INDUSTRIAL PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS - PLC’S.

What’s a PLC?
A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specialized computer designed to interact with machinery.
They are ideally suited for performing repetitive, predictable operations.
DEFINATION: A programmable logic controller (PLC) is aspecialized computer used to control machines
and processes.

Interacting with machinery

The PLC is the brain of an automated system, while it’s inputs and outputs are the neurological system,
connecting sensors and action oriented parts to the brain.
Inputs: Tell the PLC about it’s environment. They connect to temperature sensors, position detectors, limit
switches etc. Gathering environmental data from inputs, PLCs decide what actions to take.
Outputs: Tell things what to do. Outputs may instruct motors to go to a position, a valve to open or a door to
lock.
Connections to Other Electronics: Many PLCs include communication ports including USB, Ethernet,
RS485 and RS232. These allow the PLC to talk to other PLCs, PCs, barcode scanners, Operator Panels etc

PLC Origin:
• Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and change. In 1960’s GM identified the
following requirements for computer controllers to replace hardwired
panels.
– Solid-state not mechanical
– Easy to modify input and output devices
– Easily programmed and maintained by plant electricians
– Be able to function in an industrial environment
TIMELINES
1968 Programmable concept developed
1969 Hardware CPU controller, with logic instructions, 1 K of memory and 128 I/O points
1974 Use of several (multi) processors within a PLC - timers and counters; arithmetic
operations; 12 K of memory and 1024 I/O points
1976 Remote input/output systems introduced
1977 Microprocessors - based PLC introduced
1980 Intelligent I/O modules developed Enhanced communications facilities , Enhanced software
features (e.g. documentation) Use of personal microcomputers as programming aids
1983 Low - cost small PLC’s introduced
1985 on Networking of all levels of PLC, computer and machine using SCADA software.

The Need for PLCs:

• Developed to offer the same functionality as the existing relay logic systems.
• To eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible, relay-controlled systems
• Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and change.

Some of the initial specifications for a PLC included the following:-

• The new control system had to be price competitive with the use of
relay systems.
• The system had to be capable of sustaining an industrial environment.
• The input and output interfaces had to be easily replaceable.
• The controller had to be designed in modular form , so that subassemblies could be removed easily for
replacement or repair.
• The control system needed the capability to pass data collection to a central system.
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• The system had to be reusable.
• The method used to program the controller had to be simple, so that it could be easily understood by plant
personnel.

What PLCs Look Like

PLCs can physically be grouped into 3 categories. Unitary, rack mounting, modular

1. Backplane Based(Rack mounting): Consist of a CPU, a Backplane (also called Rack) and IO Cards that
slide into the Backplane. This is similar concept to the modular design but the modules are on standard
cards that slot into a standard rack inside a cabinet. These are flexible and allow expansion of the system

2. Bricks (Non-Backplane Based) or Unitary: Have CPU and IO built into them. Often, you can connect
additional IO to their sides. They are attached to the machine being controlled.

3. Modular: These use a range of modules that slot together to build up a system. The basic modules are the
power supply, the main module containing the CPU, the input module and the output module. Other modules
such as A/D converters may be added. The main advantage is that the number of input and output terminals can
be expanded to cope with changes to the hardware system. This feature greatly increases your options and the
unit's flexibility. You can choose from the modules available from the manufacturer and mix them any way you
desire.

Programmable relays: Low end modules with built in screen and buttons used for programming.

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INPUT DEVICES:

OUTPUT DEVICES:

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RELAY CONTROL PANELS

PLC/RELAY COMPARISON

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Advantages of using PLCs:
Highly reliable
Highly versatile (universal applicability)
Simple troubleshooting
Simple installation
Quick modi_cation of the program (highly exible)
Capable of tasks not possible with relays before:
• calculation
• information exchange
• text and graphic display
• data processing
• networking
Low space requirement
Low power consumption
High processing speed
No moving parts, hence no wearing parts

Disadvantages of using PLCs:

High initial cost ( for a simple process )
Sensitive to dust, high temperature and high humidity
Repair must be made by a quali_ed personnel
Not very widespread
No uniform programming language

Types of PLC applications.

1. single-ended
A single-ended PLC application involves one PLC controlling one process. This wou ld be a stand-alone unit
and would
not be used for communicating with other computers or PLCs. The size and sophistication of the process being
controlled is obviously a factor in determining which PLC to select. The applications could dictate a large
processor. but usually this category requires a small PLC.
2. multitask
A multitask PLC application usually calls for a medium-size PLC and involves-one PLC controlling several
processes. Adequate I/O capacity is a significant factor in this type of installation. In addition. if the PLC would
be a subsystem of a larger process and would have to communicate with a central PLC or computer. provisions
for a data communications
network are also required.
3. control management
A control management PLC application involves one PLC controlling several others. This kind of application
requires a large PLC processor designed to communicate with other PLCs and possibly with a computer. The
control management PLC supervises several PLCs by downloading programs that tell the other PLCs what has
to be done. It must be capable of connection to all the PLCs so that by proper addressing it can communicate
with anyone it wishes.

What can a PLC do?

• It can perform relay-switching tasks.
• It can conduct counting, calculation and comparison of analog process values.
• It offers flexibility to modify the control logic, whenever required, in the shortest time.

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 • It responds to the changes in process parameters within fractions of seconds.
• It improves the overall control system reliability.
• It is cost effective for controlling complex systems.
systems
• It trouble-shoots
shoots more simply and more quickly
• It can be worked with the help of the HMI (Human-Machine
(Human Machine Interface) computer
Areas of Applications of PLC’s
Manufacturing / Machining
Food / Beverage
Power generation
Mining
Petrochemical / Chemical processes
Coin-Operated Carwash
Conveyor Diverter Control
Greenhouse Irrigation
Lumber Mill Operation
Oil recovery systems

Appllications example

Things a PLC may do to run the cookie factory above above:

Inputs: Connected to temperature sensors in Egg and Butter chutes, Position detectors monitoring when the
bowl has reached station, scale under bowl confirming correct amount of ingredients have fallen from chutes.
Outputs: Connected to motor that moves conveyor belt, refrigeration unit in Egg chute, warming
war unit in Butter
chute, actuator that causes chutes to open/close, and motors that drive the mixer.
PLC: Using the temperature inputs, it decides when to turn on refrigeration/warming units. Position detectors
and scale under bowl are used to determine
determine when to advance the conveyor, and when to lower and turn on the
mixer. Along with doing the routine, the PLC will provide error warnings when things go wrong, so an
operator can investigate.
Connections to Other Electronics: An operator panel could show w the operator current status of the cookie
batch, as any errors that have occurred. The PLC may also be connected to the building’s Ethernet system, so a
manager can monitor progress from a remote office.

International Standard for PLC

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The IEC 1131 standards were developed to be a common and open framework for PLC architecture, agreed to
by many standards groups and manufacturers. They were initially approved in 1992, and since then they have
been reviewed as the IEC-61131 standards. The main components of the standard are:
IEC 61131-1 Overview
IEC 61131-2 Requirements and Test Procedures
IEC 61131-3 Data types and programming
IEC 61131-4 User Guidelines
IEC 61131-5 Communications
IEC 61131-6 Functional Safety
IEC 61131-7 Fuzzy control
IEC 61131-8 Guidelines for the application and implementation of programming languages
PLC SIZES
A factor that determines the size of a programmable controller is the controller’s I/O and capacity.
1. Nano PLC - Smallest sized PLC,- Handles up to 16 I/O points
2 Mini-Micro – usually 32 or less I/O, but may have up to 64.
3 Small – usually 64 to 128 I/O, but may have up to 256.
4 Medium – usually 256 to 512 I/O, but may have up to 1024.
5 Large – usually 1024 to 2048 I/O, but may have many thousands more on very large units.

PLC Size Classification

Criteria
- Number of inputs and outputs (I/O count)
- Cost
- Physical size

LEADING BLANDS OF PLCS.

AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley, 2. Gould Modicon 3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric 5. Westinghouse 6. Cutter Hammer 7. Square D
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens 2. Klockner & Mouller 3. Festo 4. Telemechanique
JAPANESE 1. Toshiba 2. Omron, 3. Fanuc 4. Mitsubishi
How does a PLC differ from a computer?
1. A computer is optimized for calculation and display tasks
2. A computer is programmed by specialists
3. A PLC is designed for (logic) control and regulation tasks
4. A PLC is programmed by non-specialists
5. A PLC is well adapted to industrial environment
Factors to consider while selecting a PLC
• Number of I/Os i.e Will the PLC be able to manage the number of inputs and outputs that my application
requires
• Kind of signals : digital or analog: ie. If required by your application, can the PLC handle analog inputs and
outputs, or maybe a combination of both analog and discrete inputs and outputs?
• Fieldbus system or standalone: Do I need network connectivity and can it be added to my PLC?
• Modular or compact: Will the system be located in one place or spread out over a large area?
• Operating voltage: i.e Will the system be powered by AC or DC voltage?
• Positive or negative triggerred input
• Relay or transistor output
• Operating systems or What type of software is used to program the PLC
• Does the PLC have enough memory to run my user program?
• Does the system run fast enough to meet my application’s requirements?
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COMPONENTS OF THE PLC/ARCHITECTURE
PLC consists of five major sections:
1 Power Supply
2 Memory
3 Central Processing Unit (CPU)/ Logic Solver
4 I/O modules
5 Programming Section/device

OR

Processor : The CPU regulates the PLC program, data storage, and data exchange with I//O modules. The
processor is section that executes a program to perform the operation specified in a ladder diagram or a set of
Boolean equations. The processor performs arithmetic and logic operations on input variables data and
determine the proper state of the output variables.

Input Modules/ Output Modules

Input and output modules are the media for data exchange between field devices and CPU. It tells CPU the
exact status of field devices and also acts as a tool to control them.

a. Input Modules: The input modules examine the state of physical switches and other input devices and
put their state into a form suitable for the processor. The PLC is able to accommodate a number of
inputs called channels.
b. Output Modules : The objective of the output module is ultimately to supply power to an external
device such as motor, light , solenoid and so on as required by the ladder diagram. Early relay logic
sequences were able to provide 120 vac directly to device as long as the power requirement was not too
great.

Power supply

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A power supply of 115 V ac is specially used to drive the PLC even though the components of the industrial
process that are regulated may have a higher voltage and power rating than the controller itself.
memory,
Memory provides the storage media for the PLC program as well as for different data. PROM, ROM, RAM and
etc. The memory contains the program of logic, sequencing, and other input/output operations.
Programming device
A programming device is a computer loaded with programming
A programming device is a computer loaded with programming software, which allows a user to create, transfer
and make changes in the PLC software. The PLC is programmed by means of a programming device. The
programming device (sometimes referred to as a programmer) is usually detachable from the PLC cabinet so
that it can be shared between different controllers.
Indicator lights - These indicate the status of the PLC including power on, program running, and a fault. These
are essential when diagnosing problems.

System Busses
The internal paths along which the digital signals flow within the PLC are called busses.
The system has four busses:
- The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the different elements,
- The address bus to send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data,
- The control bus for signals relating to internal control actions,
- The system bus is used for communications between the I/O ports and the I/O unit.

Processor used in plcs

A wide range of processor modules, scalable in terms of performance and capacity, are available to meet the
different needs of users. In terms of hardware, besides a CPU and possible co-processor, each processor
module typically includes:
• a protected internal RAM memory which can take the application program and can be extended by
memory extension cards (RAM or Flash EPROM)
• a realtime clock
• ports for connecting several devices simultaneously for purposes such as programming, human-
machine interface etc.
• communication cards for various industrial communication standards such as, Modbus+ or
Fieldbus, as well as serial links and Ethernet links
• Display block with LEDs, RESET button, used to activate a cold restart of the PLC system.

PLC - Memory Map

The memory is divided into three parts: program, word and discrete registers. The program (ladder logic) and word
registers are usually stored in FLASH memory, while the discrete registers are stored in RAM memory.

All programmable logic controllers (PLCs) have a memory map. Depending on the
make or model of the micro PLC, the memory could range from 2K to 16K words. The
memory is divided into three parts: program, word and discrete registers. The program
(ladder logic) and word registers are usually stored in FLASH memory, while the
discrete registers are stored in RAM memory.

