MIDTERM

PRELIM MODULE
MIDTERM MODULE IN
MECHANICSODEFORMABLE BODI

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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Hence, when 𝝐 (or 𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) is positive the initial
In this chapter we will define strain, its quantities
line will elongate, whereas if it is negative the line
and show how they can be determined for various types
contracts. Note that normal strain is a dimensionless
of problems.
quantity, since it is a ratio of two lengths.
INTRODUCTION 1.2.2 Shear Strain
In engineering the deformation of a body is
specified using the concepts of normal and shear strain. Deformations not only cause line segments to
elongate or contract, but they also cause them to
Part 1: Strain change direction. If we select two line segments that are
originally perpendicular to one another, then the change
in angle that occurs between these two line segments is
1.1 DEFORMATION referred to as shear strain. This angle is denoted by
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend 𝛾 (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),
to change the body’s shape and size. These changes which are dimensionless. For example, consider the line
are referred to as deformation, and they may be either segments AB and AC originating from the same point A
highly visible or practically unnoticeable. in a body, and directed along the perpendicular n and t
axes (see figure-a below). After deformation, the ends
In a general sense, the deformation of a body will of both lines are displaced, and the lines themselves
not be uniform throughout its volume, and so the change become curves, such that the angle between them at A
in geometry of any line segment within the body may is shown in the figure-b. Hence the shear strain at point
vary substantially along its length. A associated with the n and t axes becomes:

1.2 STRAIN
Strain is actually measured by experiments, and
once the strain is obtained.
1.2.1 Normal Strain
Normal strain occurs when the
elongation of an object is in response to a
normal stress (i.e. perpendicular to a
surface), and is denoted by the Greek letter
epsilon.
The change in length of the line is
therefore Δs’-Δs. If we define the average
normal strain using the symbol 𝝐 (epsilon), 1.2.3 Small Strain Analysis
then
Most engineering design involves applications
for which only small deformations are allowed. In this
text, therefore, we will assume that the deformations that
Where: Δs= original length take place within a body are almost infinitesimal. In
particular, the normal strains occurring within the
Δs’= final length or displaced length
material are very small compared to 1, so that 𝝐 <<1.
As point B is chosen closer and closer to point A, This assumption has wide practical application in
the length of the line will become shorter and shorter, engineering, and it is often referred to as a small strain
such that Δs→0. Also, this causes B’ to approach A’, analysis. It can be used, for example, to approximate ,
such that Δs’→0Consequently, in the limit the normal 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝜽, 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝜽 and , provided is
strain at point A. very small.

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Example Solved Problems: Solution:
Problem 1.1. The slender rod shown FBD:
in the figure is subjected to an increase
of temperature along its axis, which
creates a normal strain in the rod of 𝜖 =
1
(40x10−3 )z2 where z is measured in
meters. Determine:
a) the displacement of the end B of
the rod due to the temperature
increase, and
b) the average normal strain in the
rod.

Problem 1.2. When force P is applied to the rigid lever

arm ABC in the figure, the arm rotates counterclockwise
about pin A through an angle of 0.05°. Determine the
normal strain developed in wire BD.

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Problem 1.3. Due to a loading, the plate is deformed a) the average normal strain along the diagonal AC,
into the dashed shape shown in the figure. Determine: and
b) the shear strain at E relative to the x, y axes.
a) the average normal strain along the side , and
b) the average shear strain in the plate at A relative FBD:
to the x and y axes.

Solution Part a: average normal strain along the side

FBD
Solution Part a: average normal strain along the
diagonal AC

Solution Part b : average shear strain in the plate at

Problem 1.4. The plate shown in the figure is fixed Solution Part b: shear strain at E relative to the x, y
connected along AB and held in the horizontal guides at axes
its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side CD is
given a uniform horizontal displacement of 2 mm,
determine:

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS FOR ASSESSMENT: 4. An air-filled rubber ball has a diameter of 6 in. If
the air pressure within it is increased until the
1. When force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, ball’s diameter becomes 7 in., determine the
point B displaces vertically downward through a average normal strain in the rubber.
distance of 0.2 mm. Determine the normal strain 5. A thin strip of rubber has an unstretched length
developed in wire CD. of 15 in. If it is stretched around a pipe having an
outer diameter of 5 in., determine the average
normal strain in the strip.
6. The rigid beam is supported by a pin at A and
wires BD and CE. If the load P on the beam
causes the end C to be displaced 10 mm
downward, determine the normal strain
developed in wires CE and BD.

2. If the applied force P causes the rigid arm ABC

to rotate clockwise about pin A through an angle
of 0.02°, determine the normal strain developed
in wires BD and CE.

Figure for numbers 4 to 6

7. The piece of rubber is originally rectangular and

subjected to the deformation shown by the
dashed lines. Determine the average normal
strain along the diagonal DB and side AD.

3. The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape

of a rhombus shown by the dashed line.
Determine the average shear strain at corner A
with respect to the x and y axes.

