DR.

VIRENDRA SWARUP INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES

PROJECT FILE
ON

MATHEMATICS - II
UNIT - II (RELATION AND FUNCTION)
(BCA-2005)
SESSION: BCA 2024-27 II SEMESTER (2025 -26)

SUBMITTED IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION
C.S.J.M. UNIVERSITY KANPUR, UP

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

GROUP U MEMBERS(SEC-H)
RIMEE AWASTHI 1)VIKRAM SINGH(78)
2) SPARSH DIXIT(73)
3)SRAJAL GUPTA(75)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere thanks of gratitude to my

respected faculty Rimee Awasthi who guided us to
complete the following project file.

I would also like to thanks to my Head Academics, Head of

Department for their support.

GROUP U MEMBERS (SEC - H)

I. VIKRAM SINGH(78)
II. SPARSH DIXIT(73)
III. SRAJAL GUPTA(75)
 Relations and Functions

This document provides a thorough exploration of relations and functions, fundamental

concepts in mathematics and computer science. We begin with an overview of basic set
theory and then delve into the properties and types of relations, including equivalence and
partial order relations. The discussion then transitions to functions, covering their domain,
range, and classifications such as onto, into, and one-to-one functions. Finally, we examine
composite and inverse functions, highlighting their properties and applications. This guide
aims to provide a clear and detailed understanding of these essential mathematical structures.

Given a binary operation * : A × A → A, with the identity element e in A, an element a ∈ A,

is said to be invertible with respect to the operation *, if there exists an element b in A such
that a * b = e = b * a and b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.

Relation:

A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non empty set B is a subset of the Cartesian product
A × B. The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a set A to a set B
is called the domain of the relation R. The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set
A to a set B is called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called the codomain of
the relation R. Note that range is always a subset of codomain.

Types of Relations:

A relation R in a set A is subset of A × A. Thus empty set φ and A × A are two extreme
relations.

(i) A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to any

element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.

(ii) A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related to every
element of A, i.e., R = A × A.

(iii) A relation R in A is said to be reflexive if aRa for all a∈A, R is symmetric if aRb ⇒bRa,
∀ a,b∈ A and it is said to be transitive if aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀a, b, c ∈ A.
Any relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation.

Note: An important property of an equivalence relation is that it divides the set into
pairwise disjoint subsets called equivalent classes whose collection is called a partition of the
set. Note that the union of all equivalence classes gives the whole set.

Relations possess various properties that define their behavior.

These properties include:

Reflexive: A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A. Example: "is

equal to" on the set of real numbers. Every number is equal to itself.

Symmetric: A relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R.

Example: "is a sibling of" on a set of people. If Alice is a sibling of Bob, then Bob is a sibling
of Alice.

Transitive: A relation R on a set A is transitive if whenever (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then

(a, c) ∈ R. Example: "is less than" on the set of real numbers. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

Antisymmetric: A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if whenever (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a)

∈ R, then a = b. Example: "is a subset of" on a set of sets. If set A is a subset of set B, and set
B is a subset of set A, then set A and set B are the same set.

The inverse of a relation R, denoted as R⁻¹, is obtained by swapping the elements in each
ordered pair. If R = {(a, b)}, then R⁻¹ = {(b, a)}. Matrices and directed graphs can be used to
represent relations, providing a visual and algebraic means to analyze their properties. For
instance, a matrix representation can easily show reflexivity (diagonal elements are 1) and
symmetry (matrix is symmetric about the diagonal).

Let's examine some examples to illustrate these properties:

Example 1:

R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)} on A = {1, 2, 3} is reflexive because it contains (1,1), (2,2), and
(3,3), covering all elements of A. 1.

Example 2:

R = {(1,2), (2,1)} on A = {1, 2} is symmetric because it contains both (1,2) and (2,1). 2.

Example 3:

R = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,3)} on A = {1, 2, 3} is transitive because (1,2) and (2,3) being in R
implies (1,3) is also in R.

Example 4:

R = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (2,2)} on A = {1, 2, 3} is also transitive, even though (2,2) exists.
The critical property still holds for the other pairs.

Problem:

Determine if R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1)} on set A = {1, 2} is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

Solution:

Reflexive: R is reflexive because it contains (1,1) and (2,2).

Symmetric: R is symmetric because it contains (1,2) and (2,1).

Transitive: R is transitive. (1,2) and (2,1) are in R, and (1,1) is also in R. (2,1) and (1,2) are in
R, and (2,2) is also in R.

Therefore, R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

Equivalence relation:

An equivalence relation is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. To prove a

relation is an equivalence relation, you must show that it satisfies all three properties. An
equivalence class of an element a, denoted [a], is the set of all elements related to a.
Equivalence classes partition the set A into disjoint subsets.

Equality relation on any set: Two elements are related if they are equal. This is
trivially an equivalence relation.

Similarity of geometric figures: Two figures are similar if they have the same shape,
although they may differ in size. This is also an equivalence relation.

Equivalence relations induce a partition of a set, meaning they divide the set into non-
overlapping subsets (equivalence classes) such that every element belongs to exactly one
equivalence class, and the union of all equivalence classes is the original set. This property
can simplify complex problems by grouping similar elements together, allowing us to focus
on the characteristics that differentiate the groups rather than the individual elements within
them.

Here are some examples:

Example 1:

The "equal to" relation on integers is an equivalence relation. For any integer a, a = a
(reflexive). If a = b, then b = a (symmetric). If a = b and b = c, then a = c (transitive). 1.

Example 2:

R = {(a, b) | a c b (mod n)} is an equivalence relation.

This is the "congruent modulo n" relation. It is reflexive because a c a (mod n). It is
symmetric because if a c b (mod n), then b c a (mod n). It is transitive because if a c b (mod
n) and b c c (mod n), then a c c (mod n).
Problem: Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 4),
(4, 3)}, show that R is an equivalence relation, and determine its equivalence classes.

Solution:

Reflexive: R contains (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4), so R is reflexive.

Symmetric: R contains (1, 2) and (2, 1), and (3, 4) and (4, 3), so R is symmetric.

Transitive: Therefore, R is transitive. (1, 2) and (2, 1) are in R, and (1, 1) is in R. (2, 1) and
(1, 2) are in R, and (2, 2) is in R. (3, 4) and (4, 3) are in R, and (3, 3) is in R. (4, 3) and (3, 4)
are in R, and (4, 4) is in R.

Since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, R is an equivalence relation.

Equivalence Classes: [1] = {1, 2} [2] = {1, 2} [3] = {3, 4} [4] = {3, 4}

The equivalence classes are {1, 2} and {3, 4}. These classes partition the set A

Solved Example of Types of Relation

Example 1:

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define a relation R on A as follows: R = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (1, 0),
(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)}. Is R reflexive? symmetric? transitive?
Solution: R is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive since for (1, 0) ∈ R and (0, 3) ∈
R whereas (1, 3) ∉ R.

Example 2: For the set A = {1, 2, 3}, define a relation R in the set A as follows: R = {(1,
1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)}. Write the ordered pairs to be added to R to make it the smallest
equivalence relation.

Solution: (3, 1) is the single ordered pair which needs to be added to R to make it the
smallest equivalence relation.

Example 3: Let R be the equivalence relation in the set Z of integers given by R = {(a, b) :
2 divides a – b}. Write the equivalence class [0].

Solution: [0] = {0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6,...}

Example 4: Let the function f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 4x– 1, ∀ x ∈ R. Then, show

that f is one-one.

Solution: For any two elements x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we have 4x1 – 1 =
4x2 – 1 ⇒ 4x1 = 4x2 , i.e., x1 = x2 Hence f is one-one.

Example 5: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)}, g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write f o g.

Solution: f o g = {(2, 2), (3, 3)}

Example 6: Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = 4x – 3 ∀ x ∈ R. Then write f–

1.

Solution: ⇒ x = y+ Given that f (x) = 4x– 3 = y (say), then 4x =y + 3 3 4 Hence f–1 (y) = 3
y+ ⇒ f–1(x) = 4 x+ 3 4

Example 7: Is the binary operation * defined on Z (set of integer) by m*n =m –n +mn

∀m,n ∈Z commutative?

Solution: No. Since for 1, 2 ∈ Z, 1 * 2 = 1 – 2 + 1.2 = 1 while 2 * 1 = 2 – 1 + 2.1 = 3 so

that 1 * 2 ≠ 2 * 1.

Example 8: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)} and g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write the range of f and g.

Solution: The range of f = {2, 3} and the range of g = {5, 6}.

Example 9: If A = {1, 2, 3} and f, g are relations corresponding to the subset of A × A
indicated against them, which of f, g is a function? Why? f = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)} g = {(1,
2), (1, 3), (3, 1)}

Solution: f is a function since each element of A in the first place in the ordered pairs is
related to only one element of A in the second place whileg is not a function because 1 is
related to more than one element of A, namely, 2 and 3.

Example 10: If A = {a, b, c, d} and f = {a, b), (b, d), (c, a), (d, c)}, show that f is one one
from A onto A. Find f–1.

Solution: f is one-one since each element of A is assigned to distinct element of the set A.
Also, f is onto since f (A) = A. Moreover, f–1 = {(b, a), (d, b), (a, c), (c, d)}.

Example 11: In the set N of natural numbers, define the binary operation * by m * n =
g.c.d (m, n), m, n ∈ N. Is the operation * commutative and associative?

Solution: The operation is clearly commutative since m*n =g.c.d (m, n) = g.c.d (n, m) = n *
m ∀m, n ∈ N. It is also associative because for l, m, n ∈ N, we have l * (m * n) = g. c. d (l,
g.c.d (m, n)) = g.c.d. (g. c. d (l, m), n) = (l * m) * n.

Example 12: In the set of natural numbers N, define a relation R as follows: ∀n,m∈N,nRm
if on division by 5 each of the integers n and m leaves the remainder less than 5, i.e. one of
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Show that R is equivalence relation. Also, obtain the pairwise
disjoint subsets determined by R.

Solution: R is reflexive since for each a ∈ N, aRa. R is symmetric since if aRb, then bRafor
a, b ∈ N. Also, R is transitive since for a, b, c ∈ N, if aRb and bRc, then aRc. Hence R is an
equivalence relation in N which will partition the set N into the pairwise disjoint subsets. The
equivalent classes are as mentioned below: A0 = {5, 10, 15, 20 ...} A1 = {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...}
A2 = {2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ...} A3 = {3, 8, 13, 18, 23, ...} A4 = {4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ...} It is evident
that the above five sets are pairwise disjoint and 4 A0 ∪ A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 = Ai ∪ =N.

Example 13: Let R be a relation on the set N of natural numbers defined by nRm if n
divides m. Then R is (A) Reflexive and symmetric (B) Transitive and symmetric (C)
Equivalence (D) Reflexive, transitive but not symmetric.
Solution: The correct choice is (D). Since n divides n, ∀ n ∈ N, R is reflexive. R is not
symmetric since for 3, 6 ∈ N, 3 R 6 ≠ 6 R 3. R is transitive since for n, m, r whenever n/m
and m/r ⇒ n/r, i.e., n divides m andm dividesr, then n will devider.

Example 14: Let L denote the set of all straight lines in a plane. Let a relation R be defined
by lRm if and only if l is perpendicular to m ∀l, m ∈ L. Then R is (A) reflexive (B)
symmetric (C) transitive (D) none of these

Solution: The correct choice is (B).

Example 15: Let N be the set of natural numbers and the function f : N → N be defined by
f (n) = 2n + 3 ∀n ∈ N. Then f is (A) surjective (B) injective (C) bijective (D) none of these

Solution: (B) is the correct option.

Types of Functions:
In terms of relations, we can define the types of functions as:

(i) One to one function or Injective function: A function f: P → Q is said to be

one to one if for each element of P there is a distinct element of Q.

(ii) Many to one function: A function which maps two or more elements of P to the
same element of set Q.

(iii) Onto Function or Surjective function: A function for which every

element of set Q there is pre-image in set P
 (iv) One-one correspondence or Bijective function: The function f matches
with each element of P with a discrete element of Q and every element of Q has a pre-
image in P.

Composition of Functions:

(i) Let f : A→ B andg : B→ C be two functions. Then, the composition of f and g, denoted
by g o f, is defined as the function g o f : A → C given by g o f (x) = g (f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A. (ii) If
f : A→ B and g : B→ C are one-one, then g o f : A→ C is also one-one (iii) If f : A→ B and g
: B→ C are onto, then g o f : A→ C is also onto. However, converse of above stated results
(ii) and (iii) need not be true. Moreover, we have the following results in this direction. (iv)
Let f : A→ B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g o f is one-one. Then f is one-
one. (v) Let f : A→ B andg : B→ C be the given functions such thatg of is onto. Then g is
onto.

