1.

Introduction to AI
Artificial Intelligence and Neural Network (AINN)

Dr. Udaya Raj Dhungana

Assist. Professor
Pokhara University, Nepal
Guest Faculty
Hochschule Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences, Germany
E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]

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 Overview
• Intelligence
• Artificial Intelligence
• Intelligent Agent & its type

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Intelligence

3
 Sub-overview
• What is intelligence?
• Types of intelligence
• Components of intelligence

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 What is intelligence?
Intelligence is an ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use
knowledge to adapt new situation.

Perception

Learning Problem
solving

Linguistic
Reasoning Intelligence
intelligence
!5
 What is intelligence?
• The ability to
– reason
– perceive relationships and analogies
– learn from experience
– solve problems
– comprehend complex ideas
– understand natural language
– classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

!6
 Types of Intelligence
In 1983 an American developmental psychologist Howard Gardener described
9 types of intelligence:

1. Linguistic (word smart)

2. Musical (sound smart)
3. Logical-mathematical (number/reasoning smart)
4. Spatial (picture smart)
5. Bodily-kinesthetic (body smart)
6. Intra-personal (self smart)
7. Interpersonal (people smart)
8. Existential (life smart)
9. Naturalist (nature smart)

https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/
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 Types of Intelligence

https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/
 Types of Intelligence
Linguistic intelligence includes the ability to easily acquire different languages,
express yourself verbally, and use words to achieve certain goals

• The ability to speak,

recognize, and use
mechanisms of phonology
Linguistic (speech sounds), syntax
Intelligence (grammar) and semantics
(meaning).
• Examples:
Narrators, Orators

!9
 Types of Intelligence
Musical intelligence includes distinguishing between different rhythms and
music patterns.

• The ability to create,

communicate with and
understand meanings made
Musical of sound, understanding of
Intelligence pitch, rhythm.
• Examples:
Musicians, Singers,
Composers

!10
 Types of Intelligence
Logical/mathematical intelligence includes the ability to reason and think logically.
It is the ability to calculate, carry out complete mathematical operations. It
enables us to perceive relationships, sequential reasoning skills; and inductive
and deductive thinking patterns.

• The ability of use and

understand relationships in
Logical- the absence of action or
objects. Understanding
mathematical complex and abstract ideas.
intelligence • Examples:
Mathematicians, Scientists
 Types of Intelligence
Visual-spatial intelligence includes awareness of patterns and designs in
different spaces. It is the ability to think in three dimensions.

• The ability to perceive

visual or spatial
information, change it,
and re-create visual
images, construct 3D images
Spatial and to move and rotate
intelligence them.
• Examples: Map
readers, Astronauts,
Physicists, Sailors, pilots,
sculptors, painters, and
architects

!12
 Types of Intelligence
Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence includes knowing how to solve problems using your
body and athleticism. It involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills
through mind–body union.

• The ability to use complete

or part of the body to solve
problems or fashion
Bodily – products, control over fine
Kinesthetic and coarse motor skills, and
manipulate the objects.
intelligence
• Examples:
Players, Dancers, Athletes,
surgeons

!13
 Types of Intelligence
Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts
and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and directioning one’s life.

• The ability to
distinguish among
one’s own feelings,
Intra- intentions, and
personal motivations.
intelligence • Examples:
psychologist,
spiritual leaders, and
philosophers

!14
 Types of Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence includes the ability to understand and interact effectively
with other people.

• The ability to recognize

and make distinctions
among other people’s
feelings, beliefs and
Inter- intentions.
personal • Examples:
intelligence Mass Communicators,
Interviewers, Teachers,
social workers, actors,
and politicians
Types of Intelligence

• The capacity to tackle deep

Existential questions about human existence,
intelligence such as the meaning of life, why we
die, and how did we get here.

• The ability of understanding

living things and reading nature.
Naturalist
• Examples:
intelligence hunters, gatherers, and
farmers, botanist etc.
 Artificially Intelligent
• a machine is artificially intelligent when
it is equipped with
• at least one and at most all intelligences in it.

