Information & communication technology basics

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

What is a Computer?
In its literal meaning, a computer is any calculating device or machine, which is electrical, mechanical or
electromechanical. But that doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. This literal meaning was
attached because the inventors (Mathematicians or physists) invent computers for making calculations only. But
today’s computers not only process numbers, they process texts, pictures, and multimedia and so on. Therefore
the meanings of a computer, nowadays, are broader than computing concepts.
Generally a computer is an electronic device that takes an input process it under a set of instructions
called program and produce an output.
Why we need computers is that if we want some problem to be solved, in now days computers can solve
problems if the problem can be solved in to logical stapes.

Application of Computers

Why we use Computers?

The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which are reasons for using Computers.

 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability; Making simple and
complex calculation
 To make statistical chars
 For research purposes
 Listening music
 For diagnostic Purposes
 For weather for casts
 For drawing purposes
 For watching movies, Etc.

Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions, task or process that requires these abilities.

The main areas of computer applications are categorized into:

a) Commercial or business applications
 Covers the use of computers for clerical, administrative, production and business use.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
 Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and

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analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Nuclear control systems

History of Computers

The invention of Computers is dated back to 3000 B.C. when the first computing device Abacus was created.

The French mathematician, physicist and religious philosopher Blaise Pascal developed the first mechanical
adding machine in 1642 to help his father, a civil servant in tax calculations. Blaise’s adding machine used
gears with teeth to represent numbers.

In 1842 an English mathematician, Charles Babbage was attempting to develop an automatic computing device
for calculation called “Difference engine” but it was never finished. With the aid of lady August Ada Lovelace,
Babbage turned his talents to the development of an analytical machine to compute astronomical tables for the
Navy. The analytical machine was to be a digital machine capable of one addition per second with data entered
from punched cards and a built in storage unit. Though the project suffered from financial & tooling limitations
(it was 100 years head of its time). Babbage & Lovelace left special schematic symbols, sketches and detailed
drawing of the machine.

The 1880 census had taken over seven years to complete by manual method and by then the young country’s
population had increased nearly 24 percent. It was at this time, Herman Hollerith; a government statician
provided the solution with a punched card system of collecting and tabulating the data. His strong and
tabulating equipment or machine was extremely successful and allowed the 1890 census to be completed in less
than two years. Hollerith continued to develop his card methods for railroad accounting and founded the
tabulating machine company which later changed to International Business Machine Corporation (IBM).

In 1945, two University of Pennsylvania scientists, John Mauchly & Presper Eckert, designed the Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), the first general purpose electronic digital computer. It had over
18,000 vacuum tubes and 500,000 soldered joints and it weighed more than 30 tones and it occupied over
15,000 Ft2 . It consumes enormous amounts of power (140 Kilowatts of power).

 ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on boards similar to a telephone switch
board.
 One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually by setting switches and
plugging and unplugging cables.

Eckert and Mauchly subsequently developed the UNIVAC-I (Universal Automatic computer), the first
electronic computer offered as a commercial product.

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John Von Neuman, a mathematician genius at Princeton, is sometimes called the intellectual father of computer.
He has been credited with developing highly significant stored program theory, and his 1946 paper entitled “A
preliminary discussion of the logical design of an Electronic computing instrument” is the authoritative
statement on storing data and instruction in computers. He also defined and promoted flowcharts as logic aids.

2.1. Generation of Computers

Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer developments are often
categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and major characteristics that distinguish these
generations are the following;

 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (a time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).

Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically tenfold or
better increases in speed and reliability.

First generation (1950s)

World War gave rise to numerous developments and started off the computer age. Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) were produced by a partnershp between University of Pennsylvannia and the
US government. It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 7000 resistors. It was developed by John Presper
Eckert and John W. Mauchly and was a general purpose computer. "Von Neumann designed the Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well
as data." Von Neumann's computer allowed for all the computer functions to be controlled by a single source.
Then in 1951 came the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), designed by Remington rand and
collectively owned by US census bureau and General Electric. UNIVAC amazingly predicted the winner of
1952, presidential elections, Dwight D. Eisenhower.
In first generation computers, the operating instructions or programs were specifically built for the task for
which computer was manufactured. The Machine language was the only way to tell these machines to perform
the operations. There was great difficulty to program these computers and more when there were some
malfunctions. First Generation computers used Vacuum tubes and magnetic drums (for data storage).
Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for internal storage. They
operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more than 10,000 additions each
second. Most applications were scientific calculations.

