Course Contents

Module I: Materials and Manufacturing Techniques:

Recent advances in mechanical engineering,
Role of Computer Aided Design,
Simulation and 3D printing.
Units and measurements.
Engineering Materials and Materials Response.
Basic manufacturing processes,
conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes.
 Materials
Historical Perspective

➢ Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate ages with
them.

➢ In the origin of human life on earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like
stone, clay, and wood.

➢ When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started
about 3000 BC.

➢ The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about
1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850,
which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial
world.
 Classification Of Materials
➢ Engineering materials can be classified into three main categories:

➢Metals
➢Ceramics
➢Polymers

➢In addition, some advanced materials are trending now wic are listed below:
➢Composites
➢Biomaterials
➢Semiconductors
➢Other advanced materials, etc.
 Metals
Metals:

➢ These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity;

➢Strong yet deformable under applied mechanical loads;

➢ Opaque to light (shiny if polished).

➢ Pure metals are not good enough for many applications, especially structural
applications.

➢ Thus metals are used in alloy form i.e. a metal mixed with another metal to improve
the desired qualities. E.g.: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Classification of Metals
Non-ferrous metals
Difference between metals and non-metals
 Ceramics

➢ These are inorganic compounds, and usually made either of oxides, carbides,
nitrides, or silicates of metals.

➢ Ceramics are typically partly crystalline and partly amorphous.

➢Atoms (ions often) in ceramic materials behave mostly like either positive or
negative ions, and are bound by very strong Coulomb forces between them.

➢ These materials are characterized by very high strength under compression, low
ductility; usually insulators to heat and electricity.

➢ Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.

 Polymers
Polymers in the form of thermo-plastics (nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubber,
etc.) consist of molecules that have covalent bonding within each molecule and van der
Waals forces between them.

➢ Polymers in the form of thermo-sets (e.g., epoxy, phenolics, etc.) consist of a

network of covalent bonds. They are based on H, C and other non-metallic elements.

➢ Polymers are amorphous, except for a minority of thermoplastics.

➢ Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators.

➢ However, conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-

matrix composites can be obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties vary
greatly.
 Properties of Materials
Class Property Class Property
1. Economic & Price & availability 5. Electrical & Resistivity
environmental Recyclability Magnetic Magnetic
Sustainability, etc. permeability
Etc.
2. Mechanical Yield & tensile 6. Environmental Oxidation
strength interaction Corrosion
Hardness Wear
Fracture toughness Etc.
Etc.
3. Thermal Thermal 7. Aesthetic Colour
conductivity Texture
Specific heat Feel
Coefficient of Etc.
thermal expansion
Etc.
4. General Density
Physical
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The key mechanical properties mainly involves:

➢ Strength
➢ Elasticity
➢ Plasticity
➢ Ductility
➢ Malleability
➢ Toughness
➢ Brittleness
➢ Hardness
➢ Fatigue
➢ Creep
➢ Machinability
➢ Weldability
 Concept of Stress-Strain Curve

Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that arise from externally applied forces,
uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and
prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour.

Stress is given by the following formula:

σ=F/A

where, σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied and A is the area of force application.
The unit of stress is N/m2.

Types of Stress
Tensile Stress
Compressive Stress
Shear stress
 Strain

Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body.
The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a solid:
ϵ=δl/L

where, ϵϵ is the strain due to stress applied, δlδl is the change in length and L is the original
length of the material.
The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.

Types of Strain
Tensile Strain
Compressive Strain
Shear Strain
Stress strain curve for mild steel
 Stress-Strain Curve

The different regions in the stress-strain curve are:

(i) Proportional Limit

It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain
ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph
represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original
position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the
yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper
yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure.
Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
 Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law
In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert Hooke
noticed that many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-strain relationship
was studied. There was a linear region where the force required to stretch the material was
proportional to the extension of the material, known as Hooke’s Law.

“Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within
the elastic limit of that material.”

Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:

F = –k.x
Where F is the force, x is the extension length, and k is the constant of proportionality known
as spring constant in N/m.
 Mechanical Properties of materials

Strength

➢The strength of metal is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected during
a test or in service.