To demonstrate a typical memory map, let us assume that the micro PLC we are
working with has a total of 16K words of memory. The first 8K words are reserved for
word data, with register addresses ranging from 0 to 17777 (octal). These are
read/write registers which the ladder logic retrieves or stores internal data. The next 8K
words are set aside for the ladder logic, with register addresses ranging from 20000 to

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37777 (octal). These registers are not accessible to the programmer. The program is usually written in ladder logic with a
PC, compiled and stored in flash memory

The remaining 700 words are where the discrete data is kept, with register addresses ranging from 40000 to 41277
(octal). These are also read/write registers which the ladder logic keeps track of the I/O (input/output) of the PLC

The discrete memory area is for inputs, outputs and control relays. However, you can also access the bit data type from a
discrete register. Each discrete register contains 16 consecutive discrete locations. The above diagram shows one of the
discrete registers from each of the I/O types

MEMORY used in plc

The memory is the area of the CPU in which data and information is stored and retrieved.The total memory area
can be subdivided into the following four Sections.
I) I/O Image Memory
Also referred to as Scratch Pad.- is the work area used to temporarily store the binary information used by the
processor. These are volatile memory as RAM-type chips. Battery backed-up CMOS RAM are also used which
may last up to 10 years.
The input image memory consists of memory locations used to hold the ON or OFF states of each input field
devices, in the input status file.
The output status file consists of memory locations that stores the ON or OFF states of hardware output devices
in the field. Data is stored in the output status file as a result of solving user program and is waiting to be
transferred to the output module's switching device.
II) Processor file (Program/ /Data Memory)
The memory block in which programmer stores and manipulates the software. The processor file is made up of
program files and data files. It is used to store numerical data required in math calculation, bar code data etc. it
includes RAM (Random Access Memory) The program and data memories are called together application
memory.
• The data memory stores any data associated with the user’s control program, such as system input and
output status data, and any stored constants, variables, or preset values. The data memory is where data is
monitored, manipulated, and changed for control purposes.
• The user program area is where the programmed instructions entered by the user are stored as an application
control program.
RAM
• Random Access Memory (Read/Write)
• A volatile memory, that is one that loses its stored information when power is removed.
• Even momentary losses of power will erase any information stored or programmed on a volatile memory
chip.
• Read/write indicates that the information stored in the memory can be retrieved or read, while write
indicates that the user can program or write information into the memory.
• The words random access refer to the ability of any location (address) in the memory to be accessed or
used. Ram memory is used for both the user memory (ladder diagrams) and storage memory in many
PLC’s.
RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect the stored program
Types of RAM Memory
• MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
• HMOS (High Density, short channel MOS )
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• CMOS (Complimentary MOS)
• The CMOS-RAM is probably one of the most popular, because it has a very low current drain when not
being accessed (15microamps.), and the information stored in memory can be retained by as little as 2Vdc.

III) Executive/system Memory

Collection of system programs stored in ROM. It is used to store an executive program or system software .
it is composed of permanently-stored programs that direct all system activities, such as execution of the
users control program, communication with peripheral devices, and other system activities.
The system memory also contains the routines that implement the PLC’s instruction set, which is composed
of specific control functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic.
System memory is generally built from read-only memory devices. A non-volatile memory. It has the ability
to retain stored information when power is removed, accidentally or intentionally. A ROM does not require
battery back-up. Read only indicates that the information stored in memory can be read only and cannot be
changed. The ROM memory devices are
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
• EEPROM (Electric Erasable Programmable ROM)

PROM
• Programmable ROM
• Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into the chip.
• PROM may be written into only once after being received from the PLC manufacturer; programming is
accomplish by pulses of current.
• The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it from being reprogrammed. This type of
memory is used to prevent unauthorized program changes.
EPROM
• Erasable PROM
• Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-permanent or additional security is needed to prevent
unauthorized program changes.
• The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon material that contains the electronic integrated
circuits. This window normally is covered by an opaque material, but when the opaque material is removed
and the circuitry exposed to ultra violet light, the memory content can be erased.
• The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.
EEPROM
• Electrically EPROM
• Also referred to as E2PROM, is a chip that can be programmed using a standard programming device and
can be erased by the proper signal being applied to the erase pin.
• EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the normal RAM memory. If the program in RAM
is lost or erased, a copy of the program stored on an EEPROM chip can be down loaded into the RAM.

REGISTERS IN THE PLC

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Registers are small storage devices that are available to CPU or processors. They act as temporary storage for
processing of intermediate data by mathematical or logical operations.
I. Address Latch is a register which stores the addresses in the memory.
II. Program Counter: It is a register which can increment its value by 1 and keeps the record of number of
instructions executed. It can be set to zero when instructed.
III. Test Register: It is a register which stores intermediate or in-process data of ALU operations. For
example it is required to hold the ‘ carry ’ while ALU is performing ‘addition’ operation. It also store
s the data which can be accessed by Instruction decoder to make any decision.
IV. 3- State Buffers: These are tri -state buffers . A tri -state buffer can go to a third state in addition to the
states of 1 and 0.
V. The instruction register and instruction decoder are responsible for controlling the operations of all other
components of a microprocessor
VI. Input and output image registers :The updating of discrete input and output information is accomplished
with the use of input and output image registers set aside in the PLC memory.

Input/Output modules
The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to external field devices. It acts as the eyes, ears and hands of
PLCs.The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals received from or sent to the
external input and output devices. Input and output (I/O) modules are specified according to the input and
output signals associated with the particular application. The I/Os may be directly connected to the PLC or may
be in a remote location. I/Os in a remote location from the processor section can be hard wired back to the
controller, multiplexed over a pair of wires, or sent by a fiber optic cable. Also I/O can be Fixed or modular

fixed I/O
(for small PLC's) no separate removable units with no flexibility. If part of the unit fails, the whole unit fails
modular I/O
divided into compartments in which separate modules can be installed
basic modular has a rack, power supply, CPU, I/O modules, and an operator interface for programming and
monitoring whre;

Rack is a housing or framework used to hold assemblies, supports I/O modules and provides a means of
supplying power and signals to each I/O module or card
Backplane is a series of electrical connections located at the rear of the rac

1) Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to logic levels acceptable to PLC’s
processor.
The input module functions are:
i. Reliable signal detection
ii. Voltage adjustment of control voltage to logic voltage
iii. Protection of sensitive electronics from external voltages
iv. Screening of signals.

2) Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving the connected discrete or
analog output devices.
The output module serves following functions:
i. Voltage adjustment of logic voltages to control voltage
ii. Protection of sensitive electronics from spurious voltages from the controller

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 iii. Power amplification for actuation of control elements
iv. Short-circuit and overload protection of output modules

FORMS OF I/O SYSTEMS

Discrete I/O Inputs
- push-buttons, selector switches, joy sticks,relay contacts, pressure switches, level switches, starter
contacts,temperature switches, flow switches, limit switches, photo –electric switches, and proximity switches.
Discrete I/O Outputs
- light, relays, solenoids, starters, alarms,valves, heating elements, and motors.
Data I/O Inputs - potentiometers, temperature transducers, level transducers, pressure transducers, humidity
transducers, encoders, bar code readers, wind speed transducers.
Data I/O Outputs
- analog meters, digital meters, stepper motors (signals), variable voltage outputs, and variable current outputs.

Note: A sensor is a transducer whose purpose is to detect some characteristic of its environments. It detects events or
changes in quantities and provides a corresponding output, generally as an electrical or optical signal. Transducers are
measurement devices used to change one kind of energy to another. Energy may include electrical, mechanical,
electromagnetic, chemical, acoustic, and thermal energy
sensor technology. From pressure, current and temperature sensors to IC, light, motion and proximity sensors and much
more, you'll find it here.
Discrete I/O
INPUT MODULE
This type of interface connects field input devices of the ON/OFF nature such as selector switches, pushbuttons,
and limit switches. Likewise, output control is limited to devices such as lights, relays, solenoids, and
motor starters that require simple ON/OFF switching.

The classification of discrete I/O covers bit oriented inputs and outputs. In this type of input or output, each bit
represents a complete information element in itself and provides the status of some external contact or advises
of the presence or absence of power in a process circuit.
Each discrete I/O module is powered by some field supplied voltage source. Since these voltages can be of
different magnitude or type, I/O modules are available at various AC and DC voltage ratings,
The figure below shows the block diagrams for one input of a typical alternating current (AC)
discrete input module. The input circuit is composed of two basic sections: the power section and the logic
section.
An optical isolator is used to provide electrical isolation between the field wiring and the PLC backplane
internal circuitry.
The input LED turns on or off, indicating the status of the input device. Logic circuits process the digital signal
to the processor. Internal PLC control circuitry typically operates at 5 VDC or less volts.

The input noise filter consisting of the capacitor and resistors R1 and R2 removes false signals that are due to
contact bounce or electrical interference.
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• When the pushbutton is closed, 120 VAC is applied to the bridge rectifier input.
• This results in a low- level DC output voltage that is applied across the LED of the optical isolator.

The zener diode (Z D ) voltage rating sets the minimum threshold level of voltage that can be detected.
• When light from the LED strikes the phototransistor, it switches into conduction and the status of the
pushbutton is communicated in logic to the processor.
• The optical isolator not only separates the higher AC input voltage from the logic circuits but also prevents
damage to the processor Due to line voltage transients.
• In addition, this isolation also helps reduce the effects of electrical noise, common in the industrial
environment, which can cause erratic operation of the processor.

NOTE:
The input signal for the PLC can be either AC or DC If the input signal is AC then the circuit that convert this
AC signal into DC was shown above.
If the input signal is DC then the circuit below will be used to convert the signal into 5 volt signal

Discrete input modules perform four tasks in the PLC control system. They:
• Sense when a signal is received from a field device.
• Convert the input signal to the correct voltage level for the particular PLC.
• Isolate the PLC from fluctuations in the input signal’s voltage or current.

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• Send a signal to the processor indicating which sensor originated the signal.

OUTPUT MODULE
The output interface can be thought of as an electronic switch that turns the output load device on and off.
• Logic circuits determine the output status.
• An output LED indicates the status of the output signal.

The operation of the circuit can be summarized as follows:

• the digital logic circuits of the processor sets the output status according to the program.
•When the processor calls for an output load to be energized, a voltage is applied across the LED of the opto-
isolator.
• The LED then emits light, which switches the phototransistor into conduction.
•This in turn triggers the triac AC semiconductor switch into conduction allowing current to flow to the output
load.

PLC outputs are specified as being of relay, transistor or triac.

Relay Outputs
One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. Existence of relays as outputs makes it
easier to connect with external devices. A relay is non-polarized and typically it can switch either AC or DC.
Transistor Outputs
Transistor type outputs can only switch a dc current. The PLC applies a small current to the transistor base and
the transistor output “closes”. When it’s closed, the device connected to the PLC output will be turned on.A
transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as a relay. If the load current you need to switch exceeds the
specification of the output, you can connect the plc output to an external relay, then connect the relay to the
large load. Typically a PLC will have either NPN or PNP transistor type outputs. Some of the common types
available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type often has less switching capacity than a MOSFET type. The BJT
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also has a slightly faster switching time.A transistor is fast, switches a small current, has a long lifetime and
works with dc only. A relay is slow, can switch a large current, has a shorter lifetime and works with ac or dc.
Triac Output
Triac output can be used to control AC loads only. Triac output is faster in operation and has longer life than
relay output. Inductive loads have a tendency to deliver a “back current” when they turn on. This back current is
like a voltage spike coming through the system. This could be dangerous to output relays. Typically a diode,
varistor, or other “snubber” circuit should be used to protect the PLC output from any damage.

• PLC outputs must convert the 5Vdc logic levels on the PLC data bus to external voltage levels. This can be
done with circuits similar to those shown below.
Transistor(DC output)

Traic (AC output)

Relay (AC and DC output)

sinking (NPN) and sourcing (PNP)

In general, sinking (NPN) and sourcing (PNP) are terms used to describe a current signal flow relationship
between field input and output devices in a control system and their power supply.
Sinking
+ is connected to the input device - is connected to the input module
Sourcing
+ is connected to the input module and - is connected to the input device

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Figure illustrates the current flow relationship between sinking and sourcing inputs to a DC input module.

NOTE: Source & Sink

Source & Sinking is used exclusively with Digital DC circuits. If the common pin is + polarity, it’s called a
sourcing circuit. If it’s – polarity, it’s called a sinking circuit.

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Analog I/O modules
Earlier PLCs were limited to discrete or digital I/O interfaces, which allowed only on/off-type devices to be
connected. This limitation meant that the PLC could have only partial control of many process applications.
Today, however, a complete range of both discrete and analogue interfaces are available that will allow
controllers to be applied to practically any type of control process.
Discrete devices are inputs and outputs that have only two states: on and off. Analogue devices represent
physical quantities that can have an infinite number of values.
However all PLCs are digital devices at heart. Thus, in order to interface with an analog sensor or control
device, some “translation” is necessary between the analog and digital worlds. Inside every analog input module
is an ADC, or Analog-to-Digital Converter, circuit designed to convert an analog electrical signal into a multi-
bit binary word. Conversely, every analog output module contains a DAC, or Digital-to-Analog Converter,
circuit to convert the PLC’s digital command words into analog electrical quantities.
Analog I/O is commonly available for modular PLCs for many different analog signal types, including:
• Voltage (0 to 10 volt, 0 to 5 volt)
• Current (0 to 20 mA, 4 to 20 mA)
• Thermocouple (millivoltage)
• RTD (millivoltage)
• Strain gauge (millivoltage)
Common physical quantities measured by a PLC analogue module include temperature, speed, level, flow,
weight, pressure, and position.

