Course Title: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION I

Course Code: EEC 126

Course Content
1. Identify various types of electrical and electronic instruments.
2. Understand different types of error in measurement.
3. Know the features, functions and uses of moving coil instruments.
4. Know the operation of bridge circuits
5. Understand the working principle and construction of ohmmeter and megger.
Electrical Instruments
These are instruments in which pointer deflection is caused by the action of some electrical
methods. The time of operation of an electrical instrument is more rapid than that of a
mechanical instrument. Unfortunately, an electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical measurement as an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia
due to which the frequency response of these instruments is poor.

Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices. Most of the scientific and industrial
instrumentations require very fast responses. In electronic devices, since the only movement
involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia
of the electrons. With the use of electronic devices, a very weak signal can be detected by
using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.

Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments

 Non-contact measurements are possible
 These instruments consume less power
 Compact in size and more reliable in operation
 Greater flexibility
 Good frequency and transient response
 Remote indication and recording possible
 Amplification produced greater than that produced in mechanical instruments

Measurement
Act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a given quantity and a quantity of the
same kind chosen as a unit.
Instruments
An instrument is a device in which we can use to determine the magnitude or value of
the quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy
etc. Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

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 Instrument

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

Absolute instrument

The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms of instrument constant and
its deflection. Such instruments do not require comparison with any other standard Example:
Tangent galvanometer.

Secondary instrument

This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Secondary instruments

Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

Indicating instruments

Indicating instrument
This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The
pointer indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity. The indications are given by a
pointer moving over a calibrated (pregraduated) scale. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters,
wattmeters, frequency meters, power factor meters, etc., fall into this category.

Recording instrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously
over a specified period of time. Such instruments are generally used in powerhouses where
the current, voltage, power, etc., are to be maintained within certain acceptable limit.

Integrating instrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time. The ampere-hour meters and energy meters fall in this class.

Electromechanical indicating instrument

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary.

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 They are
(a) Deflecting force

(b) Controlling force

(c) Damping force

Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.

(a) Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. Performance criteria based upon
static relations represent the static Characteristics. (The static characteristics are the value or
performance given after the steady state condition has reached).
(b) Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments which are used to measure a varying process condition. Performance criteria based
upon dynamic relations represent the dynamic Characteristics.

Static Characteristics
1. Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches to
the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the closeness to true value of
instrument reading.

2. Precision

Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision is measures of

the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements are repeatedly made under
the prescribed condition.
3. Sensitivity

Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to the change in input
signal (measurand). It is the relationship indicating how much output changes when input
changes.

4. Repeatability
Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same output for repeated
applications of same input value under same environmental condition.

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 5. Reproducibility

Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same output for
repeated applications of same input value under different environment condition.

6. Scale Range

It can be defined as the measure of the instrument between the lowest and highest readings it
can measure

Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form of known and
predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then studies the output. Generally
dynamic behaviour is determined by applying following three types of inputs.

1. Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in measured variable.
2. Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured variable,
changing linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured
variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude. The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are: Speed of response,
Fidelity, Lag and Dynamic error

(a) Speed of Response

It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured quantity.

(b) Fidelity
It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the ability of reproducing an
input signal faithfully (truly).
(c) Lag
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable.
The measuring lags are two types:
(i) Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately after a
change in measured variable is occurred.
(ii) Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead time
after the application of the input quantity.

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 (d) Dynamic Error
Error which is caused by dynamic influences acting on the system such as vibration, roll, pitch or
linear acceleration. This error may have an amplitude and usually a frequency related to the
environmental influences and the parameters of the system itself.

Measurement of Errors
In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the measurand.The difference
between the true or exact value and the measured value of the unknown quantity is known as
the absolute error of the measurement.
If δA be the absolute error of the measurement, Am and A be the measured and true value.
then δA may be expressed as

Sometimes, δA is denoted by ε0.

The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be
measured,

When the absolute error ε0 (=δA) is negligible, i.e., when the difference between the true value
A and the measured value Am of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the
relative error may be expressed as,

Percentage relative error

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 Classification of Errors
In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is important to find that actual
accuracy and different types of errors can be occurred in measuring instruments. Errors may arise
from different sources and usually classified as follows, Classification of Error
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
a) Instrumental errors: Inherent shortcomings of instruments, Misuse of instruments and Loading
effects

b) Environmental errors
c) Observational errors

3. Random Errors

1. Gross Errors
The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in recording
and calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings are involved and they may grossly
misread the scale reading, then definitely some gross errors will be occurred in measured value.
2. Systematic Errors

Systematic errors are divided into following three categories: Instrumental Errors, Environmental
Errors and Observational Errors
a) Instrumental Errors

These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error).

 Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument

 Due to misuse of the instruments, and

 Due to loading effects of instruments

(i) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments

These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure due to
construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.These errors may

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 cause the instrument to read too low or too high. Example, if the spring (used for producing
controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, so the instrument will
always read high.Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash.

Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,

o The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

o The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution

methods or calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.

o Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental

errors.

(ii) Misuse of Instruments

In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the fault of the operator than that
of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give wrong results.
Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero adjustment of
instrument, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill practices of
instrument beyond the manufacturer’s instruction and specifications.
(iii) Loading Effects
The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an instrument for
measurement work. In measurement system, loading effects are identified and corrections
should be made or more suitable instruments can be used.
Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when
connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected across a
low resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or

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 steady or true value).In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual
circuit conditions by measurement process. So errors caused by loading effect of the meters can be
avoided by using them intelligently.

(b) Environmental Error

Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the instrument, such as
effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or electrostatic
fields. Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are

 Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible. Example,
temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in the temperature controlled region.
 The device which is used against these environmental effects.
Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using very low resistance
temperature co-efficient of resistive material.

 Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the effect
of humidity dust etc., can be entirely eliminated by tightly sealing the equipment.
 The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using magnetic or electrostatic shield on
the instrument.
 Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of application of
computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are necessary, they are
incorporated for the computations of the results
(c) Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above
the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of parallax will be acquired unless the line of vision of the
observer is exactly above the pointer.

3. Random Errors
These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude and polarity of a
measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner. The quantity being measure is affected by many
happenings or disturbances and ambient influence about which we are unaware are lumped together and
called as Random or Residual

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