Invertible Function:

(i) A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function g : Y→ X such

that g o f = Ix and f o g = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f–1.
(ii) (iii) A function f : X → Y is invertible if and only if f is a bijective function. If f : X → Y,
g : Y → Z and h : Z → S are functions, then h o (g o f) = (h o g) o f. (iv) Let f : X → Y and
g : Y→ Z be two invertible functions. Then g o f is also invertible with (g o f)–1 = f–1 o g–1.
1.1.6 Binary Operations (i) A binary operation * on a set A is a function * : A × A→ A. We
denote * (a, b) by a * b. (ii) A binary operation * on the set X is called commutative, if a *b
=b *a for every a, b ∈ X. (iii) A binary operation * : A × A → A is said to be associative if (a
* b) * c = a * (b * c), for every a, b, c ∈ A. (iv) Given a binary operation * : A × A→ A, an
element e ∈ A, if it exists, is called identity for the operation *, if a * e = a = e * a, ∀ a ∈ A

Example 1:

f(x) = x^2 from = to = is neither one-to-one nor onto.

It's not one-to-one because f(2) = f(-2) = 4.

It's not onto because there is no real number x such that f(x) = -1. 1.

Example 2:

f(x) = 2x from = to = is one-to-one and onto.

It's one-to-one because if 2x1 = 2x2, then x1 = x2.

It's onto because for any y in =, there exists x = y/2 in = such that f(x) = 2(y/2) = y.

Problem: Given f: Z -> Z defined by f(x) = x + 5, is f one-to-one and/or onto?

Solution: One-to-one: Suppose f(x1) = f(x2). Then x1 + 5 = x2 + 5, which implies x1 = x2.

Therefore, f is one to-one.

Onto: For any y in Z, we want to find an x in Z such that f(x) = y. Let x = y - 5. Then f(x) =
f(y - 5) = (y - 5) + 5 = y. Since y - 5 is an integer, f is onto.

Therefore, f is both one-to-one and onto.

Solved Examples of Types of Function

Example 16: Let the function f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 4x– 1, ∀ x ∈ R. Then, show
that f is one-one.

Solution: For any two elements x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we have 4x1 – 1 =
4x2 – 1 ⇒ 4x1 = 4x2 , i.e., x1 = x2 Hence f is one-one.

Example 17: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)}, g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write f o g.

Solution: f o g = {(2, 2), (3, 3)}

Example 18: Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = 4x – 3 ∀ x ∈ R. Then write

f–1. 4
Solution: ⇒ x = y+ Given that f (x) = 4x– 3 = y (say), then 4x =y + 3 3 4 Hence f–1 (y) = 3
y+ ⇒ f–1(x) = 4 x+ 3 4

Example 19: Is the binary operation * defined on Z (set of integer) by m*n =m –n +mn
∀m,n ∈Z commutative?

Solution: No. Since for 1, 2 ∈ Z, 1 * 2 = 1 – 2 + 1.2 = 1 while 2 * 1 = 2 – 1 + 2.1 = 3 so

that 1 * 2 ≠ 2 * 1.

Example 20: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)} and g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write the range of f and g.

Solution: The range of f = {2, 3} and the range of g = {5, 6}.

Example 21: If A = {1, 2, 3} and f, g are relations corresponding to the subset of A × A

indicated against them, which of f, g is a function? Why? f = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)} g = {(1,
2), (1, 3), (3, 1)}

Solution: f is a function since each element of A in the first place in the ordered pairs is
related to only one element of A in the second place whileg is not a function because 1 is
related to more than one element of A, namely, 2 and 3.

Example 22: If A = {a, b, c, d} and f = {a, b), (b, d), (c, a), (d, c)}, show that f is one one
from A onto A. Find f–1.

Solution: f is one-one since each element of A is assigned to distinct element of the set A.
Also, f is onto since f (A) = A. Moreover, f–1 = {(b, a), (d, b), (a, c), (c, d)}.

Example 23: In the set N of natural numbers, define the binary operation * by m * n =
g.c.d (m, n), m, n ∈ N. Is the operation * commutative and associative?

Solution: The operation is clearly commutative since m*n =g.c.d (m, n) = g.c.d (n, m) = n *
m ∀m, n ∈ N. It is also associative because for l, m, n ∈ N, we have l * (m * n) = g. c. d (l,
g.c.d (m, n)) = g.c.d. (g. c. d (l, m), n) = (l * m) * n.

Example 24: In the set of natural numbers N, define a relation R as follows: ∀n,m∈N,nRm
if on division by 5 each of the integers n and m leaves the remainder less than 5, i.e. one of
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Show that R is equivalence relation. Also, obtain the pairwise
disjoint subsets determined by R.

Solution: R is reflexive since for each a ∈ N, aRa. R is symmetric since if aRb, then bRafor
a, b ∈ N. Also, R is transitive since for a, b, c ∈ N, if aRb and bRc, then aRc. Hence R is an
equivalence relation in N which will partition the set N into the pairwise disjoint subsets. The
equivalent classes are as mentioned below: A0 = {5, 10, 15, 20 ...} A1 = {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...}
A2 = {2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ...} A3 = {3, 8, 13, 18, 23, ...} A4 = {4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ...} It is evident
that the above five sets are pairwise disjoint and 4 A0 ∪ A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 = Ai ∪ =N. i
=0

Example 25: Show that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = neither one-one nor onto.

Solution: For x1 , x2 ∈ R, consider f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x 1 ⇒ x 2 1 + 1 x 2 = x 2 2 + 1 ⇒x1 2 2

x+ x1 = x2 2 1 x x 2 , 1 x ∀∈ + R, is x + x2 ⇒x1 x2 (x2– x1 ) = x2– x1 ⇒x1 = x2 or x1 x2 =
1 We note that there are point, x1 and x2 with x1 ≠ x2 and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), for instance, if we
take x1 = 2 and x2 = 1 2 , then we have f (x1 ) = 2 5 and f (x2 ) = 2 5 but 1 2 2 ≠ . Hence f is
not one-one. Also, f is not onto for if so then for 1∈R ∃ x ∈ R such that f (x) = 1 6
MATHEMATICS which gives 2 1 1 x x = + . But there is no such x in the domain R, since
the equation x2 – x + 1 = 0 does not give any real value of x.

Example 26: Let f, g : R → R be two functions defined as f (x) = g (x) = x –x ∀ x∈R.

Then, find f o g and g o f.

Solution: Here f (x) = f (x) = x +x which can be redefined as    x ≥ 2 if 0 0 if x x < 0

Similarly, the function g defined by g (x) =  g (x) =   0 if x–2 if x 0 x ≥ < 0 x –xmay be
redefined as Therefore, g o f gets defined as : For x ≥ 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (2x) = 0 and
for x < 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (0) = 0. Consequently, we have (g o f ) (x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R.
Similarly, f o g gets defined as: For x ≥ 0, (f o g ) (x) = f (g (x) = f (0) = 0, and for x < 0, (f o
g ) (x) = f (g(x)) = f (–2 x) = – 4x. 0, i.e. ( f og x ) ( )  =  −  x > x x 0 4 , 0 < x + x and

Example 27: Let R be the set of real numbers and f : R → R be the function defined by f
(x) = 4x + 5. Show that f is invertible and find f–1.
Solution: Here the function f : R → R is defined as f (x) = 4x + 5 = y (say). Then 4x = y – 5
or x = 5 y− . 47 This leads to a function g : R → R defined as g (y) = Therefore, 5 y− . 4 (g o
f ) (x) = g(f (x) = g (4x + 5) = 4 5 5 or Similarly g o f = IR x+ − = x 4 (f o g) (y) = f (g(y)) y =
f    − 4 5 y − = or 4    4 5      +  f o g = IR .

Hence f is invertible and f–1 = g which is given by f–1 (x) = x − 4 5 5 = y Example 16 Let *
be a binary operation defined on.

Example 28: Find which of the following binary operations are associative

(i) a * b = a – b for a, b ∈ Q.

(ii) a * b = 4 ab for a, b ∈ Q.

(iii) a * b = a – b +ab for a, b ∈ Q.

(iv) a * b = ab2 for a, b ∈ Q.

Solution: (i) * is not associative for if we take a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3, then (a * b) * c = (1 *

2) * 3 = (1 – 2) * 3 = – 1 – 3 = – 4 and a * (b * c) = 1 * (2 * 3) = 1 * (2 – 3) = 1 – ( – 1) = 2. 8
Thus (a * b) * c ≠ a * (b * c) and hence * is not associative.

(ii) *is associative since Q is associative with respect to multiplication.

(iii) * is not associative for if we take a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4, then (a * b) * c = (2 * 3) * 4 = (2

– 3 + 6) * 4 = 5 * 4 = 5 – 4 + 20 = 21, and a * (b * c) = 2 * (3 * 4) = 2 * (3 – 4 + 12) = 2 * 11
= 2 – 11 + 22 = 13 Thus (a * b) * c ≠ a * (b * c) and hence * is not associative.

(iv) * is not associative for if we take a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3, then (a * b) * c = (1 * 2) * 3 = 4

* 3 = 4 × 9 = 36 and a * (b * c) = 1 * (2 * 3) = 1 * 18 = 1 × 182 = 324. Thus (a * b) * c ≠ a *
(b * c) and hence * is not associative.

Example 29: Let N be the set of natural numbers and the function f : N → N be defined by
f (n) = 2n + 3 ∀n ∈ N. Then f is (A) surjective (B) injective (C) bijective (D) none of these

Solution: (B) is the correct option.

Example 30: Set A has 3 elements and the set B has 4 elements. Then the number of
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9 injective mappings that can be defined from A to B is
(A) 144 (C) 24 (B) 12 (D) 64
Solution: The correct choice is (C). The total number of injective mappings from the set
containing 3 elements into the set containing 4 elements is 4P3 = 4! = 24.

Properties of Relations

A relation is defined as a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets, A x B. In simpler terms,
it's a set of ordered pairs indicating a relationship between elements of two sets. The
properties of relations determine the type of relationship being represented. Here are some
key properties:

A partial order relation is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

Unlike equivalence relations, partial order relations do not require that every pair of elements
be related.

Examples of partial orders include:

The "less than or equal to" relation (f) on real numbers:

This is a partial order because it is reflexive (a f a), antisymmetric (if a f b and b f a, then a =
b), and transitive (if a f b and b f c, then a f c).

The divisibility relation on positive integers: a | a (reflexive), if a | b and b | a, then a = b

(antisymmetric), and if a | b and b | c, then a | c (transitive).
The subset relation (¦) on the power set of a set: A ¦ A (reflexive), if A ¦ B and B ¦ A, then A =
B (antisymmetric), and if A ¦ B and B ¦ C, then A ¦ C (transitive).

A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of a partial order.

It is a simplified form of the transitive reduction of the relation.

In a Hasse diagram, we omit self-loops (reflexivity) and transitive edges, and we draw the
edges upwards to indicate the order.

Problem: For set A = {1, 2, 3}, the power set P(A) = { {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2,
3}, {1, 2, 3} }, and R is the subset relation.

Draw the Hasse diagram for (P(A), ¦).

Solution: In the Hasse diagram: The empty set {} is at the bottom. {1}, {2}, and {3} are at
the next level, each connected to {}. {1, 2}, {1, 3}, and {2, 3} are at the next level, each
connected to the appropriate singletons. {1, 2, 3} is at the top, connected to {1, 2}, {1, 3},
and {2, 3}

Example : Set A has 3 elements and the set B has 4 elements. Then the number of
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9 injective mappings that can be defined from A to B is
(A) 144 (C) 24 (B) 12 (D) 64

Solution: The correct choice is (C). The total number of injective mappings from the set
containing 3 elements into the set containing 4 elements is 4P3 = 4! = 24.

Example : Let N be the set of natural numbers and the function f : N → N be defined by f
(n) = 2n + 3 ∀n ∈ N. Then f is (A) surjective (B) injective (C) bijective (D) none of these

Solution: (B) is the correct option.

 Partial Order Relations

A partial order relation is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. Unlike
equivalence relations, partial order relations do not require all elements to be comparable. A
partially ordered set (poset) is a set equipped with a partial order relation. Examples include:

"is a subset of" on a power set: The power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of A. The "is
a subset of" relation is a partial order on the power set.

