Set-A

1. Define Quantum Computing:

Quantum computing is a type of computation that uses quantum bits (qubits) to perform
operations using the principles of quantum mechanics like superposition, entanglement, and
quantum interference.
2. What are the matrices used in Quantum Computing?
Quantum computing uses unitary matrices to represent quantum gates. Common matrices
include:
Pauli-X: [[0, 1], [1, 0]]
Hadamard (H): 1/√2 * [[1, 1], [1, -1]]
Pauli-Y, Z, and Identity (I) matrices.
3. How does a Qubit work?
A qubit can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously, unlike classical bits
which are either 0 or 1. Measurement collapses it to one of the two states probabilistically.
4. List out the benefits of Superposition:
Allows qubits to represent multiple states simultaneously.
Enables parallelism in computation.
Increases processing power exponentially with more qubits.
5. State the basic operations of Quantum Computing:
Initialization of qubits
Quantum gate operations (like Hadamard, Pauli, CNOT)
Measurement of qubits to get classical outcomes
6. Mention the operation of Universal Gate in Quantum Computing:
Universal gates like CNOT and Hadamard can be combined to perform any quantum
computation. They are building blocks for any quantum circuit.
7. Write about Multiple Qubit Gate:
Multi-qubit gates operate on two or more qubits. Example: CNOT Gate flips the second qubit if
the first is 1. It is used to create entanglement between qubits.
8. How to build a Quantum Circuit?
Start with qubit initialization.
Apply quantum gates to manipulate states.
Use entangling gates (like CNOT) if needed.
End with measurement to get output.
9. Classify Quantum Parallelism:
Quantum parallelism refers to processing many possible inputs at once due to superposition. It
includes:
Data parallelism
Instruction parallelism
Function parallelism
10. Illustrate Deutsch Theory:
Deutsch's algorithm demonstrates quantum parallelism. It solves a specific problem
(determining if a function is constant or balanced) in one query, which would take two in
classical computing, showing quantum speedup.
16 mark question
11.Functions of Complex Numbers and Their Role in Quantum Computing
1. Introduction to Complex Numbers in Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is based on the principles of quantum mechanics, which heavily relies on
complex numbers for mathematical representation. Unlike classical computing, where bits are
represented as either 0 or 1, quantum states (qubits) exist in a superposition of states using
complex amplitudes.
2. Definition of Complex Numbers
A complex number is of the form:
z = a + bi
where:
a is the real part,
b is the imaginary part,
i is the imaginary unit with .
3. Importance of Complex Numbers in Quantum Mechanics
In quantum mechanics, the state of a system is represented by a wave function, which uses
complex-valued probability amplitudes. These amplitudes are essential for:
Interference effects
Superposition
Unitary transformations
4. Quantum States and Complex Amplitudes
A qubit is described as:
|\psi\rangle = \alpha|0\rangle + \beta|1\rangle
Where α and β are complex numbers, and:
|\alpha|^2 + |\beta|^2 = 1
This normalization condition ensures valid probability interpretation.
5. Quantum Gates as Complex Matrices
Quantum gates are represented by unitary matrices with complex entries. Examples:
Hadamard Gate (H):
\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{bmatrix}
1 & 1 \\
1 & -1
\end{bmatrix}
Pauli-Y Gate:
\begin{bmatrix}
0 & -i \\
i&0
\end{bmatrix}
These complex matrices perform rotations and transformations in the Hilbert space of quantum
states.
6. Functions of Complex Numbers in Quantum Computing
a. State Representation:
Complex numbers define the probability amplitudes of quantum states.
b. Quantum Interference:
Constructive and destructive interference arise from phase differences in complex numbers.
c. Phase Shifts:
Quantum gates like the Phase (S) and T-gate modify the complex phase of qubits:
S-gate:
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0&i
\end{bmatrix}
d. Quantum Measurement:
Though measurement outcomes are real, the probabilities are derived from the square of the
magnitudes of complex amplitudes.
e. Unitary Evolution:
All quantum operations must be unitary (U†U = I), and unitarity requires complex numbers to
preserve normalization and reversibility.
