NETWORK

A network is a collection of interconnected devices that can communicate with each

other. These devices can be computers, mobile phones, or household devices.

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and

information. These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware.
Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as
email, file sharing, and internet browsing.

Goal of Network
The goals of a computer network are to share resources, improve reliability, and increase
performance.

Resource sharing

 Allow users to share resources like printers, scanners, and software applications

 Enable multiple users to access and use shared resources simultaneously

Reliability

 Ensure that resources are available from multiple locations

 Replicate files on multiple machines so that applications and services are available
even if there are hardware problems

Performance

 Improve system performance by adding processors to the network

 Accommodate growth by adding processors to the network

Application of computer Network

Computer networks have many applications,

1. Internet and World Wide Web

In computer networks, we have a global internet, also known as the World Wide Web,
that offers us various features like access to websites, online services and retrieval of
information. With the help of the World Wide Web, we can browse, and we can do
search, and access web pages and multimedia content.

2. Communication
With the help of computer networks, communication is also easy because we can do email,
instant messaging, voice and video calls and video conferencing, which helps us to
communicate with each other effectively

3. File Sharing and Data Transfer

Data transfer and file sharing are made possible by networks that connect different devices.
This covers file sharing within a business setting, file sharing between personal devices, and
downloading/uploading of content from the internet.

4. Online gaming

Multiplayer online games use computer networks to link players from all over the world,
enabling online competitions and real-time gaming experiences.

6. Social media

With the help of a computer network, we can use social media sites like Facebook, Twitter
and Instagram to help people set up their profiles, and we can connect with others and
share content on social media.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORK

TOPOLOGIES
What is Network Topology?

Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the network.

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star, ring,
mesh, and tree topologies,

Types of Network Topology

Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology

 Star Topology

 Bus Topology

 Ring Topology

 Tree Topology

 Hybrid Topology

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node

In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable. It is bi-directional.

In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Ring topology:

Devices connect to each other to form a ring. Data travels around the ring in a closed loop.
Tree Topology

Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are
used.

Hybrid Topology

Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form

DIFDERENRT BETWEEN
CENTRALISED,DISTRIBUTES,COLLABRATIVE
NETWORKING MODELS
In networking, centralized systems rely on a single point of control, while distributed systems
spread resources and control across multiple nodes, and collaborative systems leverage
distributed resources for shared tasks and communication.

Centralized Networking:
  Control: A single server or device manages all network resources and operations.

 Architecture: Follows a hub-and-spoke model, where peripheral nodes connect to a

central server.

 Advantages: Simpler to manage and secure, potentially lower latency.

 Disadvantages: Single point of failure, scalability issues, and can become a

bottleneck with high traffic.

Distributed Networking:

 Control: Resources and control are distributed across multiple nodes or devices.

 Architecture: Nodes can communicate and share resources without relying on a

central authority.

 Advantages: Enhanced scalability, fault tolerance, and reliability.

 Disadvantages: More complex to manage and secure, potentially higher latency.

Collaborative Networking:

 Control: Utilizes distributed resources to enable multiple users or devices to work

together on tasks or share information.

 Architecture: Can be based on either centralized or distributed architectures, but the

focus is on enabling collaboration.

 Advantages: Facilitates teamwork, resource sharing, and efficient communication.

 Disadvantages: Requires robust communication protocols and coordination

mechanisms.

Unit-2

Data Communication and Transmission

Media:
Data communication is the process of exchanging information, or data, between two or
more devices over a transmission medium (like wires or wireless signals) using protocols and
network structures.

Data communication involves transferring electronic data across networks, encompassing

technologies like telecommunications, computer networking, and radio/satellite
communication.

 Key Components:
  Sender: The device initiating the data transmission.

 Receiver: The device intended to receive the data.

 Transmission Medium: The physical or wireless channel used for data transfer
(e.g., cables, radio waves).

 Protocols: Sets of rules that govern how data is formatted, transmitted, and
received to ensure reliable communication.

 Types of Transmission:

 Simplex: Data flows in one direction only.

 Half-duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.

 Full-duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.

Transmission Media Definition

Transmission media are the channels through which data, in the form of electromagnetic
signals, is transmitted from one location to another.

Transmission media are essential for the transfer of electrical or optical signals across copper
or fiber-based materials.

Types of Transmission Media

There are 6 Types of transmission media.

● For Guided Media, the three types of transmission media are: Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial
Cable, and Fiber Optic Cable.

● For Unguided Media, the three types of transmission media are: Radio Waves, Micro
Waves, and Infrared Waves
Compare twisted,optic,coaxial cable
1. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cables are the most commonly used type of guided media for voice and data
communication.