➢ It is usually defined as tensile strength, compressive strength, proof stress, shear strength,
etc.

➢ Strength of materials is a general expression for the measure of capacity of resistance

possessed by solid masses or pieces of various kinds to any cause tending to produce in
them a permanent and disabling change of form or positive fracture.

➢ The stronger the material, the greater the load it can withstand this property of material,
therefore, determines the ability to withstand stress without failure.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
ELASTICITY

➢ Elasticity is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after removal
of the externally applied load.

➢ We can take an example of a rubber band, whenever we pull a rubber band it gets
elongated i.e. it’s shape gets deformed but when we remove the load the rubber band
comes back to its original shape.

➢ Hence we can say that a rubber band is an elastic material or rubber band exhibits the
property of elasticity.

➢ When the external forces are removed it can also be referred to as the power of the
material to come back to its original position after deformation. It can be used as an
important application for building precision instruments like Springs or structures etc.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
PLASTICITY

➢ Plasticity is defined as the property of material under which the material is not able to
regain its original shape even after the removal of the load i.e. the material permanently
gets deformed.

➢ In other words, It is the ability or tendency of a material to undergo some degree of

permanent deformation without its failure.

➢ Plastic deformation takes place only after the elastic limit of material has been
exceeded.

➢ This property is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot or cold
working processes materials such as clay lead, etc are plastic at room temperature and
steel is plastic at forging temperature this property generally increases with an increase in
temperature of materials.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
DUCTILITY
Ductility is termed as the property of a material that enables it to be drawn into the thin wire with the
application of tensile load.

The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation and percent reduction in the
area which are often used as empirical measures of ductility.

In general, materials that possess more than 5% elongation are called as ductile materials
The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing ductility a mild
steel, copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin, and lead.

BRITTLENESS
Brittleness is the opposite of ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. The materials having less than 5% elongation and the loading behavior are said to be
brittle materials.
Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation.
Glass, cast iron, brass and ceramics are considered as brittle material thus brittleness is the
property of a material to snap off without giving any sensible elongation when subjected to tensile
loads.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…

MALLEABILITY

Malleability is the ability of the material which enables it to be flattened into thin sheets under
applications of heavy compressive forces without cracking (by hot or cold working), which
means it is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into
thin sheets.

A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.

The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing value
wrought iron, copper and aluminum, lead steel, etc are recognized as highly malleable metals.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
STIFFNESS

Stiffness is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.

Material that suffers slight or very less deformation and the load has a high degree of
stiffness or rigidity for instance suspended beams of steel and aluminum may both be strong
enough to carry the required load but the aluminum beam will sag or deflect further which
means the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than the aluminum beam.

If the material behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hookes law its
stiffness is measured by Young’s modulus of elasticity.

The higher is the value of Young’s modulus, the stiffer is the material in tensile and
compressive stress. It is called the modulus of stiffness or modulus of elasticity in shear. The
modulus of rigidity is usually 40% of the value of young’s modulus for commonly used
materials in volumetric distortion the bulk modulus.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
HARDNESS:
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation/ scratch.

It is a very important property of metals and has a wide variety of meanings it embraces many
different properties such as resistance to wear, resistance to indentation, resistance to
scratches, resistance to deformation and machine mobility, etc.

Diamond is the hardest known material naturally.

CREEP:
When a metal part is subjected to high constant stress at a high temperature for a longer
period of time it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation which is known as creep.

If the material will be continuously subjected to high stresses at higher temperature crack can
be formed which may further propagate towards failure called creep failure.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
FATIGUE:
Fatigue is the failure of a material due to cyclic or repeated loading.

The intensity of the load may be very less than the ultimate tensile stress, but due to the
repeated or cyclic action of the load, the crack initiates and propagates which leads to the
fatigue failure.

The fatigue process leads to Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities (at the crystalline
grain scale) as well as component design features that cause stress concentrations (holes,
keyways, sharp changes of load direction, etc.) are common locations.

RESILIENCE: It is the amount of energy which a body can absorb without permanent
deformation.

TOUGHNESS:
The amount of energy that a material can absorb without breaking is called the toughness of
that material. In other words, it is the ability of a material to absorb energy and deform
plastically without fracturing.