!17
 Components of intelligence
• The intelligence is composed of:
https://www.quora.com/
– Reasoning
– Learning
– Problem Solving
– Perception
– Linguistic Intelligence
 Components of intelligence
• Reasoning
– enables us to provide basis for
• judgment, making decisions, and prediction.

!19
 Components of intelligence
• Reasoning

!20
 Components of intelligence
• Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

It starts with a general statement and

It conducts specific observations to
examines the possibilities to reach a
make broad general statements.
specific, logical conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are

If something is true of a class of things in
true in a statement, inductive
general, it is also true for all members of
reasoning allows for the conclusion to
that class.
be false.

Example:
Example:
"All women of age above 60 years are
“Nita is a teacher.
grandmothers.
All teachers are studious.
Shalini is 65 years.
Therefore, Nita is studious.” Therefore, Shalini is a grandmother."

!21
 Components of intelligence
• Learning
– activity of gaining knowledge or skill
• by studying, practicing, being taught, or experiencing
something.

!22
 Components of intelligence
• Problem solving
– process in which
• one perceives and tries to arrive at a
desired solution from a present
situation by taking some path

– Problem solving also includes

• decision making,
– selecting the best suitable alternative out of
multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal are
available.

!23
 Components of intelligence
• Perception
– acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing
sensory information.
– In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs.
– In AI,
• perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors
 Components of intelligence
• Linguistic Intelligence
– It is one’s ability to
• use, comprehend, speak, and write the verbal and written
language.
 Questions
• What is an intelligence?
• What are the different kinds of intelligence?
• What are the components of intelligence?
• A machine can have intelligence. Do you agree? If yes,
justify.
• Discuss on “Human intelligence vs. machine
intelligence”.
Artificial Intelligence

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 Sub-overview
• What is AI?
• Foundations of AI
• Goals of AI
• Applications of AI
• Importance of AI
• History of AI
• Research Areas of AI

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 What is AI?
• John McCarthy
– father of Artificial Intelligence. According to him, AI is
• Making intelligent machine.

“The science and engineering of making intelligent

machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.

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 What is AI?- Four Approaches of AI

1 2
The definitions on top (1, 2, 3,
4) concern with
• thought processes and 5 6
• reasoning.

The definitions on the bottom 3 4

(5, 6, 7, 8) address
• behavior 7 8

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 What is AI?- Four Approaches of AI
The definitions on left (1, 5, 3,
7) measure success in terms of
fidelity to
1 2
• human performance

5 6
The definitions on the right (2,
6, 4, 8) measure against
• an ideal performance 3 4
measure, called
rationality
• A system is rational if it 7 8
does the “right thing,”
given what it knows.

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 Thinking Humanly
• Thinking humanly (The cognitive modeling approach)

• Cognitive science:
• study of the mind and its processes.
• study of intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems
represent, process, and transform information.

• Computer thinks like human

• must have some way of determining how humans think
• need to get inside the actual workings of human minds
• three ways to do this:
1. through introspection—trying to catch our own thoughts as they go by;
2. through psychological experiments—observing a person in action; and
3. through brain imaging—observing the brain in action.

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 Thinking Humanly
• through introspection—trying to catch our own thoughts
as they go by;

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 Thinking Humanly
• through psychological experiments—observing a person
in action

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 Thinking Humanly
• through brain imaging—observing the brain in action.
• Brain imaging refers to techniques that employ an interaction between brain tissue and various forms of
energy (eg, electromagnetic or particle radiation), rather than physical incision, to capture positional
data about the structure and function of the brain.

• The year 1924 Trusted Source marked the first human electroencephalography (EEG), recorded by
German psychiatrist Hans Berger. This early EEG was able to detect electrical waves in the brain that
would rise and fall as different brain cells communicated with each other.

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 Thinking Humanly
• Using Cognitive science, we can design a
machine which can think like human

Cognitive Science =
through introspection + through psychological
experiments + through brain imaging

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 Thinking Humanly
• Cognitive Science: the study of thought,
learning and mental organization
• Mental faculties of concern to cognitive
scientists include
• language, perception, memory, attention,
reasoning, and emotion;
• to understand these faculties, cognitive
scientists borrow from fields such as
• linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence,
philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology.