"divides" on the set of positive integers: a divides b if there exists an integer k such that b =
ak. This relation is a partial order.

Lexicographical order on strings: This is the order used in dictionaries. It is a partial order
because not all strings may be comparable (e.g., if one string is a prefix of another).

In a poset, we can define minimal and maximal elements. A minimal element is one that no
other element is less than, and a maximal element is one that no other element is greater than.
A least element is an element that is less than all other elements, and a greatest element is an
element that is greater than all other elements. Hasse diagrams are a visual representation of
partial order relations, simplifying the visualization by omitting reflexive loops and transitive
edges.

A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation if it satisfies the following three
properties: 1. 2. 3. Relation R is Reflexive, i.e. aRa ∀ a∈A.

Relation R is Antisymmetric, i.e., aRb and bRa ⟹ a = b.

Relation R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc ⟹aRc.

Example1: Show whether the relation (x, y) ∈ R, if, x ≥ y defined on the set of +ve
integers is a partial order relation.

Solution: Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} containing four +ve integers.

Find the relation for this set such as R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (1, 1), (2,
2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.

Reflexive: The relation is reflexive as for every a ∈ A. (a, a) ∈ R, i.e. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4,
4) ∈ R.

Antisymmetric: The relation is antisymmetric as whenever (a, b) and (b, a) ∈ R, we have a =

b.

Transitive: The relation is transitive as whenever (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R, we have (a, c) ∈ R.

Example: (4, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R, implies (4, 1) ∈ R.

As the relation is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. Hence, it is a partial order relation.

Example2: Show that the relation 'Divides' defined on N is a partial order relation.

Solution: Reflexive: We have a divides a, ∀ a∈N. Therefore, relation 'Divides' is reflexive.

Antisymmetric: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b. It implies b divides a iff a = b. So, the
relation is antisymmetric.

Transitive: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b and b divides c. Then a divides c. Hence the
relation is transitive.
Thus, the relation being reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, the relation 'divides' is a
partial order relation.

Example3: (a) The relation ⊆ of a set of inclusion is a partial ordering or any collection of
sets since set inclusion has three desired properties: 1. 2. 3. A ⊆ A for any set A. If A ⊆ B
and B ⊆ A then B = A.

If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C

(b) The relation ≤ on the set R of real no that is Reflexive, Antisymmetric and transitive.

(c) Relation ≤ is a Partial Order Relation. Partial Order Set (POSET):

The set A together with a partial order relation R on the set A and is denoted by (A, R) is
called a partial orders set or POSET Hasse diagram A Hasse diagram is a graphical
representation of the relation of elements of a partially ordered set (poset) with an implied
upward orientation.

Example-1: Draw Hasse diagram for ({3, 4, 12, 24, 48, 72}, /) According to above given
question first, we have to find the poset for the divisibility.

Let the set isA. A={(3 12), (3 24), (3 48), (3 72), (4 12), (4 24), (4 48), (4 72), (12 24), (12
48), (12 72), (24 48), (24 72)}

So, now the Hasse diagram will be: In above diagram, 3 and 4 are at same level because they
are not related to each other and they are smaller than other elements in the set. The next
succeeding element for 3 and 4 is 12 i.e, 12 is divisible by both 3 and 4. Then 24 is divisible
by 3, 4 and 12. Hence, it is placed above 12. 24 divides both 48 and 72 but 48 does not divide
72. Hence 48 and 72 are not joined. We can see transitivity in our diagram as the level is
increasing.
 Solved Example of Partial Order Relation

Example 31: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define a relation R on A as follows: R = {(0, 0), (0,
1), (0, 3), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)}. Is R reflexive? symmetric? transitive?

Solution: R is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive since for (1, 0) ∈ R and (0, 3) ∈
R whereas (1, 3) ∉ R.

Example 32: For the set A = {1, 2, 3}, define a relation R in the set A as follows: R = {(1,
1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)}. Write the ordered pairs to be added to R to make it the smallest
equivalence relation.

Solution: (3, 1) is the single ordered pair which needs to be added to R to make it the
smallest equivalence relation.

Example 33: Let R be the equivalence relation in the set Z of integers given by R = {(a,
b) : 2 divides a – b}. Write the equivalence class [0].

Solution: [0] = {0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6,...}

Example 34: Let the function f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 4x– 1, ∀ x ∈ R. Then, show
that f is one-one.

Solution: For any two elements x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we have 4x1 – 1 =
4x2 – 1 ⇒ 4x1 = 4x2 , i.e., x1 = x2 Hence f is one-one.

Example 35: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)}, g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write f o g.

Solution: f o g = {(2, 2), (3, 3)}

Example 36: Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = 4x – 3 ∀ x ∈ R. Then write
f–1. 4 MATHEMATICS

Solution: ⇒ x = y+ Given that f (x) = 4x– 3 = y (say), then 4x =y + 3 3 4 Hence f–1 (y) = 3
y+ ⇒ f–1(x) = 4 x+ 3 4

Example 37: Is the binary operation * defined on Z (set of integer) by m*n =m –n +mn
∀m,n ∈Z commutative?

Solution: No. Since for 1, 2 ∈ Z, 1 * 2 = 1 – 2 + 1.2 = 1 while 2 * 1 = 2 – 1 + 2.1 = 3 so

that 1 * 2 ≠ 2 * 1.

Example 38: If f = {(5, 2), (6, 3)} and g = {(2, 5), (3, 6)}, write the range of f and g.

Solution: The range of f = {2, 3} and the range of g = {5, 6}.

Example 39: If A = {1, 2, 3} and f, g are relations corresponding to the subset of A × A

indicated against them, which of f, g is a function? Why? f = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)} g = {(1,
2), (1, 3), (3, 1)}

Solution: f is a function since each element of A in the first place in the ordered pairs is
related to only one element of A in the second place whileg is not a function because 1 is
related to more than one element of A, namely, 2 and 3.

Example 40: If A = {a, b, c, d} and f = {a, b), (b, d), (c, a), (d, c)}, show that f is one one
from A onto A. Find f–1.

Solution: f is one-one since each element of A is assigned to distinct element of the set A.
Also, f is onto since f (A) = A. Moreover, f–1 = {(b, a), (d, b), (a, c), (c, d)}.

Example 41:In the set N of natural numbers, define the binary operation * by m * n = g.c.d
(m, n), m, n ∈ N. Is the operation * commutative and associative?

Solution: The operation is clearly commutative since m*n =g.c.d (m, n) = g.c.d (n, m) = n *
m ∀m, n ∈ N. It is also associative because for l, m, n ∈ N, we have l * (m * n) = g. c. d (l,
g.c.d (m, n)) = g.c.d. (g. c. d (l, m), n) = (l * m) * n.

Example 42: In the set of natural numbers N, define a relation R as follows: ∀n,m∈N,nRm
if on division by 5 each of the integers n and m leaves the remainder less than 5, i.e. one of
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Show that R is equivalence relation. Also, obtain the pairwise
disjoint subsets determined by R.

Solution: R is reflexive since for each a ∈ N, aRa. R is symmetric since if aRb, then bRafor
a, b ∈ N. Also, R is transitive since for a, b, c ∈ N, if aRb and bRc, then aRc. Hence R is an
equivalence relation in N which will partition the set N into the pairwise disjoint subsets. The
equivalent classes are as mentioned below: A0 = {5, 10, 15, 20 ...} A1 = {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...}
A2 = {2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ...} A3 = {3, 8, 13, 18, 23, ...} A4 = {4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ...} It is evident
that the above five sets are pairwise disjoint and 4A0∪ A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 = Ai ∪ =N. i =
0

Example 43: Show that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = neither one-one nor onto.

Solution: For x1 , x2 ∈ R, consider f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x 1 ⇒ x 2 1 + 1 x 2 = x 2 2 + 1 ⇒x1 2 2

x+ x1 = x2 2 1 x x 2 , 1 x ∀∈ + R, is x + x2 ⇒x1 x2 (x2– x1 ) = x2– x1 ⇒x1 = x2 or x1 x2 =
1 We note that there are point, x1 and x2 with x1 ≠ x2 and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), for instance, if we
take x1 = 2 and x2 = 1 2 , then we have f (x1 ) = 2 5 and f (x2 ) = 2 5 but 1 2 2 ≠ . Hence f is
not one-one. Also, f is not onto for if so then for 1∈R ∃ x ∈ R such that f (x) = 1 6
MATHEMATICS which gives 2 1 1 x x = + . But there is no such x in the domain R, since
the equation x2 – x + 1 = 0 does not give any real value of x.

Example 44: Let f, g : R → R be two functions defined as f (x) = g (x) = x –x ∀ x∈R.

Then, find f o g and g o f.

Solution: Here f (x) = f (x) = x +x which can be redefined as    x ≥ 2 if 0 0 if x x < 0

Similarly, the function g defined by g (x) =  g (x) =   0 if x–2 if x 0 x ≥ < 0 x –xmay be
redefined as Therefore, g o f gets defined as : For x ≥ 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (2x) = 0 and
for x < 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (0) = 0. Consequently, we have (g o f ) (x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R.
Similarly, f o g gets defined as: For x ≥ 0, (f o g ) (x) = f (g (x) = f (0) = 0, and for x < 0, (f o
g ) (x) = f (g(x)) = f (–2 x) = – 4x. 0, i.e. ( f og x ) ( )  =  −  x > x x 0 4 , 0 < x + x and

Example 45: Let R be the set of real numbers and f : R → R be the function defined by f
(x) = 4x + 5. Show that f is invertible and find f–1.
Solution: Here the function f : R → R is defined as f (x) = 4x + 5 = y (say). Then 4x = y – 5
or x = 5 y− . 47 This leads to a function g : R → R defined as g (y) = Therefore, 5 y− . 4 (g o
f ) (x) = g(f (x) = g (4x + 5) = 4 5 5 or Similarly g o f = IR x+ − = x 4 (f o g) (y) = f (g(y)) y =
f    − 4 5 y − = or 4    4 5      +  f o g = IR . Hence f is invertible and f–1 = g which
is given by f–1 (x) = x − 4 5 5

Functions: Domain and Range

A function is a special type of relation where each element in the domain maps to a unique
element in the codomain. In other words, for every input, there is only one output. The
domain is the set of all possible inputs, the codomain is the set of all possible outputs, and the
range is the set of actual outputs of the function.

Function notation is typically represented as f: A → B, where A is the domain and B is the

codomain. Examples of different types of functions include:

Polynomial functions: e.g., f(x) = x² + 3x - 2

Trigonometric functions: e.g., f(x) = sin(x)

Exponential functions: e.g., f(x) = eˣ

Logarithmic functions: e.g., f(x) = ln(x)

The graph of a function is a visual representation of its behavior, plotting the input values (x)
against the output values (f(x)). This graph provides insights into the function's properties,
such as its increasing or decreasing behavior, its extrema, and its intercepts.
 Solved Example of Function: Domain And Range

The domain of a function f(x) is the set of all possible input values (x) for which the function
is defined. The range of a function is the set of all possible output values (f(x)) that the
function can produce.

Examples:

Example46: f(x) = x^2. The domain is all real numbers (=) because any real number can
be squared. The range is [0, >) because the square of any real number is non-negative. 1.

Example 47: f(x) = 1/x. The domain is = - {0} because the function is not defined when x
= 0. The range is = - {0} because the function can take any non-zero real value. 2.

Example 48: f(x) = :x. The domain is [0, >) because the square root of a negative number
is not a real number. The range is [0, >) because the square root of a non-negative number is
non-negative. 3.

Problem: Determine the domain and range of f(x) = :(9 - x^2).

Solution: Domain: For the function to be defined, the expression inside the square root
must be non-negative. Thus, 9 - x^2 g 0, which means x^2 f 9. Taking the square root of both
sides, we get |x| f 3, so -3 f x f 3. Therefore, the domain is [-3, 3]. Range: The maximum
value of the function occurs when x = 0, giving f(0) = :9 = 3. The minimum value occurs
when x = -3 or x = 3, giving f(-3) = f(3) = 0. Since the function is continuous on the interval
[-3, 3], the range is [0, 3]

Example 49: Let N be the set of natural numbers and the function f : N → N be defined by
f (n) = 2n + 3 ∀n ∈ N. Then f is (A) surjective (B) injective (C) bijective (D) none of these
Solution: (B) is the correct option. Example 20 Set A has 3 elements and the set B has 4
elements. Then the number of RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9 injective mappings that
can be defined from A to B is (A) 144 (C) 24 (B) 12 (D) 64 Solution The correct choice is
(C). The total number of injective mappings from the set containing 3 elements into the set
containing 4 elements is 4P3 = 4! = 24.