DC Input module

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AC input module
20mA; 0-10V
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0

NOTE:
1. Optical Isolator
It rovides electrical isolation between field wiring and the PLC internal circuitry
Light-Emitting
Emitting Diode & Photoelectric transistor is used.
When the switch is Closed Current flow through LED, Generates Light, Light Triggers current flow thru
Photoelectric transistor which is Sensed by PLC digital logic
The Circuitry to the LHS of isolator powered from the field
The Circuitry to the RHS powered from internal PLC PL voltage source
2. A Threshold detector is put before the opto-isolator.
opto
Threshold detector senses
enses when input device is on.
IV) When input device voltage > minimum-on-state
minimum voltage devised is sensed to be on
V) When device voltage < maximum-off
maximum state voltage devised is sensed to be off

DC/AC output module

Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA;
20mA; 00-5V; 0-10V

Network I/O

19
Many different digital network standards exist for PLCs to communicate with, from PLC to PLC and between
PLCs and field devices. One of the earliest digital protocols developed for PLC communication was Modbus,
originally for the Modicon brand of PLC. Another digital network standard developed by a particular
manufacturer and later adopted as a de facto standard is Profibus, originally developed by Siemens.

TYPEs OF I/O COMMUNICATIONS

I/O modules communicate with PLC CPU in one of three ways:
1. Backplane - The I/O modules can be located in the same rack or station. Communications then takes
place within the rack or across the backplane.
2. Backplane extension - backplane extension modules allow I/O modules to be located in racks or stations
which are separated from the controller.
3. Device network - modules can communicate with a controller over a network. Industrial networks are
used to interconnect field level devices with controllers. Common IO networks are FieldBus, Profibus,
and DeviceNet.

Factors to consider while selecting input/output modules

These are termination points on the I/O sections must therefore conform to the basic system
specifications with regard to:
_ Voltage levels and current loadings;
_ The number and type of I/O points required per module (or unit in the case of self-contained PLC);
_ Isolation required between the controller and the target process;
_ The need for high-speed I/O, or remote I/O, or any other special facility;
_ Future needs of the plant in terms of both expansion potential and installed spare I/O points;
_ Power supply requirements of I/O points: any need for an on-board power supply unit to drive input
transducers or output actuators.

TYPES O PROGRAMMING DEVICES

1. Handheld Programmers
- are small inexpensive devices. These typically have membrane keys for entering data and LCD displays to
show one line of a ladder program. hand-held devices. Advantages are: compact, inexpensive, and easy to use
devices used to program PLC's

2. Dedicated Terminals
- are designed for one particular brand of PLC. These provides troubleshooting operation while the PLC is
running.
3. Micro-Computers / PCs
- are widely used to program and simulate the program. Tested programs are downloaded to the PLC using
serial communications.

PLC peripheral devices

A piece of hardware that is not part of the main PLC system, but provides inputs and accepts outputs from the
PLC. They include
• Printers: A device that outputs the data on a computer screen to a sheet of paper.
• Human machine interface(HMI): A communication device, typically a touchscreen or screen and keypad,
between a computer system and a person. Also known as man-machine interface(MMI). HMI (Human
Machine Interface) graphical display hardware in which machine status, alarms, messages, diagnostics, and
data entry are available to the operator in graphical display form
• A programming unit is necessary to create, edit and download a user program to the PLC
– Network interfaces: to allow PLCs to function in a networked environment
20
– Communication adapters for remote I/O devices: so I/O devices do not have to be physically close to the
CPU module

OTHER COMPONENTS OF A PLC

We can actually consider the PLC to be a box full of hundreds or thousands of separate relays, counters, timers
and data storage locations. . Do these counters, timers, etc. really exist? No, they don't "physically" exist but
rather they are simulated and can be considered software counters, timers, etc. These internal relays are
simulated through bit locations in registers

1. INPUT RELAYS-(contacts)These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive
signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are transistors.
2. INTERNAL UTILITY RELAYS-(contacts) These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they
physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There
are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always on while some
are always off. Some are on only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was
stored.
3. COUNTERS-These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be programmed
to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and down. Since they are simulated
they are limited in their counting speed. Some manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are
hardware based. We can think of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can count up, down
or up and down.
4. TIMERS- Timers are instructions that wait a specified time before doing something These also do not
physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments. The most common type is an on-delay type.
Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.
5. OUTPUT RELAYS-(coils)These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off
signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.
6. Input relays receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. They physically exist.
7. DATA STORAGE-Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. They are usually used as
temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also typically be used to store data when power
is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up they will still have the same contents as before power was
removed. Very convenient and necessary!!
8. PLCs contain registers assigned to store data. They do not physically exist.

PLC Program and Operation

For the PLC to be useful, it must first have a Program or Logic for the CPU to execute. A system engineer or
PLC programmer will first create the program logic in a programming device
The programmer will then download the program to the PLC. This is usually done by temporarily
connecting the programmer to the PLC. But before downloading the user program, the processor must be in
program mode. Now, if all the inputs and outputs signals are wired to the correct screw terminals, the processor
can be put in run mode. In run mode, the program will continuously run and solve the programmed instructions.

21
The process of solving the programmed instruction is sometime called as solving the logic. This constant
running of the program in a PLC is called as scanning.
NOTE:
a) PROG Position/mode: When the PLC is switched into the program mode, all outputs from the PLC are
forced OFF regardless of their rung logic status, and the ladder I/O scan sequence is halted.
b) Run mode is used to execute the user program. Input devices are monitored and output devices are
energized accordingly.
c) Test mode is used to operate or monitor the user program without energizing any outputs.
d) Remote mode/REM Position allows the PLC to be remotely changed between program and run mode
by a personal computer connected to the PLC processor. Allows you to perform online program editing

Four Steps In The PLC Operations

1.) Input Scan

During the input scan, data is taken from all input modules in the system and placed into an area of PLC
memory referred to as the input image area

2.) Program Scan(Execute Programmed Logic )

During the program scan, the program that is stored in the PLC’s memory is executed or solved.
22
Ladder logic is solved sequentially left to right and then top to bottom one rung (ladder
logic line) at a time. Logic results of the outputs are set to an internal output table

3.) Output Scan

During the output scan, data is taken from the output image area and sent to all output modules in the
system Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC. Ie. The output(s) status
in the internal output table is (are) sent to the physical out-put(s) (e.g., relay, starter, pilot light).

4. Communications and Housekeeping

If required, information is exchanged with other devices. Single scan transitions
are logged, timers and counters are updated, and a system diagnostics check is
performed in preparation for the next scan.
NOTE:
Steps 1, 3, and 4 are consolidated in the PLC’s END instruction.

23
PLC operation scheme

Scan cycle and scan time

Input table update is also called input scan.
Output table update is output scan.
The process from input scan to output scan is a scan cycle.
The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called scan time.. The scan time composed of the program
scan time, which is the time required for solving the control program, and the I/O update time, or time
required to read inputs and update outputs. The pprogram
rogram scan time generally depends on the amount of
memory taken by the control program and type of instructions used in the program. The time to make a
single scan can vary from 1 ms to 100 ms.

Solve the Ladder

After the I/O update has been accomplished,
accomplished, the PLC begins executing the commands programmed into it.
These commands are typically referred to as the ladder diagram. The ladder diagram is basically a
representation of the program steps using relay contacts and coils. The ladder is drawn with contacts
conta to the left
side of the sheet and coilsto the right. This is a holdover from the time when control systems were relay based.
This procedure of I/O update and solving the ladder diagram and I/O update is referred to as scanning . The
period between one I/O update and the next is referred to as one Scan.. The amount of time it takes the PLC to
24
get from one I/O update to the next is referred to as Scan Time. Scan time is typically measured in milliseconds
and is related to the speed of the CPU and the length of the
ladder diagram that has to be solved. The slower the processor or the longer the ladder diagram, the longer the
scan time of the system. The speed at which a PLC scans memory is referred to as Scan Rate. Scan rate units
are usually listed in msec/K of memory being utilized for the program. As an example, if a particular PLC has a
rated scan rate of 8 msec/K and the program occupies 6K of memory, it will take the PLC 48 msec to complete
one scan of the program.
PLC operating system/executive system.
The executive software determines
- what functions are available to the user’s program,
- how the program is solved,
- how the I/O is serviced,
- what the PLC does during power up and down and fault conditions.

Memory Design
Memory is the element that stores information, programs, and data in a PLC.
The user memory of a PLC includes space for the user program as well as addressable memory locations for
storage of data.
Data are stored in memory locations by a process called writing.
Data are retrieved from memory by what is referred to as reading .
The complexity of the program determines the amount of memory required.
Memory elements store individual pieces of information called bits (for binary digits
Memory sizes are commonly expressed in thousands of words that can be stored in the system; thus 2 K is a
memory of 2000 words, and 64 K is a memory of 64,000 words.
The memory size varies from as small as 1 K for small systems to 32 MB for very large systems .
Memory location refers to an address in the CPU’s memory where a binary word can be stored.A word usually
consists of 16 bits. A rule of thumb for memory locations is one location per coil or contact.
One K of memory would then allow a program containing 1000 coils and contacts to be stored in memory.
The memory of a PLC may be broken into sections that have specific functions

PLC Operating systems and application Programs

Operating system is the main workhouse of the system and hence performs the following tasks:-
1.Executions of application program
2.Management of memory
3.Communication between programmable controller and o
ther units
4.i/o handling of interfaces
5. resource sharing
6. diagnostics
note:- operating system stored in ROM(non –volatile) memory, whereas application program are
stored in RWM(read-write memory).

25
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (plc) ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Define PLC stating its purpose
2. What is the standard programming language used with PLCs?
3. The programmable controller operates in real time. What does this mean?
4. What is the function of a PLC interface module?
5. What is the function of a PLC output interface module?
6. How does the processor identify the location of a specific input or output device?
7.Compare bit level and word level addressing.
8. Explain why PLC is extensively used nowadays.
9. Distinguish between pico-controllers and modular PLC
10. What are the characteristics of integrated PLC’s
11. Outline the PLC components
12. Explain the importance of PLC Operating systems and application programs
13. By use of block diagram describe the basic PLC scan cycle .
– An input scan
– A user program scan
– An output scan
14. Describe the importance of the four sections of PLC memory( I/O image memory, data memory, executive
memory and user memory).
15. Word level addressing specifies an analog device connected to a module that uses a word of information.
16. In what way does tag-based addressing differ from rack/slot-based addressing?
17. Most PLC modules use plug-in wiring terminal strips. Why?
18. Explain the function of the backplane of a PLC rack.
19. What is the function of the optical isolator circuit?
20. Name the two distinct sections of an I/O module.
21. Compare discrete and analog I/O modules with respect to the type of input or output devices which with
22. Explain the function of the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter circuit used in analog input modules.
23. Explain the function of the digital-to-analog (D/A) converter circuit used in analog output modules.
24. Name the two general sensing classifications for analog input modules
25. What type of cable is used when connecting a thermocouple to a voltage sensing analog input module.
26. Explain the difference between a unipolar and a bipolar analog input module.
27. Compare the function of the CPU and memory sections of a PLC processor.
28. Explain the purpose of a redundant PLC processor.
29. Describe three typical modes of operation that can be selected by the keyswitch of a processor.
26
30. Why do PLCs execute memory-checking routines?
31. Compare the memory storage characteristics of volatile and nonvolatile memory elements.
32. What information is normally stored in the ROM memory of a PLC?
33. What information is normally stored in the RAM memory of a PLC?
34. What information is normally stored in an EEPROM memory module?
35. What are the advantages of a processor that utilizes a flash memory card?
36. List three functions of a PLC programming terminal device.
37. Give one advantage and one limitation to the use of a hand-held programming device.
38. What is required for a personal computer to be used as a PLC programming terminal?
39. What does the memory map for a typical PLC processor consist of?
40. Explain the purpose of Windows based programming software such as RSLogix.
41. Briefly describe each of the following PLC modes of operations:
Program
Test
Run
42. Explain the basic operating principle of an electromagnetic control relay.
43. In what ways are control relay coils and contacts rated?
44. Outline the method used to actuate inductive and capacitive proximity sensors.
45. Explain the principle of operation of a strain gauge.
46. Explain the principle of operation of a thermocouple.
47. Compare hardwired logic and ladder logic

48. Explain the difference between a register or word and a table or file.
49. Identify four tasks in addition to relay switching operations that PLCs are capable of performing.
50. Explain the difference between open and proprietary PLC architecture.
51. How does the processor identify the location of a specific input or output device?
52. How do contactors differ from relays?
53. PLC's are usually selected by?(Criteria)
54. The major hardware components of a modular PLC system are?
55. Compare the PLC and PC with regard to:
a. Physical hardware differences
b. Operating environment
c. Method of programming
d. Execution of program

27
PLC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
texual languages
• Instruction List (IL)
• Structured Text (ST)
grafical languages
• Function Block Diagram (FBD)
• Ladder Diagram (LD)
• Continous Function Chart (CFC)
• Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
• STD, State Transition Diagram (SIEMENS: HiGraph)

Examples of PLC Programming Software by brands:

1. Allen-Bradley – Rockwell Software RSLogix500

2. Modicon - Modsoft
3. Omron - Syswin
4. GE-Fanuc Series 6 – LogicMaster6
5. Square D- PowerLogic
28
6. Texas Instruments – Simatic
6. Telemecanique – Modicon TSX Micro

Ladder logic programs.