7. Functions on Complex Numbers in Quantum Circuits
Quantum circuits often use functions such as:
Modulus: |z|=√a²+b²
Argument (Phase): arg(z)=tan-¹(b/a)
Euler’s formula:
e^{i\theta} = \cos(\theta) + i\sin(\theta)
This is essential for defining rotation gates, e.g., rotation around the Z-axis:
R_z(\theta) = \begin{bmatrix}
e^{-i\theta/2} & 0 \\
0 & e^{i\theta/2}
\end{bmatrix}
8. Visual Representation – Bloch Sphere
A qubit can be represented as a point on a Bloch sphere, where:
Complex numbers define the vector's orientation using phase and amplitude.
The global phase (complex rotation) does not affect measurement but affects interference.
9. Entanglement and Complex Numbers
Entangled states (like Bell states) rely on precise control of complex amplitudes to achieve
quantum correlations:
|\Phi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|00\rangle + |11\rangle)
Manipulating these requires complex-number-based gates for accurate transformation.
10. Conclusion
Complex numbers are fundamental in quantum computing, not only in state representation but
also in gate operations, interference, and quantum measurement. They enable the
mathematical framework needed to express and control quantum behavior, which is essential
for building and analyzing quantum algorithms and systems.
12.CNOT
1. Introduction to CNOT Gate
The CNOT (Controlled-NOT) gate is a fundamental two-qubit quantum gate used in quantum
computing. It is crucial for:
Creating entanglement between qubits
Implementing quantum logic operations
Enabling universal quantum computation when combined with single-qubit gates
2. Definition of CNOT Gate
The CNOT gate flips the target qubit if and only if the control qubit is in state |1⟩.
Matrix Representation:
CNOT = \begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
\end{bmatrix}
This 4x4 unitary matrix acts on two qubits.
3. Symbolic Representation:
In circuit diagrams:
Control —●—
|
Target —⊕—
●: Control qubit
⊕: Target qubit (acts like a NOT gate if control is 1)
4. Input and Output States of CNOT
CNOT operates on 4 possible computational basis states (|00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, |11⟩):
Case 1: Input |00⟩
Control = 0, Target = 0
Since control is 0, target remains unchanged.
Output = |00⟩
Case 2: Input |01⟩
Control = 0, Target = 1
Control is 0, so target remains unchanged.
Output = |01⟩
Case 3: Input |10⟩
Control = 1, Target = 0
Control is 1, so target flips (0 → 1).
Output = |11⟩
Case 4: Input |11⟩
Control = 1, Target = 1
Control is 1, so target flips (1 → 0).
Output = |10⟩
6. Use of CNOT in Entanglement
CNOT is essential in creating entangled states, like Bell states:
Apply Hadamard gate to the first qubit:
|0⟩ \xrightarrow{H} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0⟩ + |1⟩)
Then apply CNOT:
CNOT\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0⟩ + |1⟩) \otimes |0⟩\right) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|00⟩ + |11⟩)
This is the Bell state |Φ⁺⟩.
7. Properties of CNOT Gate
Unitary: Reversible, preserves information
Entangling gate: Crucial for quantum teleportation and superdense coding
Involutory: (applying twice gives identity)
8. Real-world Applications
Quantum error correction
Teleportation protocol
Quantum logic circuits
Grover’s and Shor’s algorithms
9. Conclusion
The CNOT gate is a key building block in quantum circuits, enabling both logical control and
quantum entanglement. Its simple yet powerful operation forms the basis of many quantum
algorithms and is essential for implementing quantum parallelism and quantum logic.
13.1. Introduction: The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is one of the first examples that shows how a
quantum algorithm can be exponentially faster than any classical counterpart. It solves a
specific problem: to determine whether a given function is constant or balanced.
A constant function returns the same output (0 or 1) for all inputs.
A balanced function returns 0 for half the inputs and 1 for the other half.
2. Problem Statement: Given a function , determine if it is:
Constant: or for all
Balanced: Exactly half of all inputs return 0, half return 1
Classically, you need up to queries in the worst case.
Quantumly, the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm solves this using only one query.