Example 50: Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = sin x and g : R → R be defined by g (x) =

x2, then f o g is (A) x2sin x (C) sin x2 x+ 4 (D) (B) (sin x)2 sin x x 2

Solution (C) is the correct choice.

Example 51: Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 3x– 4. Then f–1(x) is given by (A) 3 (C)
3x + 4– 4 (B) 3 x (D) None of these

Solution (A) is the correct choice.

Example 52: Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 + 1. Then, pre-images of 17 and – 3,

respectively, are (A) φ, {4, – 4} (C) {4, –4}, φ (B) {3, – 3}, φ (D) {4, – 4, {2, – 2}

Solution: (C) is the correct choice since for f–1 ( 17 ) = x ⇒ f (x) = 17 or x2 + 1 = 17 ⇒ x =

± 4 or f–1 ( 17 ) = {4, – 4} and for f–1(–3) = x ⇒ f (x) = – 3 ⇒ x2 + 1 = – 3 ⇒ x2 = – 4 and
hence f–1(– 3) = φ.

Example 53: For real numbers x and y, define xRy if and only if x – y + irrational number.
Then the relation R is (A) reflexive (C) transitive (B) symmetric (D) none of these 2 is an

Solution: (A) is the correct choice.

Example 54:Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} and R be the smallest equivalence relation on
A, then R = ________ 10 MATHEMATICS

Solution: R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.

Example 55: The domain of the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = ________.

Solution: Here x2 – 3x + 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ (x– 1) (x – 2) ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≤ 1 or x≥ 2 Hence the domain of f

= (– ∞, 1] ∪ [2, ∞) 2–3 2 x x+ is

Example 56: Consider the set A containing n elements. Then, the total number of injective
functions from A onto itself is ________.
Solution: n!

Example 57: Let Z be the set of integers and R be the relation defined in Z such that aRb if
a – b is divisible by 3. Then R partitions the set Z into ________ pairwise disjoint subsets.
Solution: Three. Example 29LetR be the set of real numbers and* be the binary operation
defined on R as a * b =a +b –ab ∀ a,b ∈R. Then, the identity element with respect to the
binary operation * is _______. Solution 0 is the identity element with respect to the binary
operation *.

Example 58: Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} and the relation R = {(1, 2), (1, 3)}. R is a
transitive relation.

Solution: True.

Example 59:Let A be a finite set. Then, each injective function from A into itself is not
surjective.

Solution: False.

Example 60: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o

f is injective. Then both f and g are injective functions.

Solution False.

Example 61: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o f is

surjective. Then g is surjective

Solution: True.

Example 62: Let N be the set of natural numbers. Then, the binary operation * in N
defined as a * b = a + b, ∀ a, b ∈ N has identity element.

Solution: False.
Example 63: Let R be a relation on the set N of natural numbers defined by nRm if n
divides m. Then R is (A) Reflexive and symmetric (B) Transitive and symmetric (C)
Equivalence (D) Reflexive, transitive but not symmetric

Solution: The correct choice is (D). Since n divides n, ∀ n ∈ N, R is reflexive. R is not

symmetric since for 3, 6 ∈ N, 3 R 6 ≠ 6 R 3. R is transitive since for n, m, r whenever n/m
and m/r ⇒ n/r, i.e., n divides m andm dividesr, then n will devider.

Example 64: Let L denote the set of all straight lines in a plane. Let a relation R be defined
by lRm if and only if l is perpendicular to m ∀l, m ∈ L. Then R is (A) reflexive (B)
symmetric (C) transitive (D) none of these

Solution: The correct choice is (B).

Example 65: Let N be the set of natural numbers and the function f : N → N be defined by
f (n) = 2n + 3 ∀n ∈ N. Then f is (A) surjective (B) injective (C) bijective (D) none of these
Solution (B) is the correct option.
 Into Functions and One-to-One (Injective) Functions

An into function is a function where the range is a subset of the codomain. This means that
not all elements in the codomain need to be mapped to. In contrast, a one-to-one function,
also known as an injective function, is a function where each element in the codomain is
mapped to by at most one element in the domain. To determine if a function is one-to-one,
we need to show that if f(x₁) = f(x₂), then x₁ = x₂. Examples of one-to-one functions
include:

f: R → R, f(x) = 2x + 1: Linear functions are injective because each x value maps to a unique
y value.

f: Z → Z, f(x) = x: The identity function is always injective, as each integer maps uniquely to
itself.

The horizontal line test is a graphical method for determining injectivity. If any horizontal
line intersects the graph of the function at most once, then the function is injective. One-to-
one functions are crucial in scenarios where unique mapping from the domain to the
codomain is required, such as in cryptography and data encryption.
 Solved Examples of Injective Functions

Example 66: If A = {a, b, c, d} and f = {a, b), (b, d), (c, a), (d, c)}, show that f is one one
from A onto A. Find f–1.

Solution: f is one-one since each element of A is assigned to distinct element of the set A.
Also, f is onto since f (A) = A. Moreover, f–1 = {(b, a), (d, b), (a, c), (c, d)}.

Example 67:In the set N of natural numbers, define the binary operation * by m * n = g.c.d
(m, n), m, n ∈ N. Is the operation * commutative and associative?

Solution: The operation is clearly commutative since m*n =g.c.d (m, n) = g.c.d (n, m) = n *
m ∀m, n ∈ N. It is also associative because for l, m, n ∈ N, we have l * (m * n) = g. c. d (l,
g.c.d (m, n)) = g.c.d. (g. c. d (l, m), n) = (l * m) * n.

Example 68: In the set of natural numbers N, define a relation R as follows: ∀n,m∈N,nRm
if on division by 5 each of the integers n and m leaves the remainder less than 5, i.e. one of
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Show that R is equivalence relation. Also, obtain the pairwise
disjoint subsets determined by R.

Solution: R is reflexive since for each a ∈ N, aRa. R is symmetric since if aRb, then bRafor
a, b ∈ N. Also, R is transitive since for a, b, c ∈ N, if aRb and bRc, then aRc. Hence R is an
equivalence relation in N which will partition the set N into the pairwise disjoint subsets. The
equivalent classes are as mentioned below: A0 = {5, 10, 15, 20 ...} A1 = {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...}
A2 = {2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ...} A3 = {3, 8, 13, 18, 23, ...} A4 = {4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ...} It is evident
that the above five sets are pairwise disjoint and 4A0 ∪ A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4= Ai ∪ =N. i =
0

Example 69: Show that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = neither one-one nor onto.
Solution: For x1 , x2 ∈ R, consider f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x 1 ⇒ x 2 1 + 1 x 2 = x 2 2 + 1 ⇒x1 2 2
x+ x1 = x2 2 1 x x 2 , 1 x ∀∈ + R, is x + x2 ⇒x1 x2 (x2– x1 ) = x2– x1 ⇒x1 = x2 or x1 x2 =
1 We note that there are point, x1 and x2 with x1 ≠ x2 and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), for instance, if we
take x1 = 2 and x2 = 1 2 , then we have f (x1 ) = 2 5 and f (x2 ) = 2 5 but 1 2 2 ≠ . Hence f is
not one-one. Also, f is not onto for if so then for 1∈R ∃ x ∈ R such that f (x) = 1 6
MATHEMATICS which gives 2 1 1 x x = + . But there is no such x in the domain R, since
the equation x2 – x + 1 = 0 does not give any real value of x.

Example 70: Let f, g : R → R be two functions defined as f (x) = g (x) = x –x ∀ x∈R.

Then, find f o g and g o f.

Solution: Here f (x) = f (x) = x +x which can be redefined as    x ≥ 2 if 0 0 if x x < 0

Similarly, the function g defined by g (x) =  g (x) =   0 if x–2 if x 0 x ≥ < 0 x –xmay be
redefined as Therefore, g o f gets defined as : For x ≥ 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (2x) = 0 and
for x < 0, (g o f ) (x) = g (f (x) = g (0) = 0. Consequently, we have (g o f ) (x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R.
Similarly, f o g gets defined as: For x ≥ 0, (f o g ) (x) = f (g (x) = f (0) = 0, and for x < 0, (f o
g ) (x) = f (g(x)) = f (–2 x) = – 4x. 0, i.e. ( f og x ) ( )  =  −  x > x x 0 4 , 0 < x + x and
Example 71: Let R be the set of real numbers and f : R → R be the function defined by f
(x) = 4x + 5. Show that f is invertible and find f–1.

Solution: Here the function f : R → R is defined as f (x) = 4x + 5 = y (say). Then 4x = y – 5

or x = 5 y− . 4 7 This leads to a function g : R → R defined as g (y) = Therefore, 5 y− . 4 (g
o f ) (x) = g(f (x) = g (4x + 5) = 4 5 5 or Similarly g o f = IR x+ − = x 4 (f o g) (y) = f (g(y)) y
= f    − 4 5 y − = or 4    4 5      +  f o g = IR . Hence f is invertible and f–1 = g
which is given by f–1 (x) = x − 4 5 5 = y

Example 72: Let * be a binary operation defined on Q. Find which of the following binary
operations are associative (i) a * b = a – b for a, b ∈ Q. (ii) a * b = 4 ab for a, b ∈ Q. (iii) a *
b = a – b +ab for a, b ∈ Q. (iv) a * b = ab2 for a, b ∈ Q.

Solution: (i) * is not associative for if we take a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3, then (a * b) * c = (1 *

2) * 3 = (1 – 2) * 3 = – 1 – 3 = – 4 and a * (b * c) = 1 * (2 * 3) = 1 * (2 – 3) = 1 – ( – 1) = 2. 8
MATHEMATICS Thus (a * b) * c ≠ a * (b * c) and hence * is not associative. (ii) *is
associative since Q is associative with respect to multiplication. (iii) * is not associative for if
we take a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4, then (a * b) * c = (2 * 3) * 4 = (2 – 3 + 6) * 4 = 5 * 4 = 5 – 4 +
20 = 21, and a * (b * c) = 2 * (3 * 4) = 2 * (3 – 4 + 12) = 2 * 11 = 2 – 11 + 22 = 13 Thus (a *
b) * c ≠ a * (b * c) and hence * is not associative. (iv) * is not associative for if we take a = 1,
b = 2 and c = 3, then (a * b) * c = (1 * 2) * 3 = 4 * 3 = 4 × 9 = 36 and a * (b * c) = 1 * (2 * 3)
= 1 * 18 = 1 × 182 = 324. Thus (a * b) * c ≠ a * (b * c) and hence * is not associative.

Example 73: Let A be a finite set. Then, each injective function from A into itself is not
surjective.

Solution: False.

Example 74: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o f is

injective. Then both f and g are injective functions.

Solution False.

Example 75: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o f is

surjective. Then g is surjective.

Solution: True
 Onto (Surjective) Functions

An onto function, also known as a surjective function, is a function where every element in
the codomain is mapped to by at least one element in the domain. This means that the range
of the function is equal to the codomain. To determine if a function is onto, we need to show
that for every y ∈ B (codomain), there exists an x ∈ A (domain) such that f(x) = y. Examples
include:

f: R → R, f(x) = x³: Every real number has a real cube root, so this function is surjective.

f: Z → Z, f(x) = x: The identity function is always surjective, as every integer maps to itself.

The implication of a function being onto is that the range is equal to the codomain. In
practical terms, this means that the function covers all possible output values within the
specified codomain. Surjective functions are essential in scenarios where complete coverage
of the output space is required.

A function f: A -> B can be classified as:

One-to-one (injective): If f(x1) = f(x2) implies x1 = x2 for all x1, x2 in A.

In other words, each element in B is mapped to by at most one element in A.

Onto (surjective): If for every y in B, there exists an x in A such that f(x) = y.

In other words, every element in B is mapped to by at least one element in A.

The range of f is equal to B. Into: If the range of f is a proper subset of B, meaning there is at
least one element in B that is not the image of any element in A.

Examples:

Example 76: f(x) = x^2 from = to = is neither one-to-one nor onto.

It's not one-to-one because f(2) = f(-2) = 4. It's not onto because there is no real number x
such that f(x) = -1. 1.

Example 77: f(x) = 2x from = to = is one-to-one and onto. It's one-to-one because if 2x1 =
2x2, then x1 = x2. It's onto because for any y in =, there exists x = y/2 in = such that f(x) =
2(y/2) = y. 2.