Ladder logic uses graphic symbols similar to relay schematic circuit diagrams.
Ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal
lines between these two verticals.

LD, facts
Derived from the pre-PLC relay based controls — low level language — graphical language — SIEMENS:
LAD/KOP — Ladder: ‘Leiter’

LD, Relays
Relays where used to control the digital machine events in the past — PLC’s where invented to increase the
control power

LD, a simple program based on the above relay example

29
Ladder Diagram Programming Concept
1. Instruction in a ladder diagram are executed in order from the left bus bar to the right bus bar and from the
top to bottom.
2. there is no limit to the number of I / O bits, work bits, timers and other input bits that can be used.
. there is no limit to the number of input bits that can be connected in series or parallel in series or parallel
rungs.
4. two or more output bits can be connected in parallel.
5. output bits can also be used as input bits.
6. to minimize the use of output bits used a input bits, flags can be utilize.
Ladder Diagram Programming Concept

Ladder diagram features

Power flows from left to right.
Output on right side can not be connected directly with left side.
Contact can not be placed on the right of output.
Each rung contains one output at least.
Each output can be used only once in the program.
A particular input a/o output can appear in more than one rung of a ladder.
The inputs a/o outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation used depending on the PLC
manufacturer.
Logic Control Elements
There are three basic elements of Logic Control, which are also called Logic Gates:
1. AND
2. OR
3. NOT
There are other elements which are derived from these three basic elements above like NOR, and NAND, etc.
In each case, the logic gate is designed to provide a specified output value based on the values of input(s). For
both inputs and outputs, the values can be either of the two levels, the binary values 0 or 1. For purpose of
industrial control, we will define 0 (zero) to mean OFF and 1 (one) to mean ON,
Logic Gate AND
The logic gate AND outputs a value of 1 if all of the inputs are 1, and 0 otherwise. Figure below
(a) illustrates the operation of a logical AND gate. If both of the switches, Xl and X2 (representing inputs), in
the circuit are closed, the lamp Y (representing the output) is on.

(a)AND (b) OR

30
 (c) NOT
Logic Gate OR
The logic gate OR outputs a value of 1 if either of the inputs have a value of 1, and 0 otherwise. Figure above
(b) illustrates the operation of a logical OR gate. In this case, Xl and X2 (representing inputs) are arranged in a
parallel circuit, so that if either of the switches is closed, the lamp Y (representing the output) will be on.
Logic Gate NOT
Unlike the AND and OR gate, logic gate NOT has a single input and a single output too. If the input is 1, the
output is 0; if the input is 0, the output is 1. Figure above (c) shows a circuit in which the input switch Xl is
arranged in parallel with the outputs so that the voltage flows through the lower path when the switched is
closed (thus Y = 0), and the upper path when circuit is open (thus Y = 1),

In addition to the three basic elements, there are two more elements that can be identified for use in
combinational switching circuits. These are the NAND and NOR gates.
Logic Gate NAND
Logic gate NAND is formed by combining and AND and a NOT gate in sequence
Logic Gate NOR
Logic gate NOR is formed by combining an OR gate followed by a NOT gate

Ladder logic diagrams for the above circuits are:

31
32
33
Creating a Ladder Diagram
First step—We have to translate all of the items we're using into symbols the PLC understands. The PLC
doesn't understand terms such as switch, relay, and bell. It prefers input, output, coil, contact, etc. It doesn't
care what the input or output device is. It only cares that it’s an input or an output.

Second step—We must tell the PLC where everything is located. In other words, we have to give all the
devices an address. Where is the pushbutton going to be physically connected to the PLC? How about the
light? We start with a blank road map in the PLC’s town and give each item an address. Could you find your
friends if you didn't know their address? You know they live in the same town but which house? The PLC town
has a lot of houses (inputs and outputs) but we have to figure out who lives where (what device is connected
where). For now, let’s say that our input will be called "0000" and our output will be called "500". (Please note
that each PLC manufacturer uses different addressing methods.)
Final step—We have to convert the schematic into a logical sequence of events. This is much easier than
it sounds. The program we're going to write tells the PLC what to do when certain events take place. In our
example, we have to tell the PLC to make the light illuminate when the operator presses the button. The picture
below is the final converted diagram.

34
EXAMPLES OF LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAMS

Example1
Example: A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the pressure is satisfactory, or if
the lamp test switch is closed.

EXAMPLE 2

In the above circuit, the coil will be energized when there is a closed loop between the + and - terminals of the
battery.The first instruction on a rung must always be an input instruction and the last instruction on a rung
should always be an output (or its equivalent). The ladder diagram is as shown below. Here we used the Load
and Out instructions. Some manufacturers require that every ladder diagram include an END instruction on the
last rung. Some PLCs also require an ENDH instruction on the rung after the END rung.

35
We'll now take the previous example and change switch 2 (SW2) to a normally closed symbol (loadbar
instruction). SW1 will be physically OFF and SW2 will be physically ON initially. The ladder diagram now
looks like this:

Notice also that we now gave each symbol (or instruction) an address. This address sets aside a certain storage
area in the PLCs data files so that the status of the instruction (i.e. true/false) can be stored. Many PLCs use 16
slot or bit storage locations.

Example 3
Consider a valve which is to be operated to lift a load when a pump is running and either the lift switch is
operated or a switch operated indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the bottom of
its lift channel.

EXAMPLE 4
Consider a system where there has to be no output when any one of four sensors gives an output, otherwise
there is to be an output..

36
Example 5
The ladder logic diagram that turn ON switch 1 and switch 2 for controlling lamp1 and either switch 3 or switch
4 or both for controlling lamp2 is shown below along with wiring diagram.
Here in this example, switches are connected to the input module and lamps are connected to the output module.
Processor gets these I/O address and depending on the logic program, it will drive the lamps.
The logic program for this example is given below in which switch 1 and switch are connected in logical AND
fashion while switch 3 and switch 4 are connected in logical OR fashion.

Example 6
The ladder diagram for motor turn ON and OFF with emergency stop button using a relay and a PLC is shown
below.

37
Example 7
Let's consider the following application:
We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank. This is possible by using two sensors. We put
one near the bottom and one near the top, as shown in the picture below.

Here, we want the fill motor to pump lubricating oil into the tank until the high level sensor turns on. At that
point we want to turn off the motor until the level falls below the low level sensor. Then we should turn on the
fill motor and repeat the process.Here we have a need for 3 I/O (i.e. Inputs/Outputs). 2 are inputs (the sensors)
and 1 is an output (the fill motor). Both of our inputs will be NC (normally closed) fiber-optic level sensors.
When they are NOT immersed in liquid they will be ON. When they are immersed in liquid they will be OFF.

We will give each input and output device an address. This lets the plc know where they are physically
connected. The addresses are shown in the following tables:

Inputs Address Output Address Internal Utility Relay

Low 0000 Motor 0500 1000
High 0001

38
Below is what the ladder diagram will actually look like. Notice that we are using an internal utility relay in this
example. You can use the contacts of these relays as many times as required. Here they are used twice to
simulate a relay with 2 sets of contacts. Remember, these relays DO NOT physically exist in the plc but rather
they are bits in a register that you can use to SIMULATE a relay.

EXAMPLE 8.

Lets build an alarm system. Let's assume that we have 3 signals (Inputs) that we get from the field that warn us
about some kind of fire danger.

• Any 1 signal, turn the warning light on;

• Any 2 signals will sound the siren.
• All 3 signals, will start the water spray system

Input / Output

• Alarm 1 I:1.0/7
• Alarm 2 I:1.0/8
• Alarm 3 I1.0/9
• Siren O:2.0/7
• Alarm Light O:2.0/8
• Spray System O:2.0/9

Ladder Logic Solution

We put all the alarm signals in parallel. This is equivalent to an or statement. This means that when either
Alarm1 or Alarm2 or Alarm3 becomes on the rung will be energized and hence the Fire light will be turned on.
This does not take care of the count of the alarms. It only look at whatever alarm is on.

39
Here we put every possible combination of 2 alarms in a separate line. This is equivalent to an end statement.
(Alarm1 and Alarm2) or (Alarm1 and Alarm3) or This takes care of 2 alarms at a time in which case if any of
these combinations becomes true the Fire siren will go on.

As you can see the 2 alarms are in series. This is equivalent to an and statement. Which is (Alarm1 and Alarm2
and Alarm3) if and only if alarm1 and alarm2 and alarm3 are on (3 of them) it is only then that the fire spray
will be turned on.

Note

• · Contacts in parallel are equivalent to an OR statement

• · Contacts in series are equivalent to an AND statement

Example 9

Assume we have a motor that could be started and stopped from 3 different places. What this mean is that we
have 3 sets of Start/Stop buttons that can start and stop the motor.

Solution:

Rung 0: Here we have put Star1/Start2 /Start3 in parallel and then pass it thru a one shot. We are assuming that
the start button could also have a maintained (1) signal as well as momentary (2) signal. So to cover both cases,
this will prevent the motor from starting automatically after any of the 3 stop buttons is pressed. It is just a
precaution and better as far as security is concerned.

40
Rung 1 : Here we have the stop buttons in series, since pressing any of the buttons should stop the motor and
will disallow any of the start button to pass thru.

Note

• Maintained signal is a signal that stays on when a push button is pressed. Typically a selector has a
maintained signal. Some type of push buttons has a maintained signal. When you press on lets say on a
start push button, the start bit will stay on until the stop button is press.
• A momentary signals is a signal that will go on for as long as the operator pushes the button. When the
operator release the button the signal will go off. That is why most of the time we use the OSR
instruction to lock on the signal.

EXAMPLE 10

Consider a valve which is to be operated to lift a load when a pump is running and either the lift switch is
operated or a switch operated indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the bottom of its lift
channel.

41
Consider a system where there has to be no output when any one of four sensors gives an output, otherwise
there is to be an output.

STOP SWITCHES

MOTOR START STOP

42
EMERGENCY STOP SWITCHES

EXAMPLE
A motor will be controlled by two switches. The Go switch will start the motor and the Stop switch will stop it.
If the Stop switch was used to stop the motor, the Go switch must be thrown twice to start the motor. When the
motor is active a light should be turned on. The Stop switch will be wired as normally closed.

43
Example: Consider the task of counting cars as they enter a multi-storage parking lot and as they leave it. An
output is to be triggered if the number of cars entering is some number greater than the number leaving, i.e. the
number in the parking lot has reached a saturation value.

44
Timers with counters:
COUNTERS
A counter is a simple device intended to do one simple thing: count. We have three types: up-counters
(they only count up 1,2,3...). and down counters (they only count down 9,8,7,...). and up-down counters
(they count up and/or down 1,2,3,4,3,2,3,4,5,...)
Typically a high-speed counter is a "hardware" device. The normal counters listed above are typically
"software" counters. In other words, they don't physically exist in the PLC but instead are simulated in
software. Hardware counters do exist in the PLC and are not dependent on scan time.

TIMERS
A timer is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing something.
Different types of timers are available with different manufacturers
On-Delay timer—This type of timer simply "delays turning on". In other words, after our sensor (input) turns
on we wait x-seconds before activating a solenoid valve (output). This is the most common timer.
Off-Delay timer—This type of timer is the opposite of the on-delay timer listed above. This timer simply
"delays turning off". We hold the solenoid on for x-seconds before turning it off. It is less common than the on-
delay type listed above.
Retentive or Accumulating timer—This type of timer needs 2 inputs. One input starts the timing event (i.e.,
the clock starts ticking) and the other resets it. The on/off delay timers above would be reset if the input sensor
wasn't on/off for the complete timer duration. This timer, however, holds or retains the current elapsed time
when the sensor turns off in mid-stream. For example, we want to know how long a sensor is on for during a 1
hour period.

45
Introduction to Statement list/instruction list
Statement list is a programming language using mnemonic abbreviations of Boolean
logic operations. Boolean operations work on combination of variables that are true or false.
A statement is an instruction or directive for the PLC. The mnemonics is also known as OPCODE. OPERAND
is the data to be executed by the operand. Here are mnemonics used by Mitsubishi.

46
Function Block Diagrams
Function block is represented as a box with the function name written in.

Example.
function block equivalent in Siemens notation.

47
please note:
LD: load
O: or
AN: and not (and a normally closed contact)
ALD: AND the first LD with second LD

48
Ladder diagram from the functional block.

PLC vs. PC (Personal Computers)

 PLC PC

Environment The PLC was specifically Common PCs are not

designed for harsh designed for harsh
conditions with electrical environments. Industrial
noise, magnetic fields, PCs are available but cost
vibration, extreme more.
temperatures or humidity.

Ease of Use By design PLCs are Operating systems like

friendlier to technicians Windows are common.
since they are in ladder logic Connecting I/O to the PC is
and have easy connections. not always as easy.