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 Part 2: Mechanical Properties of Material Other property of material that are significant to civil
engineering:
2.1. The Stress-Strain Diagram
 Modulus of Resilience- In particular, when the
stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain-
energy density.
 Modulus of Toughness- This quantity
represents the entire area under the stress–
strain diagram.
 The ductility of a material can be specified by
the specimen’s percent elongation or the
percent reduction in area.
 Brittle materials, such as gray cast iron, have
very little or no yielding and so they can fracture
suddenly.

2.3 Poisson’s Ratio

 Elastic Curve. The curve is actually a straight line
throughout most of this region, so that the stress is When a deformable body is subjected to an axial
proportional to the strain tensile force, not only does it elongate but it also
 Yielding. A slight increase in stress above the elastic contracts laterally. For example, if a rubber band is
limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause stretched, it can be noted that both the thickness and
it to deform permanently. This behavior is called width of the band are decreased. Likewise, a
yielding. compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract
 Strain Hardening. When yielding has ended, an in the direction of the force and yet its sides expand
increase in load can be supported by the specimen, laterally.
resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes
In the early 1800s, the French scientist S.D.
flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as
Poisson realized that within the elastic range the ratio of
the ultimate stress.
these strains is a constant, since the deformations
 Necking. Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿′ and are proportional. This constant is referred
elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease.This to as Poisson’s ratio, 𝜈(nu), and it has a numerical
decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire value that is unique for a particular material that is both
gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, homogeneous and isotropic. Stated mathematically it is:
the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a
localized region of the specimen. Here the stress– 𝝐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍
𝝂=−
strain diagram tends to curve downward until the 𝝐𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍
specimen breaks at the fracture stress.
The negative sign is included here since longitudinal
2.2 Hooke’s Law elongation (positive strain) causes lateral contraction
(negative strain), and vice versa. Poisson’s ratio is a
As noted in the previous section, the stress–strain
dimensionless quantity.
diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain within the elastic
region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a
proportionate increase in strain. This fact was discovered
by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs and is known as
Hooke’s law. It may be expressed mathematically as

𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐
Here E represents the constant of proportionality,
which is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus, named after Thomas Young, who published an
account of it in 1807.

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Problem 2.1 A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently
shown in the figure. If an axial force of 𝑃 = 80 𝑘𝑁 is applied removed from the region of load application will be the
to the bar, determine the change in its length and the change same as the stress and strain produced by any applied
in the dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. loadings that have the same statically equivalent
The material behaves elastically. resultant, and are applied to the body within the same
region.
3.2 Elastic Deformation Of An Axially Loaded
Member

3.2.1 Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area.

Solution:
In many cases the bar will have a constant cross-
sectional area A; and the material will be homogeneous,
so E is constant.

Where: 𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/displacement
𝑃 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑜𝑑
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

If the bar is subjected to several different axial

forces along its length, or the cross-sectional area or
modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from one region
of the bar to the next, the above equation can be applied
Part 3: Axial Load to each segment of the bar where these quantities
3.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle remain constant.

Sign Convention.

The fact that stress and deformation behave in

this manner is referred to as Saint-Venant’s principle,
since it was first noticed by the French scientist Barré de
Saint-Venant in 1855. Essentially it states that the stress
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Problem 3.1 The A-36 steel bar
shown in the figure is made from two
segments having cross-sectional
areas of 𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 1𝑖𝑛2 and 𝐴 𝐴𝐵 =
2𝑖𝑛2 . Determine the vertical
displacement of end A and the
displacement of B relative to C. E for
A-36 steel is 29𝑘𝑠𝑖

Problem 3.2. Rigid

Solution: beam AB rests on the
two short posts shown
FBD: in the figure. AC is
Solve the made of steel and has a
internal axial diameter of 20 mm, and
loads using BD is made of
method of aluminum and has a
section diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement of point
F on AB if a vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this
point. Take 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
Solution: Solve the internal axial loads
using equilibrium
FBD

Problem 3.2. The assembly shown in the figure consists

of an aluminum tube AB having a cross-sectional area
of 400 𝑚𝑚2 . A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm is
attached to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If
a tensile load of 80 kN is applied to the rod, determine
the displacement of the end C of the rod. Take 𝐸𝑠𝑡 =
200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Solution:
FBD:

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 PRACTICE PROBLEMS FOR ASSESSMENT: Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering
Materials (SI Units)
1. The 20-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to the
axial forces shown. Determine the displacement of end
C with respect to the fixed support at A.

2. Segments AB and CD of the assembly are solid circular

rods, and segment BC is a tube. If the assembly is made
of 6061-T6 aluminum, determine the displacement of
end D with respect to end A.

3. The 30-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to the

loading shown. Determine the displacement of end A
with respect to end C.

4. The 20-mm-diameter 2014-T6 aluminum rod is

subjected to the uniform distributed axial load.
Determine the displacement of end A.

Reference:
• Hibbeler, Russell C. Mechanics of Materials,
5th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., 2002