Example 78: Given f: Z -> Z defined by f(x) = x + 5, is f one-to-one and/or onto?

Solution: One-to-one: Suppose f(x1) = f(x2). Then x1 + 5 = x2 + 5, which implies x1 = x2.

Therefore, f is one to-one. Onto: For any y in Z, we want to find an x in Z such that f(x) = y.
Let x = y - 5. Then f(x) = f(y - 5) = (y - 5) + 5 = y. Since y - 5 is an integer, f is onto.
Therefore, f is both one-to-one and onto

Example 79: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o f is

surjective. Then g is surjective

Solution: True.

Example 80: For sets A, B and C, let f : A → B, g : B → C be functions such that g o f is

injective. Then both f and g are injective functions.

Solution: False
 Composite Functions

A composite function, denoted as (f ◦ g)(x), is defined as f(g(x)). This means that the output
of the function g is used as the input for the function f. The condition for composition is that
the range of g must be a subset of the domain of f. Examples of composite functions include:

If f(x) = x² and g(x) = x + 1, then (f ◦ g)(x) = (x + 1)²

If f(x) = sin(x) and g(x) = x², then (f ◦ g)(x) = sin(x²)

Composite functions have properties such as associativity, meaning that h ◦ (g ◦ f) = (h ◦ g) ◦

f. Diagrams can be used to illustrate the mapping of elements through the composition
process, showing how the output of one function becomes the input of another. Composite
functions are fundamental in building more complex functions from simpler ones, and they
are used extensively in calculus and analysis.

The composite function (f g)(x) is defined as f(g(x)).

This means we first apply the function g to x, and then apply the function f to the result.

To evaluate a composite function, substitute the inner function into the outer function.

The domain of (f g)(x) is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of
f.

Examples:

Example 1: f(x) = x^2, g(x) = x + 1. 1. (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x + 1) = (x + 1)^2 = x^2 + 2x + 1

(g f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x^2) = x^2 + 1

Example 2: f(x) = :x, g(x) = x - 1. The domain of (f g)(x) is found as follows: 2. (f g)(x) =
f(g(x)) = f(x - 1) = :(x - 1) For the square root to be defined, x - 1 g 0, so x g 1. The domain of
(f g)(x) is [1, >).
Problem: If f(x) = x^2 + 1 and g(x) = :(x - 1), find f(g(x)) and its domain.

Solution: f(g(x)) = f(:(x - 1)) = (:(x - 1))^2 + 1 = (x - 1) + 1 = x The domain of g(x) is x - 1 g

0, so x g 1. The domain of f(g(x)) is [1, >)

Example : Show that f(x) = x^3 and g(x) = x are inverses of each other. 2. Since f(g(x)) = x
and g(f(x)) = x, f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other. f(g(x)) = f( x) = ( x)^3 = x g(f(x)) =
g(x^3) = (x^3) = x

Problem: Determine whether f(x) = x^2 (with domain restricted to non-negative real
numbers) has an inverse, and if so, find the inverse function.

Solution: Since the domain is restricted to non-negative real numbers, f(x) is one-to-one. y =
x^2 x = y^2 y = :x f^{-1}(x) = :
 Inverse Functions

An inverse function, denoted as f⁻¹, is a function that "undoes" the effect of f. This means
that f⁻¹(f(x)) = x and f(f⁻¹(y)) = y. The condition for a function to have an inverse is that the
function must be bijective, meaning it is both injective (one-to-one) and surjective (onto).
Examples of inverse functions include:

If f(x) = 2x + 3, then f⁻¹(x) = (x - 3) / 2

If f(x) = eˣ, then f⁻¹(x) = ln(x)

The inverse of a function can be found algebraically by swapping x and y in the function's
equation and solving for y. Graphically, the inverse function is a reflection of the original
function across the line y = x. The domain and range of a function and its inverse are
interchanged. That is, the domain of f is the range of f⁻¹, and the range of f is the domain of
f⁻¹. Inverse functions are essential in solving equations and are widely used in calculus and
various branches of mathematics.

The inverse function of f(x), denoted f^{-1}(x), is a function such that f(f^{-1}(x)) = x and
f^{-1}(f(x)) = x.

Not all functions have an inverse.

A function must be one-to-one (injective) to have an inverse.

To find the inverse of a function, follow these steps: Replace f(x) with y. 1.

Swap x and y. 2. Solve for y. 3. Replace y with f^{-1}(x). 4.

Examples:

Example 1: f(x) = 2x + 3. 1. y = 2x + 3 x = 2y + 3 2y = x - 3 y = (x - 3)/2 f^{-1}(x) = (x - 3)/2

Example 2: Show that f(x) = x^3 and g(x) = x are inverses of each other. 2. Since f(g(x)) = x
and g(f(x)) = x, f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other. f(g(x)) = f( x) = ( x)^3 = x g(f(x)) =
g(x^3) = (x^3) = x

Problem: Determine whether f(x) = x^2 (with domain restricted to non-negative real
numbers) has an inverse, and if so, find the inverse function.

Solution: Since the domain is restricted to non-negative real numbers, f(x) is one-to-one. y =
x^2 x = y^2 y = :x f^{-1}(x) = :
 Conclusion

This document has provided a comprehensive overview of relations and functions, covering
their properties, types, and operations. We explored key concepts such as reflexivity,
symmetry, transitivity, equivalence relations, partial order relations, domain, range, onto
functions, one-to-one functions, composite functions, and inverse functions.

Understanding relations and functions is crucial in various fields of mathematics and

computer science. These concepts are foundational for more advanced topics such as
calculus, analysis, abstract algebra, and discrete mathematics. They also play a significant
role in computer science, particularly in areas like data structures, algorithms, and
cryptography., For further reading and exploration of advanced topics, consider the following
references:, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications by Kenneth H. Rosen , Set Theory by
Thomas Jech, Abstract Algebra by David Dummit and Richard Foote

In conclusion, the concepts of relations and functions are not only theoretical constructs but
also practical tools with wide-ranging applications. Mastering these concepts provides a solid
foundation for further studies and practical problem-solving in various domains.

Key Formulas and Definitions:

Reflexive: (a, a) * R for all a * A

Symmetric: (a, b) * R implies (b, a) * R

Transitive: (a, b) * R and (b, c) * R implies (a, c) * R

Antisymmetric: (a, b) * R and (b, a) * R implies a = b

Equivalence Relation: Reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

Partial Order Relation: Reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive

One-to-one (injective): f(x1) = f(x2) implies x1 = x2

Onto (surjective): For every y in B, there exists an x in A such that f(x) = y

Composite Function: (f g)(x) = f(g(x))

Inverse Function: f(f^{-1}(x)) = x and f^{-1}(f(x)) =x.

 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Question 81.
If R = {(a, a3): a is a prime number less than 5} be a relation. Find the range of R . (Foreign
2014)
Answer:
Given, R = {{a, cd): a is a prime number less than 5}
We know that, 2 and 3 are the prime numbers less than 5.
So, a can take values 2 and 3.
Thus, R = {(2, 23), (3, 33)} = {(2, 8), (3, 27)}
Hence, the range of R is (8, 27}.

Question 82.
If f: {1,3, 4} → {1, 2, 5} and g: {1,2, 5} → {1, 3} given by f = {(1,2), (3, 5), (4,1)} and g =
{(1,3), (2, 3), (5,1)}. Write down gof. (All India 2014C)
Answer:
Given, functions f:{1, 3, 4} → {1, 2, 5} and g : {1, 2, 5} → {1, 3} are defined as f = {(1, 2),
(3, 5),(4, 1)} and g = {(1, 3),(2, 3),(5, 1)}
Therefore, f(1) = 2, f(3) = 5, f(4) = 1
and g(1) = 3, g (2) = 3, g(5) = 1
Now, gof: {1,3,4} → {1,3} and it is defined as
gof (1) = g[(f(1)] = g(2) = 3
gof(3) = g[f(3)] = g(5) = 1

∴ gof = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3)}

gof (4) = g[f(4)] = g(1) = 3

Question 83.
Let R is the equivalence relation in the set A = {0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by R = {(a, b) : 2
divides (a – b)}. Write the equivalence class [0]. (Delhi 2014C)
Answer:
Given, R = {(a, b):2 divides(a – b)}
and A = { 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Clearly, [0] = {b ∈ A : (0, b) ∈ R}
= {b ∈ A: 2 divides (0 – b)}
= {b ∈ A : 2divides (-b)} = {0, 2, 4}
Hence, equivalence class of [0] = {0,2,4}.

Question 84.
If R = {(x, y): x + 2y = 8} is a relation on N, then write the range of R. (All India 2014)
Answer:
Given, the relation R is defined on the set of natural numbers, i.e. N as
R= {(x, y) : x + 2y = 8}
To find the range of R, x + 2y = 8 can be rewritten as y = 8−x2
On putting x = 2, we get y = 8−22 = 3
On puttmg x = 4, we get y = 8−42 = 2
On putting x = 6, we get y = 8−62 = 1
As, x, y ∈ N, therefore R = {(2, 3), (4, 2), (6, 1)}. Hence, the range of relation R is {3,2,1}.
Note: For x = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ……… we do not get y as natural number.

Question 85.
If A = {1, 2, 3}, S = {4, 5,6, 7} and f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} is a function from A to B. State
whether f is one-one or not. (All India 2011)
Answer:
5. Given, A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {4, 5, 6, 7}
and f:A → Bis defined as f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)}
i.e. f(1) = 4, f(2) = 5and f(3) = 6.
It can be seen that the images of distinct elements of A under f are distinct. So, f is one-one.

Question 86.
If f : R → R is defined by f{x) = 3x + 2, then define f[f(x)]. (Foreign 2011; Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Given, f(x) = 3x + 2
f[f(x)] – f(3x + 2) = 3 (3x + 2) + 2
= 9x + 6+ 2= 9x + 8

Question 87.
Write fog, if f: R → R and g:R → R are given by f(x) = |x| and g(x) = |5x – 2|. (Foreign 2011)
Answer:

∴ fog (x) = f[g(x)] = f{15x – 2|}

Given, f(x) = |x|, g(x) = |5x – 2|

= ||5x – 2||= |5x – 2| [∵ ||x|| = |x|]

Question 88.
Write fog, if f: R → R and g:R → R are given by f(x) = 8x3 and g(x) = xy3. (Foreign 2011)
Answer:

∴ fog ( x) = f[g(x)] = f(x1/3) = 8(x1/3)3 = 8x

Given, f(x) = 8x3 and g(x) = x1/3

Question 89.
State the reason for the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2,1)} not to be
transitive. (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
We know that for a relation to be transitive,
(x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R.
Here, (1, 2) ∈ R and (2,1) ∈ R but (1,1) ∉ R.
R is not transitive.

Question 90.
What is the range of the function.
f(x) = |x−1|x−1, x ≠ 1? (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Firstly, redefine the function by using the definition of modulus function, i.e by using

Further, simplify it to get the range

Given, function is f(x) = |x−1|x−1, x ≠ 1

The above function can be written as

Question 91.
If f: R → R is defined by f(x) = (3 – x3)1/3, then find fof(x). (All India 2010)
Answer:
Given function is f: R → R such that f(x) = (3 – x3)1/3.
Now, fof(x) = f[f(x)] = f[(3 – x3))1/3]
= [3 – {(3 – x3)1/3}3]1/3
= [3 – (3 – x3)]1/3 = (x3)1/3 = x

Question 92.
If f is an invertible function, defined as f(x) = 3x−45, then write f-1(x). (Foreign 2010)
Answer:
Given, f(x) = 3x−45 is an invertible function.

