label the x-axis with
category names and the y-axis with value
labels.
6. Add a legend: Create a legend to explain
which bar represents which group or sub-
category.
7. Add a title: Give the chart a title that
describes the data.
Simple Component bar chart
1. Determine the data: Identify the total value and
its components.
2. Choose a scale: Select a suitable scale for the x-
axis (categories) and y-axis (values).
3. Draw the axes: Draw two perpendicular lines to
create the x and y axes.
4. Plot the total bar: Draw a bar representing the
total value.
5. Divide the bar into components: Divide the
total bar into sections representing each
component.
6. Color the components: Use different colors to
differentiate each component.
7. Label the axes: Label the x-axis with category
names and the y-axis with value labels.
8. Add a legend: Create a legend to explain which
color represents which component.
9. Add a title: Give the chart a title that describes
the data.
 Pie chart
• A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic divided
into slices to illustrate numerical proportions. Each
slice represents a category, and its size indicates
the proportion of the whole that the category
represents. The entire circle represents 100% of the
data.
• Pie charts are useful for:
• Showing how different categories contribute
to a whole.
• Comparing the size of different categories.
• Components of a pie chart:
• Center circle: Represents the total value.
• Slices: Represent individual categories.
• Labels: Identify each slice.
• Legend: Explains the colours or patterns used.
 How to make a pie chart
• Determine the data: Identify the categories and their Highest
education
Frequency Angle of sectors percentage of sectors
corresponding values. Bachelors 700 700/1200*360=210 700/1200*100=58.33%
• Draw a circle: Draw a circle to represent the total value.
• Calculate slice angles: Calculate the angle for each slice Masters 400 400/1200*360=120 400/1200*100=33.33%

by using the formula Doctorate 100 100/1200*360=30 100/1200*100=8.33%

Component part
Angle= whole quantity ∗ 360 1200

• Divide the circle into slices: Divide the circle into

slices, each representing a category. Number of registered students
• Draw the slices: Draw each slice, using the calculated
angles.
• Label the slices: Label each slice with its category name 8%

and percentage/frequency. Bachelors

• Add a legend: Create a legend to explain the colors or 33%

59%
Masters
Doctorate
patterns used.
• Percentage of slices: Divide the frequency of the
category by total frequency and multiply by 100
Component part
Percentage= whole quantity ∗ 100
Any Questions