Flexibility PLCs in rack form are easy Typical PCs are limited by
to exchange and add parts. the number of cards they
They are designed for can accommodate and are
modularity and expansion. not easily expandable.

Speed PLCs execute a single PCs, by design, are meant to

program in sequential order. handle simultaneous tasks.
The have better ability to They have difficulty
handle events in real time. handling real time events.

Reliability A PLC never crashes over A PC locking up and

49
 long periods of time. crashing is frequent.
("Never" may not be the
right word but its close
enough to be true.)

Programming languages Languages are typically A PC is very flexible and

fixed to ladder logic, powerful in what to use for
function block or structured programming.
text.

Data management Memory is limited in its This is where the PC excels

ability to store a lot of data. because of it's hard drive.
Any long term data storage,
history and trending is best
done on a PC.

Just too hard to compare pricing with so many variables

Cost like I/O counts, hardware needed, programming software,
etc.

Data Flow in the PLC

Program Memory: Stores instructions for logical control sequence : Stores instructions for logical control
sequence
Data Memory: Stores status of switches, interlocks, past andν current values of data items O t tD i

50
Output Devices: H d / ft d i f i d t i l Hardware/software drivers for industrial processν actuators Solenoid
switches, motors, valvesθ
Input Devices: Hardware/software drivers for industrial processν sensors Switch status sensors, proximity
detectors, interlock settings … Switch status sensors, proximity detectors, interlock settings …θ
Central Processing Unit: Brain of the PLCν
PLC ARCHITECTURE

PLC INSTALLATION AND COMMISSION

PLC Installation, Commissioning and Recommendations

Typical installation

• Typical installation (enclosure, disconnect device, fused isolation transformer, master control relay,
terminal blocks and wiring ducts, suppression devices).

• Spacing controllers – follow the recommended minimum spacing to allow the convection cooling.

• Preventing excessive heat (0–60?) C

• Grounding guidelines.

• Power considerations.

• Safety considerations.

• Preventive maintenance considerations.

Steps for installing a PLC

51
The necessary environmental conditions for installing the PLC
Do not install the PLC in any of the following locations. Doing so will affect PLC life and may affect operating
performance.

• Locations subject to ambient temperatures lower than 0°C or higher than 55°C
• Locations subject to drastic temperature changes or condensation
• Locations subject to ambient humidity lower than 10% or higher than 90%
• Locations subject to corrosive or flammable gases
• Locations subject to excessive dust (especially iron dust) or chloride
• Locations that would subject the CPU to direct shock or vibration
• Locations that would subject the PC to water, oil, or chemical reagents
• Locations exposed to direct sunlight

The operating environment of the PLC System can have a large effect on the longevity and reliability of the
system. Improper operating environments can lead to malfunction, failure, and other unforeseeable problems
with the PLC System.
PLCs are generally placed in a NEMA-12 panel enclosure or another type of NEMA enclosure, depending on
the application. A panel enclosure holds the PLC hardware, protecting it from environmental hazards.

Following these steps for installing the PLC:

1. Panel/Cabinet Installation
Consider PLC operation, maintenance, and surrounding conditions when installing the PLC in a panel or
cabinet.Be sure that there is adequate ventilation for cooling;

• Allow enough space for air circulation.

• Do not install the PLC above equipment that generates a large amount of heat, such as heaters,
transformers, or large resistors.
• Install a cooling fan or system when the ambient temperature exceeds 55°C

Power lines & high-voltage equipment can cause electrical noise in the PLC;

• Do not install the PLC in a panel or cabinet with high-voltage equipment

• Allow at least 200 mm between the PLC and nearby power lines

See the picture below;

Ensure that the PLC can be accessed for normal operation and maintenance;

• Provide a clear path to the PLC for operation and maintenance. High-voltage equipment or power lines
could be dangerous if they are in the way during routine operations
• The PLC will be easiest to access if the panel or cabinet is installed about 3 to 5 feet above the floor

52
2. Installing the CPU Unit & I/O Unit
the small PLC can be installed on a horizontal surface or on a DIN track. See the picture below;

For the big PLC before installing, the Units have to compiled one by one. There is no single Unit that can be
said to constitute a Rack PLC. To build a Rack PLC, we start with a Backplane. The Backplane for the Omron
PLC is shown below.

The Backplane is a simple device having two functions. The first is to provide physical support for the Units to
be mounted to it. The second is to provide the connectors and electrical pathways necessary for connecting the
Units mounted to it. The core of the PLC is the CPU. The CPU contains the program consisting of the series of
steps necessary for the control task. The CPU has a built-in power supply, and fits into the rightmost position of
the Backplane.

The CPU of the big PLC has no I/O points built in. So, in order to complete the PLC we need to mount one or
more I/O Units to the Backplane. Mount the I/O Unit to the Backplane by locking the top of the I/O Unit into
the slot on the Backplane and rotating the I/O Unit downwards as shown in the following diagram. Press down
on the yellow tab at the bottom of the slot, press the I/O Unit firmly into position, and then release the yellow
tab.

The figure below shows one I/O Unit mounted directly to the left of the CPU.

I/O Units are where the control connections are made from the PLC to all the various input devices and output
devices. As you can see from the figure above, there is still some space available on the left side of the
Backplane. This space is for any additional I/O Units that may be required.The figure below shows a total of
eight I/O Units mounted to the Backplane.

53
After the big PLC compiled in the backplane then the big PLC can be installed on the DIN Rail. The DIN Rail
Mounting Bracket shown below is necessary for mounting the PLC to the DIN Rail.

3. Installing the Expansion Unit or Expansion I/O Unit

The Expansion Unit or Expansion I/O Unit are usually attached when amount of I/O devices to be controlled
increase its amount over than capacities of the existing I/O Unit or attached when needed to a special need like
temperature sensor.

4. Installing I/O devices

I/O devices are attached at the place have been determined in the work plan and wiring diagram. For switches
are usually attached at the panel while the sensor, selenoid and motor is usually placed at the machine to be
controlled.
5. Wiring and connections
Duct Work
Hanging Ducts If power cables carrying more than 10 A 400 V, or 20 A 220 V must be run alongside the I/O
wiring (that is, in parallel with it), at least 300 mm must be left between the power cables and the I/O wiring as
shown below.

Floor Ducts If the I/O wiring and power cables must be placed in the same duct (for example, where they are
connected to the equipment), they must be shielded from each other using grounded metal plates.

54
Conduits if Separating the PLC I/O lines, power and control lines, and power cables, as shown in the following
diagram.

I/O connections
Connect the I/O Devices to the I/O Units. Use 1.25-mm2 cables or larger The terminals have screws with 3.5-
mm diameter heads and self-raising pressure plates. Connect the lead wires to the terminals as shown below.
Tighten the screws with a torque of 0.8 N _ m.

If you wish to attach solderless type terminals to the ends of the lead wires, use terminals having the dimensions
shown below.

Power supply wiring

The terminal blocks have screws with 3.5-mm diameter heads and self-raising pressure plates. For connecting to
the terminal blocks, use round crimp terminals for 3.5-mm diameter heads. Directly connecting stranded wires
to the terminal blocks may cause a short-circuit.
Grounding
This PLC has sufficient protection against noise, so it can be used without grounding except for special much
noise. However, when grounding it should be done conforming to below items. Ground the PLC as
independently as possible. Class 3 grounding should be used (grounding resistance 100Ω or less). When
independent grounding is impossible, use the joint grounding method as shown in the figure below (B). Use

55
thicker grounding wire. Grounding point should be as near as possible to the PLC to minimize the distance of
grounding cable.
See the picture below;
POWER REQUIREMENTS
The source for a PLC power supply is generally single-phase and 120 or 240 VAC.
This minimizes line interference and prevents faulty input signals stemming from a stable AC source to the
power supply and CPU, but an unstable AC source to the I/O devices. By
keeping both the power supply and the I/O devices on the same power source,
the user can take full advantage of the power supply’s line monitoring feature.

Safety
The PLC system should contain a sufficient number of emergency circuits to either partially or totally stop the
operation of the controller or the controlled machine or process.
Emergency Stops. The system should have emergency stop circuits for every machine directly controlled by
the PLC. Emergency stop switches are usually wired into master control relay or safety control relay circuits,
which remove power from the I/O system in an emergency.
Master or Safety Control Relays. Master control relay (MCR) and safety control relay (SCR) circuits
provide an easy way to remove power from the I/O system during an emergency situation. These control relay
circuits can be de-energized by pushing any emergency stop switch

PLC SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance of programmable controller systems includes only a few basic procedures, which will
greatly reduce the failure rate of system components. Preventive maintenance for the PLC system should be
56
scheduled with the regular machine or equipment maintenance, so that the equipment and controller are down
for a minimum amount of time. However, the schedule for PLC preventive maintenance depends on the
controller’s environment— the harsher the environment, the more frequent the maintenance.
The following are guidelines for preventive measures:
• Periodically clean or replace any filters that have been installed in enclosures at a frequency dependent on the
amount of dust in the area. Do not wait until the scheduled machine maintenance to check the filter. This
practice will ensure that clean air circulation is present
inside the enclosure.
• Do not allow dirt and dust to accumulate on the PLC’s components; the central processing unit and I/O system
are not designed to be dust proof. If dust builds up on heat sinks and electronic circuitry, it can obstruct heat
dissipation, causing circuit malfunction. Furthermore, if conductive dust reaches the electronic boards, it can
cause a short circuit, resulting in possible permanent damage to the circuit board.
• Periodically check the connections to the I/O modules to ensure that all plugs, sockets, terminal strips, and
modules have good connections. Also, check that the module is securely installed. Perform this type of check
more often when the PLC system is located in an area that experiences constant vibrations, which could loosen
terminal connections.
• Ensure that heavy, noise-generating equipment is not located too close to the PLC.
• Make sure that unnecessary items are kept away from the equipment inside the enclosure. Leaving items, such
as drawings, installation manuals, or other materials, on top of the CPU rack or other rack enclosures can
obstruct the airflow and create hot spots, which can cause system malfunction.
• If the PLC system enclosure is in an environment that exhibits vibration, install a vibration detector that can
interface with the PLC as a preventive measure. This way, the programmable controller can monitor high levels
of vibration, which can lead to the loosening of
connections.

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I/O MODULE INSTALLATION
This procedure involves verifying the type of module (115 VAC output, 115 VDC input, etc.) and the slot
address as defined by the I/O address assignment document. Each terminal in the module is then wired to the
field devices that have been assigned to that termination address.
WIRING CONSIDERATIONS
Wire Size. The user should check that the wire is the correct gauge and that it is the proper size to handle the
maximum possible current.
Wire and Terminal Labeling. Each field wire and its termination point should be labeled using a reliable
labeling method i.e shrink-tubing or tape, while tape or stick-on labels should identify each terminal block.
Color coding of similar signal characteristics (e.g., AC: red, DC: blue, common: white, etc.) can be used in
addition to wire labeling.
Wire Bundling. the wires that will be connected to a single module are bundled, generally using a tie wrap, and
then routed through the duct with other bundles of wire with the same signal characteristics.
SPECIAL I/O CONNECTION PRECAUTIONS
i) Connecting Leaky Inputs. Some field devices have a small leakage current even when they are in the OFF
state. Both triac and transistor outputs exhibit this leakage characteristic, although transistor leakage current is
much lower. Most of the time, the leaky input will only cause the module’s input indicator to flicker; but
sometimes, the leakage can falsely trigger an input circuit, resulting in misoperation.

Figure below illustrates two leakage situations, along with their corrective actions.

58
Suppression of Inductive Loads. The interruption of current caused by turning an inductive load’s output OFF
generates a very high voltage spike which may damage the output module. To avoid this situation, a snubber
circuit, typically a resistor/capacitor network (RC) or metal oxide varistor (MOV), should be installed to limit
the voltage spike, as well as control the rate of current change through the inductor

59
Fusing Outputs. Solid-state outputs normally have fusing on the module, to protect the triac or transistor from
moderate overloads. If the output does not have internal fuses, then fuses should be installed externally
(normally at the terminal block) during the initial installation.. Only a properly rated fuse will ensure that the
fuse will open quickly in an overload condition to avoid overheating of the output switching device.
Shielding. Control lines, such as TTL, analog, thermocouple, and other lowlevel signals, are normally routed in
a separate wireway, to reduce the effects of signal coupling. For further protection, shielded cable should be
used for the control lines, to protect the low-level signals from electrostatic and magnetic coupling with both
lines carrying 60 Hz power and other lines carrying rapidly changing currents..