Question 93.
If f : R → R and g:R → R are given by f(x) = sin x and g(x) = 5x2, then find gof(x). (Foreign
2010)
Answer:
Given, f(x) = sin x and g(x) = 5x2.
30f{x) = g[f(x)] = g(sin x)
= 5(sin x)2 = 5sin2x

Question 94.
If f(x) = 27x3 and g(x) = xy3, then find gof(x). (Foreign 2010)
Answer:
Given, f(x) = 27x3 and g(x) = xy3
Now, gof(x) = g[f(x)] = g(27x3)
= (27x3)1/3 = (27)1/3.(x3)1/3

∴ gof(x) = 3x
= (33)1/3 (x3)1/3 = 3x

Question 95.
If the function f:R → R defined by f(x) = 3x – 4 is invertible, then find f-1. (All India 2010C)
Answer:
f-1 = x+43

Question 96.
Check whether the relation R defined on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as R = {(a, b): b = a +
1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. (All India 2019)
Answer:
The relation R on set A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is defined as (a, b) ∈ R iff b = a + 1.
Therefore, R = {(1, 2),(2, 3), (3, 4), (4,5), (5, 6)}
Clearly, (a, a) ∉ R for any as a ∈ A. So, R is not reflexive on A.
We observe that (1, 2) ∈ R but (2,1) ∉ R.
So, R is not symmetric.
We also observe that (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ R but (1, 3) ∉ R. So, R is not transitive.
Question 97.
Let f : N → Y be a function defined as f(x) = 4x + 3, where, Y = {y ∈ N : y = 4x + 3, for
some x ∈ N}. Show that f is invertible. Find its inverse. (All India 2019)
Answer:
Given, f: N → Y defined as f(x) = 4x + 3, where
Y = {y ∈ N : y = 4x + 3, x ∈ N}. Consider an arbitrary element y ∈ Y. Then, y = 4x + 3, for
some x ∈ N
⇒ y – 3 = 4x ⇒ x = y−34

Suppose, a function g:Y → N, given by

Here, gof (x) = x, ∀ x ∈ N; therefore gof = IN

and fog(y) = y, ∀ y ∈ F; therefore fog = IY
So, f is invertible and f-1 = g,
i.e f-1(y) = y−34
or f-1(x) = x−34

Question 98.
Show that the relation R on IR defined as R = {(a, b) : (a ≤ b)}, is reflexive and transitive but
not symmetric. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Given a relation R = {{a, b): a ≤ b} on IR (the set of real numbers).

Reflexivity:
Since, a ≤ a is true for all value of a ∈ IR.
(a,a) ∈ R ∀ a ∈ IR
Hence, the given relation is reflexive.

Transitivity
Let (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R be any arbitrary elements.
Then, we have a ≤ b and b ≤ c
⇒a≤b≤c
⇒a≤c
⇒ (a,c) ∈ R
Hence, the given relation is transitive.

Symmetricity:
Note that (2,3) ∈ R as 2 < 3
but (3, 2) ∉ R as 3 ≮ 2
Hence, the given relation is not symmetric.
Hence proved.

Question 99.
Prove that the function, f : N → N is defined by f(x) = x2 + x + 1 is one-one but not onto.
Find inverse of f : N → S, where S is range of f. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Let x, y ∈ N such that
f(x) = f(y)

⇒ (x – y)(x + y + 1) = 0 [∵ x + y + 1 ≠ 0]
⇒ x2 + x + 1 = y2 + y + 1

⇒x=y
f: N → N is one-one (1)
f is not onto because x2 + x +1 > 3, ∀ x ∈ N and so, 1,2 does not have their pre images.

Now, if S is the range of f, then f:N → S is one-one, onto and hence invertible.
⇒ fof-1 (x) = x, ∀ x ∈ S
⇒ f(f-1(x)) = x, ∀ x ∈ S
⇒ (f-1(x))2 + (f-1(x)) + 1 = x, ∀ x ∈ S
⇒ (f-1(x))2 + f-1(x) + 1 – x = 0
which is quadratic in f-1(x)

Question 100.
If f: W → W is defined as f(x) = x – 1, if x is odd and f(x) = x + 1, if x is even. Show that f is
invertible. Find the inverse of f, where W is the set of all whole numbers. (Foreign 2014; All
India 2011C)
Answer:
Given, f: W →W is defined as

One-one function Let x1, x2 ∈ W be any two numbers such that f(x1) = f(x2)

Case I:
When x1, and x2 are odd.
Then, f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 – I = x2 – I
⇒ x1 = x2

Case II:
When x1, and x2 are even.
Then, f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x1 + I = x2 + I
⇒ x1 = x2
Thus, in both cases,
f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2

Case III:
When x1, is odd and x2 is even.
Then, x1 ≠ x2
Also, f(x1) is even and f(x2) is odd.
So, f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Thus, x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2)

Case IV:
When x1 is even and x2 is odd.
Then, x1 ≠ x2
Also, f(x1) is odd and f(x2) is even.
So, f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Thus, x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Hence, from cases I, II, III and IV we can observe that, f(x) is a one-one function.

Onto function:
Clearly, any odd number 2y + 1 in the codomain W, is the image of 2y in the domain W.
Also, any even number 2y in the codomain W, is the image of 2y + 1 in the domain W.
Thus, every element in W (codomain) has a pre-image in W (domain).
So, f is onto.
Therefore, f is bijective and so it is invertible.
Let f(x) = y
⇒ x – 1 = y, if x is odd
and x + 1 = y, if x is even

Question 101.
If f,g :R → R are two functions defined as f(x) = |x| + x and g(x) = |x| – x, ∀ x ∈ R. Then,
find fog and gof. (All India 2014C)
Answer:
Given, f(x) = |x| + x and g(x) = |x| – x, ∀ x ∈ R.

Thus, for x ≥ 0,gof (x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x) = 0

and for x < 0, gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(0) = 0 ⇒ gof(x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R Similarly, for x > 0, fog (x) =
f(g(x)) = f(0) = 0
and for x < 0, fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f(-2x)
= 2(-2x) = -4x

Question 102.
If R is a relation defined on the set of natural numbers N as follows:
R = {(x, y) : x ∈ N, y ∈ N and 2x + y = 24}, then find the domain and range of the relation R
. Also, find whether R is an equivalence relation or not. (Delhi 2014C)
Answer:

∴ y = 24 – 2x
Given, R = {(x, y) : x ∈ N, y ∈ N and 2x + y = 24}

Now, x = 1 ⇒ y = 22;
x = 2 ⇒ y = 20;
x = 3 ⇒ y = 18;
x = 4 ⇒ y = 16;
x = 5 ⇒ y = 14;
x = 6 ⇒ y = 12;
x = 7 ⇒ y = 10;
x=8⇒y=8
x = 9 ⇒ y = 6;
x = 10 ⇒ y = 4
and x = 11 ⇒ y = 2
So, domain of R= {1, 2, 3, …, 11} and range of R = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22}
and R = {(1, 22), (2, 20), (3, 18), (4, 16), (5, 14), (6, 12), (7, 10), (8, 8), (9, 6), (10, 4), (11,
2)}

Reflexive:
Since, for 1 ∈ domain of R,(1, 1) ∉ R.
So, R is not reflexive.

Symmetric:
We observe that (1, 22) ∉ R but (22, 1) ∈ R. So, R is not symmetric.

Transitive:
We observe that (7, 10) ∈ Rand (10, 4) ∈ R hut (7, 4) ∉ R. So, R is not transitive. Thus, R is
neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
So, R is not an equivalence relation.

Question 103.
If A = R – {3} and B = R – {1}. Consider the function f :A → B defined by f(x) = x−2x−3
for all x ∈ A. Then, show that f is bijective. Find f-1(x). (Delhi 2014C; Delhi 2012)
Answer:
Given, a function f: A → B, where A = R – {3}
and B = R – {1}, defined by f(x) = x−2x−3.

One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ A such that f(x1) = f(x2)
Then x1−2x1−3=x2−2x2−3
⇒ (x1 – 2)(x1 – 3) = (x2 – 2)(x1 – 3)
⇒ x1x2 – 3x1 – 2x2 + 6 = x1x2 – 3x2 – 21 + 6
⇒ – 3x1 – 2x2 = – 3x2 – 2x1
⇒ – 3 (x1 – x2) + 2 (x1 – x2) = 0
⇒ -(x1 – x2) = 0
Thus, f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x1 = x2, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ A
So, f(x) is a one-one function.

Onto function:
Let y ∈ B = R – {1} be any arbitrary element.
Then, f(x) = y
⇒ x−2x−3 = y ⇒ x – 2 = xy – 3y
⇒ x – xy = 2 – 3y
⇒ x(1 – y) = 2 – 3y
⇒ x = 2−3y1−y or x = 3y−2y−1 ………(i)
Clearly, x = 3y−2y−1 is a real number for all y ≠ 1.

Hence, f(x) is an onto function.

Therefore, f(x) is a bijective function.
From Eq. (i), we get
f-1(y) = 3y−2y−1 or f-1(x) = 3x−2x−1
which is the inverse function of f(x).

Question 104.
If A = {1, 2, 3, .. ,9} and R is the relation in A × A defined by (a , b) R(c, d), if a + d = b + c
for (a,b), (c, d) in A × A. Prove that R is an equivalence relation. Also, obtain the equivalence
class [(2, 5)]. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
Given a relation R in A × A, where A = {1, 2, 3,…, 9}, defined as (a, b) R (c, d), if a + d = b
+ c.

Reflexive:

Now, as a + b = b + a [∵ addition is commutative]

Let (a, b) be any arbitrary element of A × A. i.e. (a, b) ∈ A × A, where a,b ∈ A.

∴ (a, b) R{a, b)
So, R is reflexive.

Symmetric:
Let (a, b), (c,d)e Ax A, such that (a, b)R(c, d). Then, a + d = b + c
⇒ b + c = a + d ⇒ c + b = d + a [∵ addition is commutative]
⇒ (c, d) R(a, b)
So, R is symmetric.

Transitive:
Let (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ A × A such that (a, b) R(c, d) and (c, d) R(e, f).
Then, a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e
On adding the above equations,
we get a + d + c + f = b + c + d + e
⇒ a + f = b + e ⇒ (a, b) R(e, f)
So, R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

Now, for [(2, 5)], we will find (c, d) ∈ A × A such that 2 + d = 5+ c or d-c = 3 (1/2)
Clearly, (2, 5) R(1, 4) as 4 – 1 = 3
(2, 5) R(2, 5) as 5 – 2 = 3
(2, 5) R(3, 6) as 6 – 3 = 3
(2, 5) R(4, 7) as 7 – 4 = 3
(2, 5) R(5, 8) as 8 – 5 = 3
and (2, 5) R(6, 9) as 9 – 6 = 3
Hence, equivalence class [(2, 5)]
= {(1, 4), (2, 5),(3, 6),(4, 7),(5, 8),(6, 9)}.

Question 105.
If the function R → R is given by f(x) = x2 + 2 and g:R → R is given by g(x) = xx−1, then
find fog and gof, and hence find fog (2) and gof (- 3). (All India 2014)
Answer:
Given, f : R → R and g : R → R defined as
f(x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = xx−1; x ≠ 1

∴ fog and gof exist.

Since, range f ⊆ domain g and range g ⊆ domain f
For any x ∈ R- {1}, we have (fog)(x) = f[g(x)]

Question 106.
If A = R-{2}, B = R-{1} and f: A → B is a function defined by f(x) = x−1x−2 , then show
that f is one-one and onto. Hence, find f-1. (Delhi 2013C)
Answer:
f-1 = 2x−1x−1

Question 107.
Show that the function f in A = R – {23} defined as f(x) = 4x+36x−4 is one-one and onto.
Hence, find f-1. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
Given f(x) = 4x+36x−4
where, x ∈ A = R – {23}
One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ A = R – {23} such that f(x1) = f(x2).
Then, 4x1+36x1−4=4x2+36x2−4
⇒ (4x1 + 3) (6x2 – 4) = (4x2 + 3) (6x2 – 4)
⇒ 24x1x2 – 16x1 + 18x2 – 12 = 24x1x2 – 16x2 + 18x1 – 12
⇒ – 34x1 = – 34x2
⇒ x1 = x2
So, f is one-one function.

Onto function:
Let y be an arbitrary element of A (codomain).
Then, f(x) = y
⇒ 4x+36x−4 = y
⇒ 4x + 3 = 6xy – 4y
⇒ 4x – 6xy = -4y – 3
⇒ x(4 – 6 y) = -(4y + 3)
⇒ x = −(4y+3)4−6y
⇒ x = 4y+3)6y−4
Clearly, x = 4y+3)6y−4 is a reaj number for all y ≠ 46=23

Thus, for each y ∈ A (codomain), there exists

x = 4x+36x−4 ∈ A (domain) such that

Hence, f is onto function.

Since, f is bijective function, so its inverse exists.
Question 108.
Consider f: R+ → [4, ∞) given by f(x) = x2 + 4. Show that f is invertible with the inverse f-1 of
f given by f-1(y) = y−4−−−−√, where R+ is the set of all non-negative real numbers. (All India
2013; Foreign 2011)
Answer:
To show f(x) is an invertible function, we will show that f is both one-one and onto function.
Here, function f: R+ → [4, ∞) given by f(x) = x2 + 4.