3. Algorithm Steps:
Step 1: Initialization
Start with qubits in state and 1 qubit in :
|\psi_0\rangle = |0\rangle^{\otimes n} |1\rangle
Step 2: Apply Hadamard Gates (H):
Apply Hadamard to all qubits to create superposition:
|\psi_1\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^n}} \sum_{x=0}^{2^n - 1} |x\rangle \left( \frac{|0\rangle -
|1\rangle}{\sqrt{2}} \right)
Step 3: Oracle Function :
Apply the quantum oracle which maps:
|x\rangle|y\rangle \rightarrow |x\rangle|y \oplus f(x)\rangle
|\psi_2\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^n}} \sum_{x=0}^{2^n - 1} (-1)^{f(x)} |x\rangle \left( \frac{|0\rangle -
|1\rangle}{\sqrt{2}} \right)
Step 4: Apply Hadamard Gates Again:
Apply Hadamard to the first qubits.
Step 5: Measurement:
Measure the first qubits:
If the result is , then function is constant
If any other output, then function is balanced
4. Example for n = 1 (Deutsch's Algorithm):
For 1-bit input:
Constant functions: f(x) = 0 or f(x) = 1
Balanced functions: f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1 or f(0) = 1, f(1) = 0
5. Advantage: The algorithm gives an exponential speedup over classical
algorithms—demonstrating the power of quantum parallelism and interference.
6. Conclusion: Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is a foundational quantum algorithm that shows how
quantum mechanics can outperform classical computation for specific problems. It forms the
basis for more complex algorithms like Simon's and Grover’s.
Set-B
1. Differentiate qubit from classical bit:
A classical bit can hold a value of either 0 or 1. A qubit, or quantum bit, can exist in a
superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously, enabling parallel computation.
2. Infer about the concept of superposition:
Superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics where a qubit can be in a linear
combination of both basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩, represented as:
|\psi\rangle = \alpha|0\rangle + \beta|1\rangle \quad \text{where} \ |\alpha|^2 + |\beta|^2 = 1
3. How entanglement relate to quantum computing?
Entanglement is a quantum phenomenon where qubits become correlated such that the state of
one qubit depends on the state of another, even across large distances. It enables quantum
teleportation and complex computations not possible classically.
4. State postulate 1 of quantum mechanics:
Postulate 1: The state of a quantum system is described by a state vector (or wavefunction) |ψ⟩
in a complex Hilbert space. This vector contains all measurable information of the system.
5. What is the role of quantum gates in quantum computing?
Quantum gates manipulate qubit states using unitary transformations. They are the building
blocks of quantum circuits, enabling operations like superposition, entanglement, and
interference.
6. Write a note on Pauli's matrices:
Pauli matrices are a set of 3 important 2x2 matrices used in quantum mechanics:
X (Pauli-X): Bit-flip gate
Y (Pauli-Y): Bit and phase flip
Z (Pauli-Z): Phase-flip gate
They are essential in describing quantum gate operations.
7. Name the universal logic gates:
The Hadamard gate, T-gate, and CNOT gate together form a universal set of quantum logic
gates. Any quantum computation can be constructed using combinations of these.
8. Give an example of a quantum error correction code:
The Shor code is a quantum error correction code that encodes 1 qubit into 9 qubits to protect
against arbitrary single-qubit errors (bit-flip and phase-flip).
9. Define Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm:
The Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm is a quantum algorithm that determines whether a function is
constant or balanced with a single query to the function, demonstrating quantum speedup.
10. How does Grover’s algorithm work?
Grover’s algorithm searches an unsorted database of N items in O(√N) time. It amplifies the
probability of the correct solution using quantum amplitude amplification, offering a quadratic
speedup over classical search.
16mark
11.Global Perspectives on the Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes nature at the smallest
scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles. From a global perspective, these
postulates form the backbone of our understanding of the quantum world, influencing not just
physics, but technology, philosophy, and emerging interdisciplinary fields.
Postulate 1: State of a Quantum System (State Vector Postulate)
Every physical system is associated with a Hilbert space.
The state of a system is represented by a state vector |ψ⟩, a unit vector in this space.