Twisted Pair Cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to
minimize interference from external sources and crosstalk between adjacent pairs of cables.

There are two main types of twisted pair cables:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): This type of cable does not have a shielding layer, making
it more vulnerable to external interference. UTP is commonly used in telephone and
Ethernet networks.

Advantages of UTP:

● Low cost and widely available.

● Simple and quick to install.

● Suitable for short-distance communication.

Disadvantages of UTP:

● Susceptible to external interference, especially in noisy environments.

● Limited to shorter distances compared to other types of cables.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP cables have a shielding layer (usually foil or braided
copper) that helps protect the cables from external interference. These are used in
environments where higher data rates and more secure transmission are needed.

Advantages of STP:

● Provides better protection against interference and crosstalk.

● Can handle higher data transmission rates.

Disadvantages of STP:

● More expensive than UTP.

● More difficult to install due to its rigidity and complexity.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are another type of guided media used primarily in television networks and
broadband internet connections.
The structure of coaxial cables includes a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer plastic covering.

This layered design provides excellent protection against external noise and interference,
making coaxial cables suitable for high-frequency applications.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables:

● High bandwidth and low signal loss.

● Provides good protection against noise and interference.

● Easy to expand the network by adding additional cables.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables:

● Expensive for long-distance communication.

● Bulky and harder to install in confined spaces.

● A single point of failure can affect the entire network.

3. Optical Fiber Cable

Optical fiber cables are the most advanced type of guided media, using light pulses to
transmit data at incredibly high speeds.

These cables are made of thin strands of glass or plastic that carry light signals, making them
ideal for long-distance communication and high-bandwidth applications.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Extremely high bandwidth, capable of transmitting massive amounts of data.

● Immune to electromagnetic interference, making them suitable for environments with

high levels of electrical noise.

● Lightweight and capable of long-distance communication without significant signal loss.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Expensive to install and maintain.

● Fragile and prone to damage if not handled carefully.

● Difficult to splice and repair if damaged.

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LINE OF SIGHT TRANSMISSION
Line-of-sight (LoS) transmission means signals travel in a straight line from the transmitter to
the receiver, requiring a direct, unobstructed path with no obstacles interfering. This
principle is crucial for reliable high-frequency communication, used in technologies like
microwave and satellite links.

EXAMPLE:

 Microwave Transmission: Microwave links rely on LoS propagation to transmit

signals between towers, buildings, or other fixed points.

 Satellite Communication: Satellites, especially those in geostationary orbits, need a

clear LoS to transmit signals from ground stations.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

Switching
is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a network or from
one network to another, using specific devices called switches. There are three types of
switching methods:

Message Switching
Circuit Switching

Packet Switching

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a communication method where a dedicated communication path, or
circuit, is established between two devices before data transmission begins.

Circuit switching is commonly used in voice communication and some types of data
communication.

Packet Switching
Packet switching is a communication method where data is divided into smaller units called
packets and transmitted over the network. Each packet contains the source and destination
addresses, as well as other information needed for routing.

Message Switching?
In this technique the entire message is transmitted without any break from one node to
another. It firstly stores and then forwards information that requires more time. Due to this,
the access time is increased. No direct link is present between the sender and the receiver.

Local Area Network (LAN) and (WAN)

LAN is a group of network devices that allow communication between connected devices.
The private ownership has control over the local area network rather than the public. LAN
has a shorter propagation delay than MAN as well as WAN. It covers the smallest area such
as College, School Hospital and so on.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN covers a larger area than LAN as well as MAN such as Country/Continent etc. WAN is
expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization. PSTN or Satellite medium
is used for wide area networks.

LAN WAN

LAN stands for Local Area Network. Whereas WAN stands for Wide Area Network.
LAN WAN

LAN’s ownership is private. But WAN’s ownership can be private or public.

The speed of LAN is high(more than

While the speed of WAN is slower than LAN.
WAN).

There is less congestion in LAN(local While there is more congestion in WAN(Wide

area network). Area Network).

While it’s design and maintenance is difficult

LAN’s design and maintenance is easy.
than WAN.

LAN covers small area i.e. within the

While WAN covers large geographical area.
building.

WAN has a lower data transfer rate as

LAN has a higher data transfer rate.
compared to LAN.

LANs is cheaply compared to WAN WAN is costly compared to LAN.

Transmission Media Definition

Transmission media are the channels through which data, in the form of electromagnetic
signals, is transmitted from one location to another.

Transmission media are essential for the transfer of electrical or optical signals across copper
or fiber-based materials.