One-one function:
Let x, y ∈ R+, such that
f(x) = f(y)

[∵ we take only positive sign as x, y ∈ R+]

⇒ x2 + 4 = y2 + 4 ⇒ x2 = y2 ⇒ x = y

Therefore, f is a one-one function.

Onto function:
For y ∈ [4, ∞), then there exists x ∈ R+ such that f(x) = y

⇒ x2 = y – 4 ≥ 0 [∵ y > 4]
⇒ y = x2 + 4

⇒ x = y−4−−−−√ ≥ 0
[we take only positive sign, as x ∈ R+]
Therefore, for any y ∈ R+ (codomain), there exists x = y−4−−−−√ ∈ R+ (domain) such that
f(x) = (y−4−−−−√)=(y−4−−−−√)2 + 4 = y – 4 + 4 = y
Therefore, f is onto function.
Since, f is one-one and onto and therefore f-1 exists.

Alternate Method:
Let us define g: [4, ∞) → R+
by g(y) = y−4−−−−√
Now, gof(x) = 4 (f(x)) = g(x2 + 4)
= (x2+4)−4−−−−−−−−−−√=x2−−√ = x
and fog(y) = f[g(y)] = f(y−4−−−−√)
= (y−4−−−−√)2 + 4 = (y – 4) + 4 = y
Thus, gof = I R+ and fog = I[4, ∞)

∴ f-1(y) = g(y) = y−4−−−−√ or f-1(x) = x−4−−−−√

⇒ f is invertible and its inverse function is 5.

Question 109.
Show that f: N → N, given by

is bijective (both one-one and onto). (All India 2012)

Answer:
Given function is f: N → N such that

One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ W be any two numbers such that f(x1) = f(x2)

Case I:
When x1, and x2 are odd.
Then, f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 – I = x2 – I
⇒ x1 = x2

Case II:
When x1, and x2 are even.
Then, f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x1 + I = x2 + I
⇒ x1 = x2
Thus, in both cases,
f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2

Case III:
When x1, is odd and x2 is even.
Then, x1 ≠ x2
Also, f(x1) is even and f(x2) is odd.
So, f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Thus, x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2)

Case IV:
When x1 is even and x2 is odd.
Then, x1 ≠ x2
Also, f(x1) is odd and f(x2) is even.
So, f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Thus, x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
Hence, from cases I, II, III and IV we can observe that f(x) is a one-one function.

Onto function:
Let y ∈ N (codomain) be any arbitrary number.
If y is odd, then there exists an even number y + 1 ∈ N (domain) such that
f(y + 1) = (y + 1) – 1 = y
If y is even, then there exists an odd number y – 1 ∈ N (domain) such that
f(y – 1) = (y – 1) + 1 = y
Thus, every element in N (codomain) has a pre-image in N (domain).
Therefore, f(x) is an onto function.
Hence, the function f(x) is bijective.

Question 110.
If f: R → R is defined as f(x) = 10x + 7. Find the function g :R → R, such that gof = fog = IR.
(All India 2011)
Answer:
Firstly, consider gof(x) = IR(x), further let f(x) is y equal to y and then transform x into y.
Finally replace y by x.
Given, f(x) = 10x + 7
Also, gof = fog = IR

⇒ g [f(x)] = x, ∀ x ∈ R [∵ IR(x) = x,Vxek]

Now, gof = IR ⇒ gof(x) = IR(x)

⇒ g (10x + 7) = x, ∀ x ∈ R
Let 10x+ 7 = y => 10x = y-7
x = y−710 ⇒ g(y) = y−710, ∀ y ∈ k,
or g(x) = y−710, ∀ x ∈ k

Question 111.
If f: R → R is the function defined by f(x) = 4x3 + 7, then show that f is a bijection. (Delhi
2011C)
Answer:
The given function is f: R → R such that f(x) = 4x3 + 7
To show f is bijective, we have to show that f is one-one and onto.

One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ R such that f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ 4x13 + 7 = 4x23 + 7
⇒ 4x13 = 4x23 13 x13 – x23 = 0
⇒ (x1 – x2) (x12 + x1x2 + x22) = 0
⇒ (x1 – x2)[(x1 + x22)2 + \frac{3}{4}22] = 0
⇒ Either x1 – x2 = 0 …………..(i)
0r (x1 + x22)2 + \frac{3}{4}22 = 0 …………(ii)

∴ x1 – x2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x2
But Eq. (ii) gives complex roots as x1, x2 ∈ R.

Thus, f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ R

Therefore, f(x) is a one-one function.

Onto function:
Let ye R (codomain) be any arbitrary number.
Then, f(x) = y ⇒ 4x3 + 7 = y ⇒ 4x3 = y – 7
which is a real number. [∵ y ∈ R]
⇒ x3 = y−74 ⇒ x = (y−74)1/3

Thus, for every y ∈ R (codomain), there exists

⇒ f(x) is an onto function.

Since, f(x) is both one-one and onto, so it is a bijective.

Question 112.
If Z is the set of all integers and R is the relation on Z defined as R = {(a, b):a,b ∈ Z and a – b
is divisible by 5}. Prove that R is an equivalence relation. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
The given relation is R = {(a, b): a, b ∈ Z and a – b is divisible by 5}.
To prove R is an equivalence relation, we have to prove R is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.

Reflexive:
As for any x ∈ Z, we have x – x = 0, which is divisible by 5.
⇒ (x – x) is divisible by 5.
⇒ (x, x) ∈ R, V x ∈ Z Therefore, R is reflexive.

Symmetric:
Let (x, y) ∈ R, where x, y ∈ Z.
⇒ (x – y) is divisible by 5. [by definition of R]
⇒ x – y = 5A for some A ∈ Z.
⇒ y – x = 5(-A)
⇒ (y – x) is also divisible by 5.
⇒ (y, x) ∈ R
Therefore, R is symmetric.

Transitive:
Let (x, y) ∈ R,where x, y ∈ Z.
⇒ (x – y) is divisible by 5.
⇒ x – y = 5Afor some A ∈ Z Again, let (y, z) ∈ R, where y, z ∈ Z.
⇒ (y – 1) is divisible by 5.
⇒ y – z = 5B for some B ∈ Z.
Now, (x – y) + (y – 2) = 5A + 5B
⇒ x – z = 5(A + B)
⇒ (x – z) is divisible by 5 for some (A + B) ∈ Z
⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
Therefore, R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, it is an equivalence relation.

Note: If atleast one of the conditions, i.e. reflexive, symmetric and transitive, is not satisfied,
then we say that the given relation is not an equivalence relation.

Question 113.
Show that the relation S in the set R of real numbers defined as S – {(a, b): a,b ∈ R and a ≤
b3} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Here, the result is disproved by using some specific examples.
Given relation is
S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R and a ≤ b3}

Reflexive:

∴ \left(\frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{2}\right) ∉ S
As 12≤(12)3, where 12 ∈ R, is not true

Therefore, S is not symmetric. (1)

Transitive:
As 3 ≤ (32)3 and 32≤(43)3 where 3, 32,43 ∈ S are true but 3 ≤ (43)3
i.e (3, 32) ∈ S and (32,43) ∈ S but (3, 43) ∉ S
Therefore, S is not transitive.
Hence, S is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.

Question 114.
Show that the relation S in set A = {x ∈ Z: 0 ≤ x ≤ 12} given by S = {(a, b): a, b ∈ |a – b| is
divisible by 4} is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1. (All India
2010)
Answer:
Given relation is S = {(a, b): |a – b| is divisible by 4 and a, b ∈ A}
and A = {x : x ∈ Z and 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}
Now, A can be written as
A = {0,1, 2, 3, …,12}

Reflexive:
As for any x ∈ A, we get |x – x| = 0, which is divisible by 4.
⇒ (x, x) ∈ S, ∀ x ∈ A
Therefore, S is reflexive.

Symmetric:
As for any (x, y) ∈ S, we get |x – y| is divisible by 4. [by using definition of given relation]
⇒ |x – y| = 4λ, for some λ ∈ Z
⇒|y- x| = 4λ, for some λ ∈ Z
⇒ (y, x) ∈ S
Thus, (x, y) ∈ S ⇒ (y, x) ∈ S, ∀ x, y ∈ A
Therefore, S is symmetric.

Transitive:
For any (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S, we get |x – y| is divisible by 4 and |y – z| is divisible by 4.
[by using definition of given relation]
⇒ |x – y| = 4λ and |y – z| = 4μ, for some λ, μ ∈ Z.
Now, x – z = (x – y) + (y – z)
= ± 4λ + 4μ
= ± 4 (λ, + μ)
⇒ |x – z| is divisible by 4.
⇒ (x, z) ∈ S
Thus, (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S
=* (x, z) ∈ S, ∀ x, y, z ∈ A
Therefore, S is transitive.
Since, S is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, so it is an equivalence relation. Now, set of all
elements related to 1 is {1,5,9}.

Question 115.
Show that the relation S defined on set N × N by (a, b) S (c, d) ⇒ a + d = b + c is an
equivalence relation. (All India 2010)
Answer:
Given a relation R in A × A, where A = {1, 2, 3,…, 9}, defined as (a, b) R (c, d), if a + d = b
+ c.

Reflexive:

Now, as a + b = b + a [∵ addition is commutative]

Let (a, b) be any arbitrary element of A × A. i.e. (a, b) ∈ A × A, where a,b ∈ A.

∴ (a, b) R{a, b)
So, R is reflexive.

Symmetric:

⇒ b + c = a + d ⇒ c + b = d + a [∵ addition is commutative]
Let (a, b), (c,d) ∈ A × A, such that (a, b)R(c, d). Then, a + d = b + c
⇒ (c, d) R(a, b)
So, R is symmetric.

Transitive:
Let (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ A × A such that (a, b) R(c, d) and (c, d) R(e, f).
Then, a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e
On adding the above equations,
we get a + d + c + f = b + c + d + e
⇒ a + f = b + e ⇒ (a, b) R(e, f)
So, R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

Now, for [(2, 5)], we will find (c, d) ∈ A × A such that 2 + d = 5+ c or d-c = 3 (1/2)
Clearly, (2, 5) R(1, 4) as 4 – 1 = 3
(2, 5) R(2, 5) as 5 – 2 = 3
(2, 5) R(3, 6) as 6 – 3 = 3
(2, 5) R(4, 7) as 7 – 4 = 3
(2, 5) R(5, 8) as 8 – 5 = 3
and (2, 5) R(6, 9) as 9 – 6 = 3
Hence, equivalence class [(2, 5)]
= {(1, 4), (2, 5),(3, 6),(4, 7),(5, 8),(6, 9)}.

Question 116.
If f : X → Y is a function. Define a relation R on X given by R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}. Show
that R is an equivalence relation on X. (All India 2010C)
Answer:
The given function is f: X → Y and relation on X is R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}

Reflexive:
Since, for every x ∈ X, we have
f(x) = f(x)
⇒ (x, x) ∈ R, ∀ x ∈ X
Therefore, R is reflexive.

Symmetric:
Let (x, y) ∈ R
Then, f(x) = f(y) ⇒ f(y) = f(x) ⇒ (x, y) ∈ R
Thus, (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈ R, ∀ x, y ∈ X
Therefore, R is symmetric.
Transitive:
Let x, y, z ∈ X such that
(x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ R
Then f(x) = f(y) ………..(i)
and f(y) = f(z) ………..(ii)

From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

f(x) = f(y)
⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
Thus, (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R
⇒ (x, z) ∈ R, ∀ x, y, z ∈ X
Therefore, R is transitive.
Since, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, so it is an equivalence relation.

Question 117.
Show that a function f: R → R given by f(x) = ax + b, a, b ∈ R, a ≠ 0 is a bijective. (Delhi
2010C)
Answer:
Given function f: R → R is such that f(x) = ax + b, a, b ∈ R, a ≠ 0
One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ S such that
f(x1) = f(x2)
Then, ax1 + b = ax2 + b

x1 = x2 [∵ a ≠ 0]
⇒ ax1 = ax2

Thus, f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ R

Therefore, f(x) is a one-one function.

Onto function:
Let y ∈ R (codomain) be any arbitrary element.
Then, f(x) = y ⇒ ax + b = y

Clearly, x is a real number. [∵ y ∈ R]

⇒ x = y−ba

Thus, for each y ∈ R (codomain), there exists x = y−ba ∈ R (domain) such that
f(x) = f(y−ba) = a(y−ba) + b = y – b + b = y
Therefore, f(x) is an onto function.
As f(x) is both one-one and onto, so it is a bijective function.