Globally, this forms the foundation for quantum computing and quantum communication, where
quantum states are manipulated.
Postulate 2: Observables and Measurement
Every measurable property (observable) is represented by a Hermitian operator.
The possible outcomes of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator.
Upon measurement, the system collapses into the eigenstate corresponding to the measured
eigenvalue.
This postulate highlights a global philosophical debate around determinism and probabilism in
nature.
Postulate 3: Probability and Born Rule
The probability of obtaining a particular measurement outcome is given by the Born rule:
P = |⟨ψ|ϕ⟩|², where |ϕ⟩ is the eigenstate of the observable.
This probabilistic nature has led to the Copenhagen Interpretation, widely accepted globally,
though alternative theories like Many Worlds also exist.
Postulate 4: Time Evolution (Schrödinger Equation)
The time evolution of a quantum system is governed by the Schrödinger equation:
iħ (∂|ψ⟩/∂t) = H|ψ⟩, where H is the Hamiltonian.
This postulate supports quantum simulations, which have global applications in drug discovery,
material science, and AI.
Postulate 5: Composite Systems (Tensor Product Postulate)
For two quantum systems A and B, the state of the combined system is represented as the
tensor product:
|ψ⟩ = |ψ⟩_A ⊗ |ψ⟩_B.
This postulate leads to entanglement, a phenomenon Einstein called "spooky action at a
distance".
Entanglement is the core of quantum teleportation and quantum cryptography being developed
globally.
Postulate 6: Symmetry and Identical Particles
Identical particles (e.g., electrons) must be described by symmetric (bosons) or antisymmetric
(fermions) wave functions.
Globally, this supports quantum statistics like Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics, crucial
for technologies like lasers and semiconductors.
Global Impact and Perspective
1. Technological Revolution:
Quantum mechanics underpins global innovations in quantum computing, nanotechnology, MRI
scans, and semiconductors.
2. Interdisciplinary Influence:
These postulates inspire global research in philosophy, neuroscience, biology, and even
ethics—especially around the nature of consciousness and reality.
3. Global Collaborations:
Initiatives like the Quantum Internet, CERN’s quantum research, and national quantum missions
show how these postulates are driving collaborative global science.
4. Educational Perspective:
Quantum mechanics is now an essential part of curricula in top universities worldwide, shaping
the next generation of physicists and engineers.
Conclusion
The global perspectives on the postulates of quantum mechanics reveal their profound influence
across scientific, philosophical, and technological domains. These postulates not only explain
the behavior of particles at the quantum level but also challenge our classical understanding
ofality, fostering global debates, research, and innovations.
12.Multiple-Qubit Gates in Quantum Computing
Quantum computing uses quantum bits (qubits) to process and store information. Unlike
classical bits, qubits can exist in a superposition of states, enabling quantum computers to
perform complex computations more efficiently.
In quantum circuits, multiple-qubit gates are essential for creating entanglement and enabling
quantum parallelism, which are the keys to quantum advantage.
Introduction to Multi-Qubit Gates
Multi-qubit gates are quantum logic gates that operate on two or more qubits simultaneously.
These gates allow for interaction between qubits, enabling correlated operations, entanglement,
and advanced computational tasks.
They are crucial for:
Entanglement generation
Quantum teleportation
Quantum error correction
Quantum algorithms like Shor’s and Grover’s
Types of Multiple-Qubit Gates
1. Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate
A two-qubit gate
The first qubit is the control, the second is the target
If the control qubit is |1⟩, the target qubit flips (applies NOT); otherwise, it remains unchanged
Truth Table: | Control | Target (input) | Target (output) | |---------|----------------|-----------------| | 0
| 0 | 0 || 0 | 1 | 1 || 1 | 0 | 1 || 1 |
1 | 0 |
Matrix Representation:
CNOT =
[1 0 0 0]
[0 1 0 0]
[0 0 0 1]
[0 0 1 0]
Example: If the input is |ψ⟩ = |1⟩⊗|0⟩ = |10⟩, applying CNOT yields |11⟩.