Types of Transmission Media

There are 6 Types of transmission media.

● For Guided Media, the three types of transmission media are: Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial
Cable, and Fiber Optic Cable.
● For Unguided Media, the three types of transmission media are: Radio Waves, Micro
Waves, and Infrared Waves

Compare twisted,optic,coaxial cable

1. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cables are the most commonly used type of guided media for voice and data
communication.

Twisted Pair Cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to
minimize interference from external sources and crosstalk between adjacent pairs of cables.

There are two main types of twisted pair cables:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): This type of cable does not have a shielding layer, making
it more vulnerable to external interference. UTP is commonly used in telephone and
Ethernet networks.

Advantages of UTP:

● Low cost and widely available.

● Simple and quick to install.

● Suitable for short-distance communication.

Disadvantages of UTP:

● Susceptible to external interference, especially in noisy environments.

● Limited to shorter distances compared to other types of cables.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP cables have a shielding layer (usually foil or braided
copper) that helps protect the cables from external interference. These are used in
environments where higher data rates and more secure transmission are needed.
Advantages of STP:

● Provides better protection against interference and crosstalk.

● Can handle higher data transmission rates.

Disadvantages of STP:

● More expensive than UTP.

● More difficult to install due to its rigidity and complexity.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are another type of guided media used primarily in television networks and
broadband internet connections.

The structure of coaxial cables includes a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer plastic covering.

This layered design provides excellent protection against external noise and interference,
making coaxial cables suitable for high-frequency applications.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables:

● High bandwidth and low signal loss.

● Provides good protection against noise and interference.

● Easy to expand the network by adding additional cables.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables:

● Expensive for long-distance communication.

● Bulky and harder to install in confined spaces.

● A single point of failure can affect the entire network.

3. Optical Fiber Cable

Optical fiber cables are the most advanced type of guided media, using light pulses to
transmit data at incredibly high speeds.

These cables are made of thin strands of glass or plastic that carry light signals, making them
ideal for long-distance communication and high-bandwidth applications.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Extremely high bandwidth, capable of transmitting massive amounts of data.

● Immune to electromagnetic interference, making them suitable for environments with

high levels of electrical noise.
● Lightweight and capable of long-distance communication without significant signal loss.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Expensive to install and maintain.

● Fragile and prone to damage if not handled carefully.

● Difficult to splice and repair if damaged.

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course for you!

IEEE
IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It is a professional
association with a nonprofit organization with its headquarter in New York in the United
States of America. It is composed of engineers, scientists, allied professionals, advancing
innovation and technological excellence for the benefit of humanity. IEEE mainly focuses on
the areas of Electrical Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computer
Engineering, and Information Technology.

characteristics

1. Compatibility: Able to achieve performance very similar to that currently offered by

Ethernet, meeting the current traffic demands.

2. Technical societies: There are various technical areas addressed by IEEE’s 39 societies
and each one focused on a certain knowledge area.

3. Media: Each of the IEEE standards specify the medium through which signals are
traveled in a network. Like Twisted Pair cable, coaxial cable, etc.

4. Speed: The IEEE standard defines the maximum speed through which data can be
transferred. Usually, the data transfer speed is in Mbps, but in some fast systems, it
can go up to Gbps.

5. Access Method: IEEE standard defines the method through which a network system
can access a transmission channel to send/receive the data.

6. Topology: Topology used by the network can be implemented using the IEEE LAN
standard.
OPEN SUSTUM IN NETWORKING
An Open System in data communication refers to a system that follows standard protocols
and can interact with other systems seamlessly. It is designed to be interoperable, scalable,
and flexible, meaning it can communicate with different systems regardless of hardware,
software, or manufacturer.

Key Features of an Open System in Data Communication:

1. Standard Protocols – Uses universally accepted protocols like TCP/IP, HTTP, or FTP.

2. Interoperability – Can work with different hardware and software systems.

3. Scalability – Can grow and integrate new components without major changes.

4. Modularity – Different components can be replaced or upgraded independently.

5. Network Independence – Can operate over various networks (LAN, WAN, Internet).

OSI MODEL
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers
and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it
easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear
structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used
as a reference to understand how network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All
the layers are mentioned below:

 Physical Layer

 Data Link Layer

 Network Layer

 Transport Layer

 Session Layer

 Presentation Layer

 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node
to the next.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to
be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Data Link Layer in OSI Model

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) network architecture model. The data link layer is responsible for the node-
to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data
transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.

This is considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying
complexities of the hardware from the other above layers. In this article, we will discuss Data
Link Layer in Detail along with its functions, and sub-layers.