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 Thinking Humanly
• Once we have a sufficiently precise theory of the mind,
• it becomes possible to express the theory as a computer
program.
• If the program’s input–output behavior matches
corresponding human behavior,
• the program’s mechanisms could also be operating in
humans.
• Problems:
• Not able to figure out how actually human brain works
because it is too complex
• Huge gap between working principles of human brain
and apply it into the computer system

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 Thinking Humanly
• Summary:
• Know the concept of cognitive science
• Apply it to the machine so that it can think like human
• We don't know the precise theory of the mind
• Big gap between working principle of human brain and machine

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 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test approach

• Acting humanly- act like a human

• To act like human, machine should pass Turing test
• Turing Test-
• proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to
provide a satisfactory operational definition of
intelligence
• A computer passes the test if a human
interrogator, after posing some written
questions, cannot tell whether the written
responses come from a person or from a
computer.

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Acting Humanly: The Turing Test approach

Turing test

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Acting Humanly: The Turing Test approach

• The computer would need to possess the following capabilities to pass Turing
Test:
• natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in
English;
• knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
• automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions
and to draw new conclusions;
• machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and
extrapolate patterns.
• Total Turing Test
• includes a video signal so that the interrogator can test the subject’s
perceptual abilities, and ability to manipulate objects. To pass the total
Turing Test, the computer will need
• computer vision to perceive objects, and
• robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

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Thinking Rationally: The “laws of thought” approach

• Thinking rationally -> Right thinking-

• irrefutable reasoning processes
• always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises—for example,
• “Socrates is a man;
• all men are mortal;
• therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
• These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the mind;
• their study initiated the field called logic.
• The “laws of thought” emphasis was on correct inferences
• two main obstacles to this approach:
• it is not easy to take informal knowledge and state it in the formal terms
required by logical notation, particularly when the knowledge is less than
100% certain.
• there is a big difference between solving a problem “in principle” and solving
it in practice
•

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Thinking Rationally: The “laws of thought” approach

• Summary:
• Right thinking
• Use of logic to represent knowledge
and use of rules
• Easy in theory complex and harder
in practical

Thinking Rationally

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Thinking Rationally: The “laws of thought” approach

• If machines are able to develop right logic, then machine

can be able to think rationally

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Acting Rationally-The rational agent approach

• An agent is rational if it does the “right thing,”.

• A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve
• the best outcome or,
• when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.
• In the “laws of thought” approach to AI, the emphasis is on correct inferences.
• Making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational agent
• because one way to act rationally is to reason logically to the conclusion
that a given action will achieve one’s goals
• correct inference is not all of ration- ality;
• in some situations, there is no provably correct thing to do, but something
must still be done.
• All the skills needed for the Turing Test also allow an agent to act rationally.
• For example, knowledge representation and reasoning enable agents to reach
good decisions.
• Problem: achieving perfect rationality—always doing the right thing—is not feasible
in complicated environments.

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Acting Rationally-The rational agent approach

• Summary
• do right things- behave rightly
• Give maximum performance
• Optimal solution

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 What is AI?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJeNghZXtMo

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 Foundation of AI
Different fields have contributed to AI in the form of ideas, viewpoints
and techniques.

https://www.codeproject.com/Articles/1182210/Artificial-Intelligence

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 Foundation of AI
• Philosophy (Logic, reasoning, mind as a physical system,
foundations of learning, language and rationality.)

– Philosophers made AI feasible by considering

the ideas that
• the mind is in some ways like a machine
• it operates on knowledge encoded in some internal
language, and
• thought can be used to choose what actions to take.

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 Foundation of AI
• Mathematics (Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation,
(un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability.)
• Mathematicians provided the tools to manipulate
– statements of logical certainty as well as uncertain,
– probabilistic statements.
– Provides computation and reasoning about algorithms.

• Economics (formal theory of rational decisions, game theory.)

– Economist formalized the problem of making decisions
• that maximize the expected outcome to the decision maker.