Question 118.
Let A = {x ∈ Z: 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}. Show that R = {(a, b): a, b ∈ A, |a – b| is divisible by 4} is an
equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1. Also, write the equivalence
class [2]. (CBSE 2018)
Answer:
The set of all elements related to [2]
= {a ∈ A : |2 – a| is divisible by 4}
= {2, 6,10}

(Given relation is S = {(a, b): |a – b| is divisible by 4 and a, b ∈ A}

and A = {x : x ∈ Z and 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}
Now, A can be written as
A = {0,1, 2, 3, …,12}

Reflexive:
As for any x ∈ A, we get |x – x| = 0, which is divisible by 4.
⇒ (x, x) ∈ S, ∀ x ∈ A
Therefore, S is reflexive.

Symmetric:
As for any (x, y) ∈ S, we get |x – y| is divisible by 4. [by using definition of given relation]
⇒ |x – y| = 4λ, for some λ ∈ Z
⇒|y- x| = 4λ, for some λ ∈ Z
⇒ (y, x) ∈ S
Thus, (x, y) ∈ S ⇒ (y, x) ∈ S, ∀ x, y ∈ A
Therefore, S is symmetric.

Transitive:
For any (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S, we get |x – y| is divisible by 4 and |y – z| is divisible by 4.
[by using definition of given relation]
⇒ |x – y| = 4λ and |y – z| = 4μ, for some λ, μ ∈ Z.
Now, x – z = (x – y) + (y – z)
= ± 4λ + 4μ
= ± 4 (λ, + μ)
⇒ |x – z| is divisible by 4.
⇒ (x, z) ∈ S
Thus, (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S
=* (x, z) ∈ S, ∀ x, y, z ∈ A
Therefore, S is transitive.
Since, S is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, so it is an equivalence relation. Now, set of all
elements related to 1 is {1,5,9}.)

Question 119.
Show that the function f: R → R defined by f(x) = xx2+1, ∀ x ∈ R is neither one-one nor
onto. Also, if g: R → R is defined as g(x) = 2x – 1, find fog (x). (CBSE 2018)
Answer:
We have, a function f: R → R defined by
f(x) = xx2+1, ∀ x ∈ R
To show f is neither one-one nor onto.
(i) One-one:
Let x1, x2 ∈ R such that
f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x1x21+1=x2x22+1
⇒ x1 (x22 + 1) = x2(x12 + 1)
⇒ x1x22 + x1 = x2x12 + x2
⇒ x1x2(x2 – x1) = (x2 – x1)
⇒ (x2 – x1)(x1x2 – 1) = 0
⇒ x2 = x1 or x1x2 = 1
⇒ x1 = x2 or x1 = 1x2
Here, f is not one-one as if we take.
In particular, x1 = 2 and x2 = 12, we get

∴ f is not one-one.

(ii) Onto:
Let y ∈ R (codomain) be any arbitrary element.

∴ y = xx2+1 ⇒ x2y + y = x
Consider, y = f(x)

⇒ x2y – x + y = 0
⇒ x = 1±I−4y2√2y, which does not exist for
1 – 4y2 < 0, i.e for y > 12 and y < −12

In particular for y = 1 ∈ R (codomain), there does not exist any x ∈ R (domain) such that f(x)
= y. f is not onto. Hence, f is neither one-one nor onto. Now, it is given that g :R → R defined
as g(x) = 2x – 1 g(x) = 2x – 1

Question 120.
Show that the relation R on the set Z of all integers defined by (x, y) ∈ R ⇔ (x – y) is
divisible by 3 is an equivalence relation. (CBSE 2018C)
Answer:
The given relation is R = {(a, b): a, b ∈ Z and a – b is divisible by 5}.
To prove R is an equivalence relation, we have to prove R is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.

Reflexive:
As for any x ∈ Z, we have x – x = 0, which is divisible by 5. ⇒ (x – x) is divisible by 5.
⇒ (x, x) ∈ R, V x ∈ Z Therefore, R is reflexive.

Symmetric:
Let (x, y) ∈ R, where x, y ∈ Z. ⇒ (x -y) is divisible by 5. [by definition of R]
⇒ x – y = 5A for some A Z. ⇒ y-x = 5(-A) ⇒ (y- x) is also divisible by 5.
⇒ (y, x) ∈ R
Therefore, R is symmetric.

Transitive:
Let (x, y) ∈ R, where x, y ∈ Z.
⇒ (x – y) is divisible by 5.
⇒ x – y = 5Afor some A ∈ Z Again, let (y, z) ∈ R, where y, z ∈ Z.
⇒ (y – 1) is divisible by 5.
⇒ y – z = 5B for some B ∈ Z.

Now, (x – y) + (y – 2) = 5A + 5B
⇒ x – z = 5(A + B)
⇒ (x – z) is divisible by 5 for some (A + B) ∈ Z
⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
Therefore, R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, it is an equivalence relation.

Note: If atleast one of the conditions, i.e. reflexive, symmetric and transitive, is not satisfied,
then we say that the given relation is not an equivalence relation.

Question 121.
Consider f: R+ → [-5, ∞) given by f(x) = 9x2 + 6x – 5. Show that f is invertible with f-1(y) =
(y+6√−13). Hence find
(i) f-1(10)
(ii) y if -1(y) = 43
where R+ is the set of all non-negative real numbers. (Delhi 2017; Foreign 2010)
Answer:
Here, function f: R+ → [-5, ∞) given by f(x) = 9x2 + 6x – 5
One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ R+ such that
f(x1) = f(x2)
Then, 9x12 + 6x1 – 5 = 9x2 + 6x2 – 5
⇒ 9(x12 – x22) + 6(x1 – x2) = 0
⇒ 9(x1 + x2)(x1 – x2) + 6(x1 – x2) = 0

⇒ x1 – x2 = 0 [∵ x1, x2 ∈ R+ ∴ 9(x1 + x2 + 6 ≠ 0)
⇒ (x1 – x2)[9(x1 + x2) + 6] = 0

⇒ x1 = x2, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ R+
Therefore, f(x) is one-one function.

Onto function:
Let y be any arbitrary element of
Then, y = f(x)
y = 9x2 + 6x – 5
y = (3x + 1)2 – 1 – 5= (3x + 1)2 – 6
(3x + 1)2 = y + 6
3x + 1 = y/y + 6, as y ≥ -5 ⇒ y + 6 ≥ 0
x = y+6√−13
Therefore, f is onto, thereby range f = [- 5, ∞)
Let us define g:[-5, ∞) → R+ as g(y) = y+6√−13
Now, (gof)(x) = g[f(x)] = g(9x2 + 6x – 5)
= g(3x + 1)2 – 6)

=y+6–6=y
Therefore, gof = IR+ and fog = I[-5, ∞)
Hence, f is invertible and the inverse of f is given by

(i) ∴ f-1(10) = 10+6√−13=16√−13=4−13 = 1

f-1(y) = g(y) = y+6√−13

(ii) If f-1(y) = 43 ⇒ y = f(4/3) = 9(4/3)2 + 6(4/3) – 5

= 16 + 8 – 5 = 19

Question 122.
Consider f : R – {−43} → R – {43} given by f(x) = 4x+33x+4. Show that f is bijective. Find
the inverse of f and hence find f-1(0) and x such that f-1(x) = 2. (All India 2017)
Answer:
Given, f: R – {−43} → R – {43}
defined as f(x) = 4x+33x+4
Let x1, x2 ∈ R – {−43}
such that f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ 4x1+33x1+4=4x2+33x2+4
⇒ (4x1 + 3)(3x2 + 4) = (3x1 + 4)(4x2 + 3)
⇒ 12x1x2 + 16x1 + 9x2 + 12 = 12x1x2 + 9x1 + 16x2 + 12
⇒ 7x1 = 7x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 ⇒ f is one-one.
Let y ∈ R – {−43}, such that y ≠ 43

The function f is onto if there exist

x ∈ R – {−43}, such that f(x) = y
Now, f(x) = y ⇒ 4x+33x+4 = y ⇒ 4x + 3 = y (3x + 4)
⇒ 4x + 3 = 3xy + 4y ⇒ 4x – 3xy = 4y – 3
⇒ x (4 – 3y) = 4y – 3
⇒ x = 4x+33x+4 ∈ R – {−43} (y ≠ 43)
Thus, for any y ∈ R – {43}
Since, f is one-one and onto, so f-1 exists

Question 123.
Let f: N → N be a function defined as f(x) – 9x2 + 6% – 5. Show that f: N → S, where S is
the range of f, is invertible. Find the inverse of f and hence find f-1(43) and f-1(-3). (Delhi
2016)
Answer:
We have a mapping f: N → N given by
f(x) = 9x2 + 6x – 5

One-one function:
Let x1, x2 ∈ N. such that
f(x1) = f(x2)
Then, 9x12 + 6x1 – 5= 9x22 + 6x2 – 5
⇒ 9x12 + 6x1 = 9x22 + 6x2
⇒ 9(x12 – x22) + 6 (x1 – x2) = o
⇒ 3(x1 – x2)(x1 + x2) + 2(x1 – x2) = 0 [divide by 3]

∴ x1 – x2 = 0 or 3x1 + 3x2 + 2 = 0
⇒ (x1 – x2) (3x1 + 3x2 + 2) = 0

∴ x1 – x2 = 0 = x1 = x2
But 3x1 + 3x2 + 2 ≠ 0 [: x1, x2 ∈ N)

So, f is one-one function.

Onto function:
Obviously, f : N → S is an onto function, because S is the range of f.
Thus, f :N → S is one-one and onto function.
⇒ f is invertible function, so its inverse exists.
Let f(x) = y, then y = 9×2 + 6x – 5 (1)
⇒ y = (3x)2 + 2 – 3x – 1 + 1 – 6
⇒ y = (3x + 1)2 – 6
⇒ (3x + 1 )2 = y + 6
⇒ 3x + 1 = y+6−−−−√ [taking positive square root as x ∈ N]

Question 124.
If f, g: R → R be two functions defined as f(x)= |x| + x and g(x)= |x| – x, ∀ x ∈ R. Then, find
fog and gof. Hence find fog (-3), fog{ 5) and gof(-2). (Foreign 2016)
Answer:
(i) Given, f(x) = |x| + x and g(x) = |x| – x, ∀ x ∈ R.
Thus, for x ≥ 0,gof (x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x) = 0
and for x < 0, gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(0) = 0 ⇒ gof(x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R Similarly, for x > 0, fog (x) =
f(g(x)) = f(0) = 0
and for x < 0, fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f(-2x)
= 2(-2x) = -4x

(ii) We have, gof(x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ R.

Clearly, fg(-3) = -4(-3) = 12,

fog(5) = 0 and gof(-2) = 0.

Question 125.
If N denotes the set of all natural numbers and R be the relation on N × N defined by (a, b) R
(c, d), if ad(b + c) = bc(a + d). Show that R is an equivalence relation. (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
We have, a relation R on N × N defined by (a, b)R(c, d), if ad(b + c) = bc(a + d).

Reflexive:
Let (a, b) ∈ N × N be any arbitrary element. We have to show {a, b) R {a, b), i.e. to show
ab(b + a) = ba(a + b) which is trivally true as natural numbers are commutative under usual
multiplication and addition.
Since, (a, b) ∈ N × N was arbitrary, therefore R is reflexive.

Symmetric:
Let (a, b), (c, d) ∈ N × N such that (a, b) R (c, d), i.e. ad(b + c) = bc(a + d) …(i)
To show, (c, d) R (a, b), i.e. to show cb(d + a) = da(c + b)
From Eq.(i), we have

⇒ da(c + b) = cb(d + a) [∵ natural numbers are commutative under usual addition and
ad(b + c) = bc(a + d)

multiplication]
⇒ cb(d + a) = da(c + b)
⇒ (c, d) R (a, b)
Thus, R is symmetric.

Transitive:
Let (a, b), (c, d) and (e, f) ∈ N × N such that (a, b) R (c, d) and (c, d) R (e, f).
Now, (a, b) R (c, d) ⇒ ad(b + c) = bc(a + d) /Ans.

⇒ af(e + b) = be(f + a)
⇒ af(b + e) = be(a + f)
⇒ (a, b) R (e, f)
⇒ R is transitive.
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, hence R is an equivalence relation.