Data Link Layer in OSI Model

Addressing

Addressing at the Data Link Layer is used for identifying devices within a local network or
link. It uses physical or MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to ensure that data is
delivered to the correct device.
 1. MAC Address is a hardware address associated to network interface card (NIC) or
network device. The MAC address is used to route frames between devices within
the same local network or between connected networks in a point-to-point link.

2. Logical addressing can also be used with MAC addressing to provide higher-level
services such as multiplexing or identifying different protocols (Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
etc.).

Sub-Layers of The Data Link Layer

The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages and
acknowledgments as well.

Media Access Control (MAC)

MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing frames, and also
controls physical media access. The data link layer receives the information in the form of
packets from the Network layer, it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-
by-bit to the underlying physical layer.

Protocols in Data link layer

There are various protocols in the data link layer, which are as follows:

 Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)

 High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)

 Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP)

 Point to Point Protocol (PPP)

 Link Access Procedure (LAP)

 Link Control Protocol (LCP)

 Network Control Protocol (NCP)

Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Routing
Routing is the process of moving data from one device to another device. These are two
other services offered by the network layer. In a network, there are a number of routes
available from the source to the destination. The network layer specifies some strategies
which find out the best possible route. This process is referred to as routing.

Routing is a crucial mechanism that transmits data from one location to another across a
network (Network type could be any like LAN, WAN, or MAN).

What are Different Types of Routing?

Routing is typically of 3 types, each serving its purpose and offering different functionalities.

Types of
Routing

1. Static Routing

Static routing is also called as "non-adaptive routing". In this, routing configuration is done
manually by the network administrator. Let's say for example, we have 5 different routes to
transmit data from one node to another, so the network administrator will have to manually
enter the routing information by assessing all the routes.

 A network administrator has full control over the network, routing the data packets
to their concerned destinations
  Routers will route packets to the destination configured manually by the network
administrator.

 Although this type of routing gives fine-grained control over the routes, it may not be
suitable for large-scale enterprise networks.

2. Dynamic Routing

Dynamic Routing is another type of routing in which routing is an autonomous procedure

without any human intervention. Packets are transmitted over a network using various
shortest-path algorithms and pre-determined metrics. This type of routing is majorly
preferred in modern networks as it offers more flexibility and versatile functionality.

 It is also known as adaptive routing.

 In this, the router adds new routes to the routing table based on any changes made
in the topology of the network.

 The autonomous procedure of routing helps in automating every routing operation

from adding to removing a route upon updates or any changes made to the network.

3. Default Routing

Default Routing is a routing technique in which a router is configured to transmit packets to

a default route that is, a gateway or next-hop device if no specific path is defined or found. It
is commonly used when the network has a single exit point. The IP Router has the following
address as the default route: 0.0.0.0/0.

Introduction of Gateways
A gateway is a network connectivity device that connects two different configuration
networks.

The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing traffic of the network.
Suppose there are two different networks and they want to communicate with each other,
so they need to set up a path between them. Now that path will be made between gateways
of those different networks. Gateways are also known as protocol converters because they
help to convert protocol supported by traffic of the different networks into that are
supported by this network. Because of that, it makes smooth communication between two
different networks.

features of Gateways

Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of these are:

  A gateway is situated at a network edge and manages all data that enters or exits the
network.

 A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer of
the OSI model.

 Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and
divided it into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk.

 Gateways provide security within the network.

How does Gateway Work?

Gateway has a simple working methodology of five steps:

 Step 1: It gets data from the network

 Step 2: It intercepts and analyzes the received data.

 Step 3: It routes the data to the destination address.

 Step 4: It converts the received data to make that compatible with the receiver
network.

 Step 5: It sends the final data inside the network.

Different Types of Gateways

Gateways can be classified into multiple categories on different bases like on the basis of the
direction of flow of data, functionality, etc...

On the Basis of the Direction of the Flow of Data

 Unidirectional Gateways: Unidirectional Gateway allows the flow of data in only one
direction. It means the changes that occurred in the source can be copied to the
destination but the changes that occurred in the destination can't be copied to the
source.

 Bidirectional Gateways: Bidirectional Gateways allow the flow of data in both

directions. It means changes that occurred in the source can be copied to the
destination and changes that occurred in the destination can be copied to the
source.

Bridge in Computer Network

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect
multiple LANs together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN).
The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging.
The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the
OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a layer of two
switches.

types of Bridges

There are generally two types of bridges which are as follows

Router
A router is a device that connects networks and allows multiple devices to use the same
internet connection. It manages traffic between networks by forwarding data packets to
their intended IP addresses.
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the
Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable
communication between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer,
the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help
manage different aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding
and working with modern networks.