• Neuroscience
• Neuroscientists discovered some facts about
• how the brain works and
• the ways in which it is similar to and different from computers. Neural
network

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 Foundation of AI
• Psychologists adopted the idea that
– humans and animals can be considered information processing
machines.
– Linguists- knowledge representation, grammar.

• Computer Science makes possible

– the ever-more-powerful machines that make AI applications
possible.

• Control theory (homeostatic systems, stability, optimal agent design.)

– Deals with designing devices that act optimally on the basis of
feedback from the environment.

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 Goals of AI
• To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines:
– Creating systems that understand, think, learn, and behave like
humans.

• To Create Expert Systems:

– The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

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 Applications of AI
• What can AI do today?
– Difficult to answer
– Since there are so many activities that AI do
– Some of them are:
• Game playing
• Natural language processing
• Expert systems
• Vision systems
• Speech recognition
• Robotics vehicles
• Autonomous planning and scheduling
• Spam fighting
• Robotics
• Machine translation

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 Importance of AI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OQ8GJbeAtdg

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 Importance of AI
• Machines can be used to build
– the expert system
– that mimics the expertise of a human expert.
• If machines became intelligent,
– they can solve the complex problems
• very fast and efficiently.

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 History of AI
• 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain (Concept of
neural network - they presented use of logic and computation to
understand neural, and thus mental, activity)
• 1950 Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence“ (Turing test)
• 1956 Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
• 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers program, Newell &
Simon's Logic Theorist, Gelernter's Geometry Engine
• 1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
• 1965 Joseph Weizenbaum develops ELIZA, an interactive program that
carries on a dialogue in English language on any topic.
• 1972 MYCIN, an early expert system for identifying bacteria causing
severe infections and recommending antibiotics, is developed at
Stanford University.
• 1980 AI becomes an industry
• 1981 The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry budgets
$850 million for the Fifth Generation Computer project. The project aimed
to develop computers that could carry on conversations, translate
languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings.

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 History of AI
• 1987 AI becomes a science
• 1995 The emergence of intelligent agents
• 1997 Deep Blue becomes the first computer chess-playing program to
beat a reigning world chess champion.
• 2009 Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it
became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test.
• 2016 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo defeats Go champion Lee Sedol.

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 History of AI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=056v4OxKwlI

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 Research Areas of AI
• Knowledge representation, logic and reasoning
• Expert systems
• Natural language understanding
• Machine learning
• Computer vision
• Neural network
• Robotics
• Fuzzy logic etc.
• Game playing

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 Research Areas of AI
• www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ePf9rue1Ao

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 Questions
• What is AI?
• Can a machine behave like a human?
Justify.
• Describe the Turing test and total Turing
test.
• What are the benefits of AI to the society?
• What are the different fields of AI?

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Intelligent Agents & Its Types

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 Sub-overview
• Agents and Environments
• Rational Agents
• Nature of Environments
• Structure of Intelligent Agent
• Types of Agents

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 Agents and Environments
• Agent
– An agent is anything that can be viewed as
perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through
actuators

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 Agents and Environments
• Agent
– Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for
sensors; hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for
actuators
– Robotic agent: cameras and infrared range finders for
sensors; various motors for actuators

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 Agents and Environments
• Vacuum-cleaner agent
– Percepts: location and contents, e.g., [A,Dirty]
– Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp

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 Agents and Environments
• Vacuum-cleaner agent

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 Rational agents
• An agent should attempt
– to "do the right thing", based on
• what it can perceive and
• the actions it can perform.
– The right action is the one that will cause the agent to be most
successful

• Performance measure:
– An objective criterion for success of an agent's behavior
– E.g. performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could
be
• amount of dirt cleaned up,
• amount of time taken,
• amount of electricity consumed,
• amount of noise generated, etc.

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 Rational agents
• Rational Agent:
– For each possible percept sequence, a rational
agent
• should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given
– Its percept sequence and
– Its built-in knowledge base

• Rationality:
– Rationality is status of
• being reasonable, sensible, and having good sense of
judgment.

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 Rational agents
• Ideal Rational Agent:
– capable of doing expected actions to maximize its
performance measure, on the basis of:
• Its percept sequence
• Its built-in knowledge base
• Rationality of an agent depends on the
following:
– The performance measures,
• which determine the degree of success.
– Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
– The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
– The actions that the agent can carry out.