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DIAGNOSTIC INDICATORS
LED status indicators can provide much information about field devices, wiring, and I/O modules. Most
input/output modules have at least a single indicator—input modules normally have a power indicator, while
output modules normally have a logic indicator. An ON logic LED indicates that the input signal has been
recognized by the logic section of the input circuit. If the logic and power indicators do not match, then the
module is unable to transfer the incoming signal to the processor correctly. This indicates a module
malfunction. When it is output module’s logic indicator ON, the logic LED indicates that the module’s logic
circuitry has recognized a command from the processor to turn ON. A blown fuse indicator indicates the status
of the protective fuse in the output circuit, while a power indicator shows that power is being applied to the
load. if both LEDs are not ON simultaneously, the output module is malfunctioning. LED indicators greatly
assist the troubleshooting process. With both power and logic indicators, the user can immediately pinpoint a
malfunctioning module or circuit.
TROUBLESHOOTING PLC INPUTS
If the field device connected to an input module does not seem to turn ON, a problem may exist somewhere
between the L1 connection and the terminal connection to the module. The first step in diagnosing the problem
is to place the PLC in standby mode,so that it is not activating the output. This allows the field device to be
manually activated (e.g., a limit switch can be manually closed). When the field device is activated, the
module’s power status indicator should turn ON, indicating that power continuity exists. If the indicator is ON,
then wiring is not the cause of the problem.
When diagnosing I/O malfunctions, the first check should be the LED power and/or logic indicators in the
module. After that, the key to finding the problem, whether it is an input or output problem, is to isolate the
problem to either the module, the field device, or the wiring.
TROUBLESHOOTING PLC OUTPUTS
PLC output interfaces also contain status indicators that provide useful troubleshooting information. Like the
troubleshooting of PLC inputs, the first step in troubleshooting outputs is to isolate the problem to either the
module, the field device, or the wiring. At the output module, ensure that the source power for switching the
output is at the correct level. In a 120 VAC system, this value should be within 10% of the rated value (i.e.,
between 108 and 132 volts AC). Also, examine the output module to see if it has a blown fuse. If it does have a
blown fuse, check the fuse’s rated value.
TROUBLESHOOTING THE CPU
PLCs also provide diagnostic indicators that show the status of the PLC and the CPU. Such indicators include
power OK, memory OK, and communications OK conditions. First, check that the PLC is receiving enough
power from the transformer to supply all the loads. If the PLC is still not working, check for voltage supply
drop in the control circuit or for blown fuses. If the PLC does not come up even with proper power, then the
problem lies in the CPU. The diagnostic indicators on the front of the CPU will show a fault in either memory
or communications. If one of these indicators is lit, the CPU may need to be replaced.

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SUMMARY ON PLC-START UP AND MAINTENANCE.
• The system layout is the conscientious approach to placing and interconnecting the system components not
only to satisfy the application, but also to ensure that the controller will operate trouble free in its environment.
• The system layout takes into consideration not only the PLC components as well as other equipment, such as
isolation transformers, auxiliary power supplies, safety control relays, and incoming line noise suppressors.
• PLC system layout includes the consideration of many factors. Some guidelines for system layout, wiring, and
component placement are as follows:
- The best location for the PLC enclosure is near the machine or process that it will
be controlling. The enclosure should conform to NEMA standards for the operating
environment.
- The temperature inside the enclosure should not exceed the controller’s maximum operating temperature,
which is typically 60 C.
- A fan or blower should be installed if “hot spots” develop inside the enclosure. If condensation occurs, a
thermostat-controlled heater should be installed.
- The system enclosure (with the PLC) should not be placed close to equipment generating high noise, such as
welding machines.
- To allow for maximum convection cooling, all controller components should be mounted in a vertical
(upright) position.
- Grouping of common I/O modules is a good practice. All AC wiring should be kept away from low-level DC
wiring to avoid crosstalk interference. If I/O wiring must cross AC power lines, it should do so at right angles.
- The duct and wiring layout defines the physical location of wireways and the routing of field I/O signals,
power, and controller connections within the enclosure.
- Proper grounding techniques specify that the grounding path must be permanent, continuous, and able to
safely conduct the ground-fault current in the system with minimal impedance.
• PLC system power requirements include the following:
- The system power supply and I/O devices should have a common AC source to minimize line interference and
prevent faulty input signals.
- The use of an isolation transformer is recommended if noise is likely to be introduced into the power lines by
noise-generating equipment. A constant voltage transformer should be used in the event of soft AC lines.
• The PLC system should contain enough emergency circuits to either partially or totally stop controller and
machine operation in the event of an emergency. Emergency devices include emergency stops, master and
safety control relays, and emergency power disconnects.
• Excessive noise, heat, and line voltage variations can all have a detrimental effect on the PLC system. Thus,
the components should be placed away from high noise generating devices, temperature levels should be kept
within specifications, and the incoming voltage should be kept to within acceptable parameters. Typical PLC
conditions include:
62
- 60% of the inputs are ON at any one time
- 30% of the outputs are ON at any one time
- the currents supplied by all modules average a certain value
- the ambient temperature is around 40 C
• When installing the I/O devices, the user should make sure that the modules are installed in the correct
locations, the correct size wire is used, the wires and terminals are labeled, and the wires to each module are
bundled together.
• Certain field device wiring connections require special attention. These connections include leaky inputs,
inductive loads, output fusing, and shielded cables.
- A bleeding resistor may be used in cases where a field device exhibits an output current leakage that could
cause the input circuitry to turn ON.
- Inductive loads should be suppressed using RC snubbers and/or MOVs.
- If fuses are not incorporated into an output module, they should be installed externally at the terminal block.
- Shielded cables should be grounded at one end only, preferably at the chassis rack.
• The system start-up includes prestart-up procedures, the static input wiring check, the static output wiring
check, the control program review, and the dynamic system checkout.
- The prestart-up procedure involves several inspections of the hardware components before power is applied to
the system.
- The static input wiring check should be performed with power applied to the controller and input devices. This
check verifies that each input device is connected to the correct terminal and that the input modules are
functioning properly.
- The static output wiring check should be performed with power applied to the controller and output devices.
All the devices that will cause mechanical motion should be locally disconnected.
- The control program review consists of a final review of the complete documentation
package of the control program.
- The dynamic system checkout involves bringing the entire system under PLC control to verify correct
operation of the outputs according to the logic program.
• Even though a PLC system requires minimal maintenance, certain maintenance measures should be performed
periodically to reduce the chance of system malfunction. These preventative maintenance procedures should be
scheduled during regular machine maintenance to minimize downtime.
• As a rule of thumb, 10% of each part used in the PLC system, as well as one of each main board, should be
kept as spare parts.
• Ground loops can occur in a PLC system when two or more electrical paths exist in a ground line. To avoid
this problem, shielded cable should only be connected to ground at only one end.
• When diagnosing I/O malfunctions, the first check should be the LED power and/or logic indicators in the
module. After that, the key to finding the problem, whether it is an input or output problem, is to isolate the
problem to either the module, the field device, or the wiring

Commissioning and testing of a PLC system

• Checking that all cable connections between the PLC and the plant are complete, safe, and to the
required specification and meeting local standards.

• Checking that all the incoming power supply matches the voltage setting for which the PLC is set.

• Checking that all protective devices are set to their appropriate trip settings.

63
 • Checking that emergency stop button work.

• Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct input/output points and giving the
correct signals.

• Loading and testing the software.

PLC programs are never final…

Yes, PLC programs are never final, it is always possible to make corrections and subsequent adaptations to new
system according the customer requirements. Even during commissioning, program changes are often
necessary. The commissioning of a system can be divided into four steps:

1. Checking the hardware

2. Transferring and testing the software
3. Optimization of the software
4. Commissioning of the entire system

1. Checking the hardware

Each sensor, switch and button is connected to a specific input and each actuator to an output. During
engineering process addresses and wires must not be mixed up. Also, the sensors and actuator placing should be
checked (that they are where they have to be in the automated system).

During checking procedure, the outputs are set in a test mode. The actuators must then meet the specified
requirements (functions). If changes are made, then the documentation (allocation list, drawings, etc) must also
be updated to respond to reality.

1.1 Testing inputs and outputs

Input devices, e.g. switches, can be manipulated to give the open and closed contact conditions and the
corresponding LED on the input module observed. It should be illuminated when the input is closed and
not illuminated when it is open.

Failure of an LED to illuminate could be because the input device is not correctly operating, there are
incorrect wiring connections to the input module, the input device is not correctly powered or the LED or input
module is defective. For output devices that can be safely started, push buttons might have been installed so that
each output can be tested

2. Transferring and testing of software

Prior to commissioning, all available off-line and virtual PLC program testing tools should be used
intensively to find program faults. For example, such test tool is in STEP 7 as subprogram S7-PLCSIM. It
simulates the work of a PLC (virtual PLC) and allows the user written PLC program to be tested.

The user has to simulate the input signal changes and verify how the outputs react to it. Some PLCs offer
simulation in a real PLC: the entire program is executed in a PLC without the real inputs and outputs being
64
connected. Processing of the PLC outputs thus only takes place in the PLC image table. The physical PLC I/Os
are not updated to/from the PLC I/O images. Therefore this eliminates the risk of damaging machines or
system parts.

After this, the individual user program parts and system functions are tested: manual operation, setting,
individual monitoring programs etc. and finally the interaction of the program parts with the help of the main
program.

The system can and should be commissioned step-by-step. Important aspects of commissioning and fault
detection are the test functions of the programming system, such as the single-step mode or the setting of stop
points. The single-step mode in particular is of importance, whereby the program in the PLC memory is
executed line-by-line or step-by-step. In this way, any program faults which may occur in the program can
be immediately localized.

Testing inputs and outputs

Input devices can be manipulated to give the open and closed contact conditions and the corresponding LED on
the input module observed. Forcing also can be used to test inputs and outputs. This involves software, rather
than mechanical switching on or off, being used with instructions to turn off or on inputs/outputs.

PLC Operation and Signal Processing

PLCs operate by monitoring input signals and providing output signals. When changes are detected in the
signals, the PLC reacts, through the user-programmed internal logic, to produce output signals. The PLC
continually cycles the program in its memory to achieve this control. The CPU of the PLC executes the user-
program over and over again when it is in the RUN mode. All PLCs have four basic stages of operations that
are repeated many times per second.
(a) SELF TEST - Checks to see if all cards error free, reset watch-dog timer, etc. (A watchdog
timer will cause an error, and shut down the PLC if not reset within a short period of
time - this would indicate that the ladder logic is not being scanned normally).
(b) Input scan
During the input scan, the current status of every input module is stored in the input image (memory)
table, bringing it up-to-date. Thus all the status of the input devices (which in turn is connected to the input
module) are updated in the input memory table.
(c) Program/logic scan
Following the input scan, the CPU enters its user program execution, or program scan. The execution
involves starting at the program's first instruction, then moving on to the second instruction and carrying out
its execution sequence. This continues to the last program instruction. Throughout the user-program
execution, the CPU continually keeps its output image (memory) table up-to-date.
(d) Output scan
During program scan, the output modules themselves are not kept continually up to date. Instead, the entire
output image table is transferred to the output modules during the output scan which comes after the
program execution. Thus the output devices are activated accordingly during the output scan.
Note
The term SCAN is the sequential operation of the controller that goes through the ladder diagram from top to
bottom of the ladder. In this process it updates all the outputs corresponding to the inputs. SCAN takes place
from left to right of each rung. Usually SCAN time is in milliseconds and it is a continuous process.

65
Ladder Logic

Ladder Logic, or Ladder Diagrams is the most common programming language used to program a PLC.

Ladder logic was one of the first programming approaches used in PLCs because it borrowed heavily from the
Relay Diagrams that plant electricians already knew.

The symbols used in Relay Ladder Logic consists of a power rail to the left, a second power rail to the right, and
individual circuits that connect the left power rail to the right. The logic of each circuit (or rung) is solved from
left to right. The symbols of these diagrams look like a ladder - with two side rails and circuits that resemble
rungs on a ladder.

The picture above has a single circuit or "rung" of ladder.

• If Input1 is ON (or true) - power (logic) completes the circuit from the left rail to the right rail - and
Output1 turns ON (or true).

• If Output1 is OFF (or false) - then the circuit is not completed and logic does not flow to the right - and
Output 1 is OFF.

There are many logic symbols available in Ladder Logic - including Timers, Counters, Math, and Data Moves -
such that any logical condition or control loop can be represented in Ladder Logic. With just a handful of basic
symbols - a Normally Open Contact, Normally Closed Contact, Normally Open Coil, Normally Closed Coil,
Timer, Counter - most logical conditions can be represented

Ladder Logic Basics: Contacts & Coils Part 1 - Normally Open

With just the Normally Open Contact and Normally Open Coil - a surprising array of basic logical conditions
can be represented.

Normally Open Contact. This can be used to represent any input to the control logic - a switch or
sensor, a contact from an output, or an internal output.

When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an ON (logical 1) condition. If it is ON, the contact will
close and allow power (logic) to flow from left to right. If the status is OFF (logical 0), the contact is Open,
power (logic) will NOT flow from left to right.

Normally Open Coil. This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic.

When "solved" if the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the refrenced output is ON (logical 1).
66
Solving a Single Rung

Suppose a switch is wired to Input1, and a light bulb is wired through Output1 in such a way that the light is
OFF when Output1 is OFF, and ON when Output1 is ON.

When Input1 is OFF (logical 0) the contact remains open and power cannot flow from left to right. Therefore,
Output1 remains OFF (logical 0).

When Input1 is ON (logical 1) then the contact closes, power flows from left to right, and Output1 becomes ON
(the light turns ON).