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is
based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model

TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later became the
foundation of the modern internet.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Layer

 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)

 Network/Internet Layer(IP)

 Network Access Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

Layer 1 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Layer 2 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

Layer 3 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to
be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
4. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require network
communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and initiating connection
requests.

The structure of internet

The structure of internet communication relies on a global network of interconnected
networks, using protocols like TCP/IP to ensure reliable data transmission, employing packet
switching for efficient data delivery, and utilizing routers and DNS for navigation.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

1. Interconnected Networks:

 The internet is essentially a "network of networks" where various local and regional
networks connect to form a global infrastructure.

 These networks are interconnected through routers, which act as traffic directors,
forwarding data packets between different networks.

2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

 The TCP/IP protocol suite is the foundation of internet communication, defining how
data is transmitted and routed.

 It consists of multiple layers, each responsible for specific tasks, such as:

o Application Layer: Handles protocols like HTTP (web browsing), SMTP (email),
and FTP (file transfer).

o Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data delivery using protocols like TCP
(guarantees order and error checking) and UDP (faster, but less reliable).

o Network Layer: Manages data routing using protocols like IP (Internet

Protocol), which assigns unique addresses to devices.

o Link Layer: Handles physical data transmission across the network, using
protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

3. Packet Switching:

 Data is broken down into smaller packets before transmission, each containing the
destination address.
  These packets are then sent independently across the network, allowing for efficient
resource utilization and resilience in case of network congestion or failures.

 Routers forward packets based on their destination IP address, ensuring they reach
the intended recipient.

4. DNS (Domain Name System):

 DNS translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP

addresses, which are machine-readable.

 This allows users to access websites and services using familiar names rather than
complex numerical addresses.

5. Key Components:

 Client/Endpoint Devices: Computers, smartphones, tablets, and other devices that

access the internet.

 Servers: Computers that host websites, email, and other services, providing
resources to clients.

 Routers: Devices that forward data packets between networks.

 ISPs (Internet Service Providers): Companies that provide internet access to users.

 Hardware: Cables, modems, routers, and other physical infrastructure that enables
internet connectivity.

 Software: Operating systems, network drivers, and applications that enable internet
communication.

Internetworking problems in internet communication and networking can arise from various
issues, including hardware failures, software errors, network congestion, security breaches,
and challenges in managing diverse technologies and protocols.

Here's a breakdown of common problems:

1. Hardware Issues:

 Faulty or outdated equipment:

Routers, switches, firewalls, and other network devices can malfunction or become
outdated, leading to connectivity problems.

 Damaged cables:

Worn or damaged cables can disrupt network connectivity.

 Network device failures:

Problems with routers, switches, or other network devices can cause disruptions.

 Wireless interference:

Interference from other devices or sources can weaken or disrupt wireless connections.

2. Software and Configuration Problems:

 Incorrect configuration settings: Misconfigured network devices or software can lead

to connectivity issues.

 Outdated firmware: Outdated firmware on network devices can cause compatibility

problems and security vulnerabilities.

 Software errors: Bugs or errors in network software can lead to instability and
connectivity problems.

 IP address conflicts: Duplicate or static IP addresses can cause network

communication issues.

 DNS issues: Problems with Domain Name System (DNS) can prevent users from
accessing websites.

3. Network Congestion and Performance Issues:

 Slow network speeds:

Network congestion, caused by high traffic or insufficient bandwidth, can lead to slow
speeds and delays.

 Packet loss:

Loss of data packets during transmission can cause intermittent connectivity problems or
delays.

 Jitter:

Variations in packet delay can cause issues with real-time applications like VoIP.

 Load balancing issues:

Incorrect load balancing configuration can lead to uneven distribution of traffic and
performance problems.

4. Security Issues:

 Security breaches: Malware, viruses, or unauthorized access can compromise

network security and disrupt connectivity.

 Data breaches: Security vulnerabilities can lead to data breaches and privacy
violations.
  Cyberattacks: Network attacks can disrupt network services and cause outages.

5. Internetworking Challenges:

 Heterogeneity: Connecting different types of networks and devices (e.g., wired and
wireless) can be challenging.

 Scalability: Ensuring that the network can handle increasing traffic and devices is a
key challenge.

 Network management: Managing and troubleshooting a large, complex

internetwork can be difficult.

 Security: Protecting an internetwork from security threats is crucial.

 Reliability: Ensuring reliable and consistent network performance is essential.

 Flexibility: Adapting to new technologies and applications is important for a flexible

network.