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 Rational agents
• An agent is autonomous
– if its behavior is determined by its own
experience (with ability to learn and adapt)

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 Nature of Environments
• Specifying the task environment:- PEAS
• Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators and
Sensors

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

73
 Nature of Environments
• Examples of agent types and their PEAS descriptions.

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

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 Nature of Environments
• Properties of Environments
Property Description
An environment is said to be discrete if there are a finite number of actions that can be
Discrete/
performed within it. (For example, chess); otherwise it is continuous (For example, taxi
Continuous
driving).
If it is possible to determine the complete state of the environment at each time point
from the percepts it is observable; otherwise it is only partially observable.
Fully Observable/
Partially Observable
• E.g chess – the board is fully observable, as are opponent’s moves. Driving – what is around the next
bend is not observable (yet).
If the environment does not change while an agent is acting, then it is static; otherwise it
is dynamic.
Static /Dynamic Examples:
Dynamic environment: physical world
Static environment: empty office with no moving objects
The environment may contain other agents which may be of the same or different kind as
Single agent/ that of the agent.
Multiple agents • E.g. (multi-agents) Other players in a football team (or opposing team), wind and waves in a sailing

agent, other cars in a taxi driver

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

75
 Nature of Environments
• Properties of Environments
Property Description
If the agent’s sensory apparatus can have access to the complete state of the environment,
then the environment is accessible to that agent.
Accessible vs.
Examples:
inaccessible
Inaccessible environment: physical world: information about any event on earth
Accessible environment: empty room which state is defined by its temperature and agents can measure it.
If the next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the
Deterministic/ actions of the agent, then the environment is deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.
Examples:
Non-deterministic
Non-deterministic environment: physical world: Robot on Mars
Deterministic environment: Tic Tac Toe game
The episodic environment is also called the non-sequential environment. In an episodic
environment, an agent's current action will not affect a future action, whereas in a non-
episodic environment, an agent's current action will affect a future action and is also called
Episodic vs. Non-
the sequential environment.
episodic
Examples:
Episodic environment: mail sorting system
Non-episodic environment: chess game
Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach
76
 Structure of Intelligent Agents
• Agent’s structure can be viewed as:
– Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
– Architecture = some sort of computing device with
physical sensors and actuators
– Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
• The agent function maps from percept
histories to actions:
[f: P* ! A]

– The agent program runs on the physical

architecture to produce f

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 Structure of Intelligent Agents
• Agent program for vacuum agent:

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

78
 Types of Agents
• Simple reflex agents
• Model-based reflex agents
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agents

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 Types of Agents
• Simple reflex agents
– select actions on
• the basis of the current percept,
• ignoring the rest of the percept history
– Their environment is completely observable.
– Condition-Action Rule – It is a rule that maps a
state (condition) to an action.
if car-in-front-is-braking then initiate-braking.

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 Types of Agents
• Simple reflex agents

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

81
 Types of Agents
• Model-based reflex agents
– use a model of the world to choose their
actions
– Model:- knowledge about “how the world
works”
– maintain some sort of internal state that
depends on the percept history

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 Types of Agents
• Model-based reflex agents

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

83
 Types of Agents
• Goal-based agents
– Have some sort of goal information that
describes situations that are desirable
– for example, the passenger’s destination for taxi
agent
– use Search and planning to reach the goal

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 Types of Agents
• Goal-based agents

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

85
 Types of Agents
• Utility-based agents
– They choose actions based on a preference
(utility) for each state.
– For example
• many action sequences will get the taxi to its
destination (thereby achieving the goal) but some are
quicker, safer, more reliable, or cheaper than others.

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 Types of Agents
• Utility-based agents

Source: Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter: Artificial Intelligence: a modern approach

87
 Questions
• What is an agent? What are actuators and sensors?
• Describe rational agents.
• What are performance measures of an agent?
• What may be the task environment(PEAS) of a
train?
• What are the different properties of an agent's
environment?
• Write one specific property for simple reflex,
model-based, goal-based and utility based agents.

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THANK YOU

End of Chapter

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