2. Controlled-Z (CZ) Gate
Applies a Z gate (phase flip) on the target qubit only if the control qubit is |1⟩.
Matrix Representation:
CZ =
[1 0 0 0]
[0 1 0 0]
[0 0 1 0]
[0 0 0 -1]
Example: Input: |11⟩, Output after CZ: - |11⟩ (only phase is flipped)
3. Toffoli Gate (CCNOT)
A three-qubit gate
The third qubit (target) is flipped if the first two qubits (controls) are both |1⟩.
Truth Table (partial): | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 (input) | Q3 (output) | |----|----|-------------|-------------| | 1 | 1 |
0 | 1 ||1 |1 | 1 | 0 ||0 |1 | x | x ||1 |0 | x | x
|
Example: Input: |110⟩ → Output: |111⟩
Used in reversible computing and quantum error correction.
4. SWAP Gate
Swaps the states of two qubits.
Essential for reordering qubits in a circuit.
Matrix Representation:
SWAP =
[1 0 0 0]
[0 0 1 0]
[0 1 0 0]
[0 0 0 1]
Example: Input: |01⟩ → Output: |10⟩
Working of Multi-Qubit Gates in Quantum Circuits
Let’s consider an example circuit:
Initial state:
|ψ⟩ = |+⟩⊗|0⟩= (1/√2)(|0⟩ + |1⟩) ⊗ |0⟩
Step 1: Apply CNOT
CNOT(|+⟩⊗|0⟩) = (1/√2)(|00⟩ + |11⟩)
This is an entangled state (Bell state) — a core concept in quantum teleportation.
Importance of Multi-Qubit Gates.
1. Entanglement Creation – Enables quantum parallelism.
2. Quantum Algorithm Execution – Used in all major quantum algorithms.
3. Error Correction – Multi-qubit gates like Toffoli are used in quantum error correction codes.
4. Simulation of Quantum Systems – Required for modeling many-body systems.
Global Perspective
Major quantum computers (IBM, Google, Rigetti) implement multi-qubit gates in hardware.
Research continues into improving fidelity and reducing gate errors.
Multiple-qubit gate efficiency directly impacts quantum supremacy and scalability.
Conclusion
Multiple-qubit gates are the foundation of quantum logic, enabling qubits to interact and perform
meaningful computations. From entangling qubits to implementing algorithms, these gates are
essential to the power of quantum computing, shaping the future of technology, security, and
computation.
13.Deutsch's Algorithm
Deutsch's Algorithm is one of the earliest examples of a quantum algorithm that demonstrates
how quantum computing can outperform classical computing.
Problem Statement
Given a function f: {0,1} → {0,1}, we are promised that f is either:
Constant: f(0) = f(1) (both values are the same), or
Balanced: f(0) ≠ f(1) (values are different).
Goal: Determine whether f is constant or balanced using the least number of queries.
Classical Solution: Requires 2 evaluations (f(0) and f(1))
Quantum Solution (Deutsch’s Algorithm): Requires only 1 evaluation
Steps of the Algorithm
1. Initialize two qubits:
First qubit: |0⟩, second qubit: |1⟩
2. Apply Hadamard Gates (H) to both qubits:
Transforms the state into a superposition.
3. Apply the Quantum Oracle (Uf):
The oracle computes Uf|x, y⟩ = |x, y ⊕ f(x)⟩.
4. Apply Hadamard Gate to the first qubit.
5. Measure the first qubit:
Result |0⟩: f is constant
Result |1⟩: f is balanced
Significance in Quantum Computing
Proof of Quantum Advantage:
It shows that quantum computers can solve certain problems more efficiently than classical
computers.
Foundation for Advanced Algorithms:
Inspired Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, Simon’s algorithm, and eventually Shor’s algorithm.
Demonstrates Superposition & Interference:
Uses quantum principles to reduce the number of required function evaluations.
Educational Value:
Often used to teach basics of quantum computation and logic gates.
Conclusion
Deutsch's algorithm is a foundational quantum algorithm that proves the concept of quantum
speedup using a simple problem. Although limited in practical application, its conceptual impact
is significant in illustrating the power and potential of quantum computing.