Ladder Logic Basics : The AND rung, the OR rung

The AND Rung

The AND is a basic fundamental logic condition that is easy to directly represent in Ladder Logic.

Suppose a switch is wired to Switch1, a second switch is wired to

Switch2, and a light bulb is wired through Light1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Light1 is OFF, and
ON when Light1 is ON.

In order for Light1 to turn ON, Switch1 must be ON, AND Switch2 must be ON.

If Switch1 is OFF, power (logic) flow from the left rail, but stops at Switch1. Light1 will be OFF regardless of
the state of Switch2.

If Switch1 is ON, power makes it to Switch2. If Switch2 is OFF, power cannot flow any further to the right, and
Light1 is OFF.

If Switch1 is ON, AND Switch2 is ON - power flows to Light1 solving its state to ON.

The OR Rung

The OR is a logical condition that is easy to represent in Ladder Logic.

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 Suppose a switch is wired to Switch1, a second switch is wired to Switch2,
and a light bulb is wired through Light1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Light1 is OFF, and ON when
Light1 is ON. In this instance, we want to the light to turn ON if either Switch1 OR Switch2 is ON.

If Switch1 is ON - power flows to Light1 turning it ON.

If Switch2 is ON - power flows through the Switch2 contact, and up the rail to Light1 - turning it ON.

If Switch1 AND Switch 2 are ON - Light1 is ON.

The only way Light1 is OFF is if Switch1 AND Switch2 are OFF.

Ladder Logic Basics: Contacts & Coils Part 2 - Normally Closed

Another set of basic contacts and coils that can be used in Ladder Logic are the Normally Closed Contact and
the Normally Closed Coil. These work just like their normally open counterparts - only in the opposite.

When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an OFF condition. If the status is OFF (logical 0)
power (logic) will flow from left to right. If the status is ON, power will not flow.

When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to the device. If logical 1, power will be
OFF.

Basic Timers & Counters - Part 1

Many times we will want to take action in a control program based on more than the states of discrete inputs
and outputs. Sometimes, we will want to turn something on after a delay, or count the number of times a switch
is hit. To do these simple tasks, we will need Timers & Counters.

Simple Timers

A timer is simply a control block that takes an input and changes an output based on time. There are two basic
timer types we will deal with initially (there are other advanced timers, but we will start with the basics first) -
On-Delay Timer and the Off-Delay Timer.

On-Delay Timer - this timer takes an input, waits a specific amount of time, then turns ON an output (or allows
logic to flow after the delay).

Off-Delay Timer - this timer takes turns ON an output (or allows logic to flow) and keeps that output ON until
the set amount of time has passed, then turns it OFF (hence off-delay)
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Simple Counter

A counter simply counts the number of events that occur on an input. There are two basic types of counters - Up
counter and a Down counter.

Up Counter - as its name implies, whenever a triggering event occurs, an up counter increments the counter.

Down Counter - whenever a triggering event occurs, a down counter decrements the counter

PLC COMMUNICATIONSLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

The great majority of installed PLCs “service” a moderate amount of I/O (probably
less than 128 I/O points). Furthermore, most of the I/O devices are wired onto PLC
I/O modules that are installed in a “local” rack or chassis structure. In that
arrangement, the I/O modules can communicate directly to the CPU module (which
runs the PLC logic) via a wired backplane structure that connects all modules within
the chassis.
But, what if the input and output devices need to be at great distances (thousands
of feet) from the CPU module? In such cases, major PLC manufacturers such as
Allen-Bradley, General Electric and Groupe Schneider have created proprietary,
high-speed networks to connect their PLC’s CPU module to chassis units containing
I/O modules, which may be thousands of feet away. These proprietary PLC
networks are sometimes referred to as “remote I/O networks”, which provides a
reasonable description of their purpose. It is also possible to use new nonproprietary
networks such as DeviceNet to allow a PLC to service I/O devices
located at a distance. At the present time, the PLC acts as a “master” to the
distantly-located “slave” devices in both of these categories of networks.

FIGURE 33: MASTER TO SLAVE COMMUNICATIONS

This simply means that the CPU always initiates and controls all communication to
remote racks or other devices on the network. The communication details of such

networks are beyond the scope of this PLC overview.

Major PLC manufacturers have also created proprietary networks to permit multiple
PLCs of their own brand, plus certain other devices such as PCs and operator
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stations, to share data. Examples of such networks include Allen-Bradley’s Data
Highway Plus and Groupe Schneider’s Modbus Plus. (For other examples, see the
"Glossary" at the end of this module.) Unlike the “remote I/O networks” mentioned
earlier, there are not racks of I/O devices directly on these networks. Instead, these
networks exist to connect the CPU’s of multiple PLCs to each other and to PCs and
other devices. These networks permit sharing and exchanging data collected by
each individual PLC.
Since the CPU on each PLC may need to exchange data with any one of a dozen
(or more) other PLCs on the network, each network must have a method of
managing the communication traffic. Data must be sent between multiple PLCs or
other devices without data “collisions” or confusion. Each network type has a unique
protocol that establishes the “rules” of how communication will take place. If all
devices on the network have the ability to initiate the transmission of data, thenetwork is referred to has having
“peer to peer” communication, rather than the “master/slave” arrangement that characterizes remote I/O
networks.

PLCs can communicate with operator personnel via an electronic operator interface
device (O/I). O/I products function just as their name implies - they allow the
“operator” of a machine to “interface” with the PLC. This interface may include
seeing the status of a counter, changing the set point on a timer, converting
numerical data from Fahrenheit to Celsius, or any number of other operations.
FIGURE 35: OPERATOR INTERFACE PRODUCT
Electronic O/Is can also replace standard control devices like pushbuttons, lamps
and selector switches, thus decreasing the number of input and output devices that
have to be wired to the PLC. Operator interface products are available to connect to
the PLC via a wide variety of communication options, including connection to:
a port on the PLC’s CPU module
a general-purpose proprietary network like Data Highway Plus
a PLC remote I/O network
a non-proprietary network like DeviceNet
The only wiring required for PLC-to-O/I communication is a single cable

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PLC Communications

To control a machine or process, many times multiple controllers or intelligent devices must work together to
accomplish the task. In order to work together, these devices must communicate. In order to program a PLC,
communications must take place - becasue the Programming device (computer) must communicate with the
PLC CPU in order to transfer the configuration and control logic before the PLC can even begin to run. For
these reasons, it is important for anyon in automation to have a basic understanding of PLC communications.

Types of Communications

There are three basic levels/categories of communications that we are usually concerned with in industrial
control: serial communications, industrial communications networks, and industrial I/O networks.

The most basic form of communication is a direct, one way, connection between two devices where data is
transmitted one bit at a time. We call this serial communication.

Industrial Network Communications

An Industrial Network is a system of electronic devices that are connected in order to share information. The
network can consist of PLC Controllers, I/O Devices, Operator Interfaces, HMI/SCADA computers, and many
other elements. Each element is uniquely addressable - giving each component (controllers, I/O devices,
Operator interfaces, etc) a unique name or label. Industrial networks provide bi-directional, real-time,
(sometimes deterministic)communication. Each element has specific electronic components to allow the
transfer of data between the elements, on a shared media, and according to a protocol.

Industrial Network Protocols

Network protocols establish the rules that must be followed for two or more devices to share data. They
describe how devices establish and maintain communications. Examples of network communication protocols
include DeviceNet, Profibus-DP, and Ethernet.

Deterministic Network

Many industrial networks are deterministic. If a network is deterministic, it means that communication occurs
within a predetermined time span. Industrial networks value determinism because many control systems require
predictable, real-time response to data. (You would not want to miss a critical alarm because of someone
sending a 10Mg e-mail)

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition ( SCADA)

What is SCADA?
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition or SCADA is a system used to monitor and control a plant form a
central location. This is not frequently used because of the control override possibility.
Many industrial and infrastructure-scale enterprises depend on equipment located at multiple sites dispersed
over a large geographical area. A vast majority of large infrastructure and industrial-scale ventures use
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. According to newton-Evans, the power utility
industry alone uses SCADA at more than 50% of their installations .

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SCADA systems provide monitoring, control, and automation functions that allow the enterprise to improve
operational reliability, reduce costs through eased work force requirements, enhance overall Quality of Service
(QoS), or meet expected QoS or other key performance factors as well as boost employee and customer safety.
Note SCADA is not just a hardware, neither a software. It is a concept, it’s a system as a combination of special
hardware, software and protocols.
Some key examples of SCADA applications include:
Public or Private Infrastructure:
• Water treatment and distribution
• Waste water collection and treatment
• Electrical power transmission and distribution
• Oil and gas pipeline monitoring and control
Industrial Processes (continuous, batch, or repetitive):
• Remote monitoring and control of oil and gas production, pumping, and storage at refineries
from both offshore platforms and onshore wells
• Electrical power distribution from nuclear, gas-fired, coal, or renewable resources

SCADA system is composed of the following elements or levels or hardware.

• RTU (Remote Telemetry Unit)

• HMI (Human Machine Interface)
• Communications
• Field level devices and instruments eg: Sensors
• Main Control Station or Master Station
The function of an RTU is to collect the onsite information and this information is sent to a central location with
the help of the communication element. If system wants to send information back to the RTU then this
communication element take it back too. In SCADA systems, RTUs and PLCs perform the majority of on-site
control. The RTU or PLC acquires the site data, which includes meter readings, pressure, voltage, or other
equipment status, then performs local control and transfers the data to the central SCADA system.

HMI: A collection of standard and/or custom software [sometimes called Human Machine Interface (HMI)
software or Man Machine Interface (MMI) software] systems used to provide the SCADA central host and
operator terminal application, support the communications system, and monitor and control remotely located
field data interface devices
The function of the HMI element is to display the information received in an easy to understand graphical way
and also archive all the data received. It is usually a high end computer system capable of displaying high
quality graphics and running advanced and complex software.

Communication happens through various means. It will happen via data cable within a plant or through a fiber
optic. The communication may happen via radio between different regions.

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Advantages of SCADA
• SCADA systems improves the performance of the operation of the plant
• SCADA systems provides better protection to the equipment of the plant
• SCADA systems improves productivity of the personnel
• Information receives very fast, process the information and display it to opertor in graphs and plots. Hence
helps the operator to take the decisions fast.
• Provides better energy savings and saves economy.

What does a SCADA package do?

Most SCADA packages have the following:
Graphical representation of the process to be controlled
Trend data against itself or time or another data source
Alarm if a condition has been achieved.
Data logging
Historical information

Difference between PLC and SCADA

To know the differences between PLC and SCADA, first we can see from the word of acronym:

PLC is Programmable Logic Controllers, a PLC is just a controller to do some works. It may be a “brick” with
lots of terminals on it for wires and control something more or less by itself.

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SCADA is Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. SCADA is more complex and typically contains number
of systems such as communications, data logging, server access, etc. SCADA may be used mostly by utilities
and include data exchange requirement and protocols.

The difference between PLC and SCADA is also in the industry and applications.

Traditional PLC are migrating toward to traditional DCS for instants Fisher Delta V. For application in small or
medium plant many people use a PLC (Allen Bradley) and also use DCS (Delta V, PlantScappe). If you have a
small plant, it is better to set PLC or DCS system which has a system starting at 5 I/O and going up to 500 I/O.

SCADA is just that supervisory and data acquisition. It usually is not in plant but it used to supervise multiple
small sites. In industry SCDA often do monitoring systems with little RTU at each well site.

PLC is a programmable Logic controller which is used mainly for interlocking different equipments.
DCS is Distributed Control Systems which is used to control very big plants by using simple GUI screens.PLCs
are interfaced with DCS for interlocking.
SCADA is Supervisory Control and Data Aquisition which is used to control and Monitor small number of
Equipments in a field.SCADA systems are typically used to perform data collection and control at the
supervisory level. Some systems are called SCADA despite only performing data acquisition and not
control.The supervisory control system is a system that is placed on top of a real-time control system to control
a process that is external to the SCADA system (i.e. a computer, by itself, is not a SCADA system even though
it controls its own power consumption and cooling). This implies that the system is not critical to control the
process in real time, as there is a separate or integrated real-time automated control system that can respond
quickly enough to compensate for process changes within the time constants of the process. The process can be
industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:

Difference between SCADA, DCS and PLC Systems.

SCADA

A SCADA (or supervisory control and data acquisition) system. It consists of many remote terminals units for
collection of data (field),that is being connected with master station through any communication system, having
main task of collection of accurate data and controlling of process for smooth operation.

DCS

It stands for distributed Control System, controlling is performed by embedded system (Microcontroller based
or Microprocessor based controlling unit for device or instruments from which data is to be collect. It provides

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very intelligent analog control capability. It is very sensitive for HMI (Human machine Interface) for easy and
smooth control of process.

PLC
It stands for Programmable Logic controller, having get this name from the fact that it replace the relay logic at
the initial stage then it get the capability for analog channels also for display then it get the ability for close loop
control and after some time it has the ability for redundant operation, and also its HMI having the ability for
Indicatiion,controlling,data logging ,Alarming and backup data facility. It is also defined as below:
“A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of
instructions for implementing specific functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to
control through digital or analog input/output, various types of machines or process.”
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 1978

What can SCADA do for you?

SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition — any application that gets data about a system in order to control that system is a SCADA
application.
A SCADA application has two elements:
The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control — this can be a power plant, a water system, a
network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else.
A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and control outputs. This
network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to measure and control specific elements of the first
system.

Applications of SCADA
You can use SCADA to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to automate
complex industrial processes where human control is impractical — systems where there are more control
factors, and more fast-moving control factors, than human beings can comfortably manage.
Some of the applications include:
Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA systems to detect
current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers, and to take sections of the power grid
online or offline.
Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water flow,
reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC, refrigeration units,
lighting and entry systems.
Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate industrial
automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.
Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley buses; to
automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to control railroad crossing
gates.
Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-order signals.
As I’m sure you can imagine, this very short list barely hints at all the potential applications for SCADA
systems. SCADA is used in nearly every industry and public infrastructure project — anywhere where
automation increases efficiency.
What’s more, these examples don’t show how deep and complex SCADA data can be. In every industry,
managers need to control multiple factors and the interactions between those factors. SCADA systems provide
the sensing capabilities and the computational power to track everything that’s relevant to your operations.

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The advantages of the PLC / DCS SCADA system are:
• _ The computer can record and store a very large amount of data.
• _ The data can be displayed in any way the user requires.
• _ Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the
• system.
• _ The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system.
• _ Many types of data can be collected from the RTUs.
• _ The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site.
The disadvantages are:
• _ The system is more complicated than the sensor to panel type.
• _ Different operating skills are required, such as system analysts and
• programmer.
• _ With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with.
• _ The operator can see only as far as the PLC.
How SCADA Systems Work?
A SCADA system performs four functions:
• Data acquisition
• Networked data communication
• Data presentation
• Control
These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components:
• Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the managed system.
• Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the field at specific
sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering reports from sensors and
delivering commands to control relays.
• SCADAmaster units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central processor for the
SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system and automatically regulate the
managed system in response to sensor inputs.
• The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the field.

Data Acquisition

Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be measured. Examples of this
include temperature, light intensity, gas pressure, fluid flow, and force. Regardless of the type of physical
property to be measured, the physical state that is to be measured must first be transformed into a unified form
that can be sampled by a data acquisition system. The task of performing such transformations falls on devices
called sensors. A real-life SCADA system needs to monitor hundreds or thousands of sensors. Some sensors
measure inputs into the system (for example, water flowing into a reservoir), and some sensors measure outputs
(like valve pressure as water is released from the reservoir).

Some of those sensors measure simple events that can be detected by a straightforward on/off switch, called a
discrete input (or digital input).
Some sensors measure more complex situations where exact measurement is important. These are analog
sensors, which can detect continuous changes in a voltage or current input.
.
Data Communication

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In real life, you want to be able to monitor multiple systems from a central location, so you need a
communications network to transport all the data collected from your sensors.
Early SCADA networks communicated over radio, modem or dedicated serial lines. Today the trend is to put
SCADA data on Ethernet and IP over SONET. For security reasons, SCADA data should be kept on closed
LAN/WANs without exposing sensitive data to the open Internet.
Real SCADA systems don’t communicate with just simple electrical signals, either. SCADA data is encoded in
protocol format. Older SCADA systems depended on closed proprietary protocols, but today the trend is to
open, standard protocols and protocol mediation.
Data Presentation
A real SCADA system reports to human operators over a specialized computer that is variously called a master
station, an HMI (Human-Machine Interface) or an HCI (Human-Computer Interface). . All of these terms mean
the same thing: a computer console that aggregates and summarizes data from your SCADA system and offers
the ability to issue controls. The HMI is software and hardware that allows human operators to monitor the
state of a process under control, modify control settings to change the control objective, and manually override
automatic control operations in the event of an emergency. The HMI also allows a control engineer or operator
to configure set points or control algorithms and parameters in the controller. The HMI also displays process
status information, historical information, reports, and other information to operators, administrators, managers,
business partners, and other authorized users. The location, platform, and interface may vary a great deal. For
example, an HMI could be a dedicated platform in the control center, a laptop on a wireless LAN, or a browser
on any system connected to the Internet.
Control
In real life, SCADA systems automatically regulate all kinds of industrial processes. For example, if too much
pressure is building up in a gas pipeline, the SCADA system can automatically open a release valve. Electricity
production can be adjusted to meet demands on the power grid. Even these real-world examples are simplified;
a full-scale SCADA system can adjust the managed system in response to multiple inputs.
When it comes to controlling equipment remotely, that better way is control relay commands issued from your
SCADA master station and transmitted to your RTU's via your network. In this way, you can control equipment
as if you were there - without actually wasting any time traveling.
Even better, advanced SCADA systems allow you to pre-specify responses to specific alarms, combinations of
alarms, or predefined scenarios. Once you've completed this preliminary databasing, your SCADA system will
respond automatically within seconds when automatic control condition is triggered. This is an excellent way to
switch to a backup system in the event of a primary system failure, especially in public safety, telecom, transit,
and manufacturing environments.
SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
7-1. Environmental threats
SCADA equipment installed in C4ISR facilities must be of such design or otherwise protected to withstand
seismic effects as well as shock (ground motion) and overpressure effects of weapons.
a. SCADA equipment should be protected from the effects of dust, dirt, water, corrosive agents, other
fluids and contamination by appropriate location within the facility or by specifying enclosures appropriate
for the environment. Care should be taken that installation methods and conduit and tubing penetrations
do not compromise enclosure integrity.
b. Central computer or control rooms should be provided with dry agent fire protection systems or
double-interlocked pre-action sprinkler systems using cross-zoned detection, to minimize the threat of
accidental water discharge onto unprotected equipment.
c. Sensors, actuators, controllers, HMI, UPS and other SCADA equipment located throughout the facility
should utilize enclosures with a minimum environmental protection level to protect the equipment from
environmental contaminants.
7-2. Electronic threats
Electronic threats to SCADA systems include voltage transients, radio-frequency (RF) interference (RFI),
RF weapons, ground potential difference and electromagnetic pulse (EMP). These threats can all be
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largely mitigated by proper design of the systems
a. SCADA controllers and field devices are vulnerable to voltage transients coupled through the facility
power system from atmospheric (thunderstorm and lightning) effects, transmission and distribution
system switching events, and switching of capacitors or inductive loads within the facility. Transient
voltage surge suppression (TVSS) should be provided on the power supply circuits to all SCADA equipment
and TVSS or optical isolation should be provided on all metallic control and communication circuits
transiting between buildings. To avoid the effects of voltage transients, fiber optic cable should be used
for all circuits entering or leaving a facility.
b. C4ISR facilities often contain powerful radio frequency sources which may interfere with control
system operation if coupled into control circuits. Other ambient sources of RFI may also exist including
commercial signals, electronic counter measures (ECM), and radiated RFI from other equipment within
the facility. Design and operation of SCADA systems should address measures to protect against RFI,
including:
(1) Use of shielded twisted pair or twisted triple conductors for low-level signals.
(2) Installation of SCADA wiring in continuous metallic conduit systems.
(3) Use of metallic controller enclosures with RFI-gasketed doors.
(4) RFI-shielded control rooms and computer rooms.
(5) Maintenance practices that maintain the integrity of enclosures.
7-3. Physical security
In general, SCADA system equipment should be located inside secured areas having the same degree of
security deemed appropriate for the supported systems. However, the electronic nature of these systems
provides opportunities for compromise from both inside and outside the secured area that must be addressed.
a. HMI devices for controllers that provide access to the entire SCADA system shall use passwordprotected
screen access with multiple levels of access control, and automatic logout routines with short
SCADA Maintenance
Success or failure of any SCADA component can profoundly effect the ability to maintain service levels.
Proactive maintenance treats the SCADA system as a mission-critical asset, applying basic principles of asset
management to protect your investment.
Service Objective
System maintenance plans define component criticality and outline regularly scheduled activities;
Corrective maintenance services address unscheduled maintenance required to mitigate degraded system
performance and component failures;

SCADA IMPLEMENTATION

There are five phases to creating a functional SCADA system:

Phase 1
The DESIGN of the system architecture. This includes the all-important communication system, and with a
regional system utilizing radio communication often involves a radio path survey. Also involved will be any site
instrumentation that is not presently in existence, but will be required to monitor desired parameters.
Phase 2
The SUPPLY of RTU, communication and HMI equipment, the latter consisting of a PC system and the
necessary powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
Phase 3
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The PROGRAMMING of the communication equipment and the powerful HMI graphic and alarm software
programs.
Phase 4
The INSTALLATION of the communication equipment and the PC system. The former task is typically much
more involved.
Phase 5
The COMMISSIONING of the system, during which communication and HMI programming problems are
solved, the system is proven to the client, operator training and system documentation is provided.

SCADA MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

1. General maintenance
A comprehensive maintenance program is critical to attaining long-term reliable performance of SCADA
systems. Periodic device calibration, preventive maintenance, and testing allow potential problems to be
identified before they can cause mission failure. Prompt corrective maintenance assures reliability by
minimizing downtime of redundant components.
2. Preventive maintenance
The SCADA system should be part of the overall preventive maintenance (PM) program for the facility.
Table 9-1 provides a list of recommended maintenance activities and frequencies for SCADA systems
and their components. Preventive maintenance services help prevent system failures;
a. Many components of SCADA systems, such as dead-bus relays, are not required to function under
normal system operating modes. For this reason the system should be tested periodically under actual or
simulated contingency conditions. These tests should approach as closely as possible the actual off
normal conditions in which the system must operate. For example, SCADA for standby generator plants
should be tested by interrupting the utility source as far upstream of the normal service as possible.
b. Periodic system testing procedures can duplicate or be derived from the functional performance
testing procedures
c. The SCADA software maintenance should include timely updates of any new versions from the
supplier and testing to verify proper installation on the SCADA computer. In addition, software antivirus
updates should be maintained. This should be performed any time after the computer is connected
to the Internet. Normal operation requires that the SCADA computer not be connected to the Internet.
d. Electrical power systems, both AC and DC, serving SCADA systems should be maintained in accord
with the requirements
3. Concurrent maintenance
Concurrent maintenance is defined as testing, troubleshooting, repair or replacement of a component or
subsystem while redundant component(s) or subsystem(s) are serving the load. Where SCADA components are
associated with equipment that has redundancy and therefore are not themselves redundant, their maintenance
should be
scheduled to occur during maintenance of the associated equipment. SCADA components and controllers
that are redundant must be capable of being taken out of service, repaired or replaced and tested without
interfering with the operation of the redundant component.
4. Reliability centered maintenance
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) is an approach for developing an effective and efficient maintenance
program based on the reliability characteristics of the constituent parts and subsystems, economics,
and safety. RCM provides a logical, structured framework for determining the optimum mix of applicable
and effective maintenance activities needed to sustain the operational reliability of systems and equipment
while ensuring their safe and economical operation and support.
5. Operations and maintenance documentation
The design agency should perform an O&M analysis to determine the O&M data required to support
maintenance of the SCADA system by the using government agency. Typical O&M data requirements include
the following items:
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a. System documentation
b. Minimum spare parts list.

Piezoelectric Transducer

The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied on the quartz crystal, produces
electric charges on the crystal surface. The charge thus produced can be called as piezoelectricity. Piezo
electricity can be defined as the electrical polarization produced by mechanical strain on certain class of
crystals. The rate of charge produced will be proportional to the rate of change of force applied as input. As the
charge produced is very small, a charge amplifier is needed so as to produce an output voltage big enough to be
measured. The device is also known to be mechanically stiff. For example, if a force of 15 kiloN is given to the
transducer, it may only deflect to a maximum of 0.002mm. But the output response may be as high as
100KiloHz.This proves that the device is best applicable for dynamic measurement.

The figure shows a conventional piezoelectric transducer with a piezoelectric crystal inserted between a solid
base and the force summing member. If a force is applied on the pressure port, the same force will fall on the
force summing member. Thus a potential difference will be generated on the crystal due to its property. The
voltage produced will be proportional to the magnitude of the applied force.

Piezoelectric Transducer can measure pressure in the same way a force or an acceleration can be
measured. For low pressure measurement, possible vibration of the amount should be compensated for.
The pressure measuring quartz disc stack faces the pressure through a diaphragm and on the other side
of this stack, the compensating mass followed by a compensating quartz.

Applications

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 1. Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an accelerometer, where the output is in
the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of acceleration.
2. The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both tensional and compression
force measurements can be made.
3. Can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of voltage.

Advantages

1. Very high frequency response.

2. Self generating, so no need of external source.
3. Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.
4. Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It also has a large dielectric
constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the direction of orientation.

Disadvantages

1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.

2. Since the device operates with the small electric charge, they need high impedance cable for electrical
interface.
3. The output may vary according to the temperature variation of the crystal.
4. The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below 35%, its output will be affected. If so, it has to be
coated with wax or polymer material.

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