Second generations (early 1960s)

The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. These transistors took place of the
vacuum tubes used in the first generation computers. The transistor was smaller, faster and more reliable than
the vacuum tube. First large scale machines were made using these technologies to meet the requirements of

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atomic energy laboratories.
One of the other benefits to the programming group was that the second generation replaced Machine language
with the assembly language. Even though complex in itself Assembly language was much easier than the binary
code.
Second generation computers also started showing the characteristics of modern day computers with utilities
such as printers, disk storage and operating systems. Many financial information was processed using these
computers.
In Second Generation computers, the instructions (program) could be stored inside the computer's memory.
High-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula
Translator) were used, and they are still used for some applications nowadays.
The most widely used second generations were
Examples
IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers
IBM 7094 –large scientific computer

Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

Although transistors were great deal of improvement over the vacuum tubes, they generated heat and damaged
the sensitive areas of the computer. The Integrated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined
electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz. More advancement made possible the
fittings of even more components on a small chip or a semi conductor. Also in third generation computers, the
operating systems allowed the machines to run many different applications. These applications were monitored
and coordinated by the computer's memory.
Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide modularity
(expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable equipment). Software become more important with
sophisticated operating systems, improved programming languages, and new input/output methods such as
optical scanning and plotters.
Example
 IBM system /360 was the dominant
 IBM 1130

Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)

Fourth Generation computers are the modern day computers. The Size started to go down with the improvement
in the intenerated circuits. Very Large Scale (VLSI) and Ultra Large scale (ULSI) ensured that millions of
components could be fit into a small chip. It reduced the size and price of the computers at the same time
increasing power, efficiency and reliability. "The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit
one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and
output controls) on a minuscule chip."
The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for the sharing of data. Local Area
Networks(LAN) and Wide Area Network(WAN), were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in
corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet and World Wide Web appeared on the
computer scene and formented the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's.
The fifth generation computer

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Fifth generations computers are only in the minds of advance research scientiets and being tested out in the
laboratories. These computers will be under Artifical Intelligence (AI), They will be able to take commands in a
audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which requires low human intelligence will
be perfomed by these computers.
Parallel Processing is coming and showing the possibiliy that the power of many CPU's can be used side by
side, and computers will be more powerful than thoes under central processing. Advances in Super Conductor
technology will greatly improve the speed of information traffic. Future looks bright for the computers.
These computers will have:
 Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
 Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc.
Japans are working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.

Characteristics of Computers

The characteristic of a computer shows the capability and the potential of the computer for processing data. This
saves time, space, money, labor etc.

There are four basic characteristics of computer.

 Speed
The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one step at a time.
Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed
measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one millionths), nano second (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-
12
one trillionths).

 Storage
You can image how much space a paper of seconds or data of a census it needs. Not only the space, also the
time it took to get or retrieve specific information from such vast amount of data is not negligible.

But a computer can store such amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And the time it took to retrieve
or process single information is not more than a micro or a nano seconds. In general a computer has a capacity
to store a very large amount of information in organized manner so that accessing information is very fast.

 Accuracy

Now a day’s computers are being used for surgical purposes which need almost hundred percent accuracy.
From this we can understand that computer is accurate and consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data
or unreliable program the computer processes with a very accurate.

 Automatic

Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it performs processing without human
intervention.

 Versatility

Computers have the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and problems, as long as the problem or the
task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.

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Types of Computers

There are different types of computers. Their difference depends on different categories of characteristics.

Classification by the method of operation (processing)

Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. They are classified into three:

Analog, Digital and hybrid Computers

Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t compute directly with
numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current
etc.

Examples
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into two
measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
They are special purpose computers.
However, analog computers have limited accuracy

Digital Computers

Digital computers deal with discrete variables, they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate
directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.

Examples:
 Abacus
 Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog ones.

Hybrid computers

The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it
into digital quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output from digital to analog form.

Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function, temperature and other
vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the
system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an immediate signal to the
nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are detected.

Classification by purpose of application

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Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as
special purpose or general purpose computers.

Special purpose computers

They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are uniquely
adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.

Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or set of
instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the computer
one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General
computers are more flexible and versatile.

Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.

Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. General-purpose digital computers
are then classified as follows by their capacity and size.

Super computer:- are the fastest, largest and most potential type of computer. They have speed of hundreds of
millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million characters, a secondary
memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory. They are multi-user systems in intercontinental
range. They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations. They are used to process huge amount of
data and are commonly used in space technology centers, meteorology stations, astronomical observatories,
inter continental communications, airline organizations.

Mainframe computers:- Smaller than in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the super
computers. However they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used in large
organizations. The older ones used punched card for data input.

Mini computers:- have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the

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mainframe computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.

Micro computers:- are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can fit on desktops,
are of varying capacity and easy to handle. Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal computers.
They have video display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the keyboard and by the help of floppy
disk.

Chapter Two
Computer Systems
System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a coordination fashion to
achieve some objective.

A computer system composed of components that are classified either as Computer hardware or Computer
software.

Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is the physical equipment of the computer you see and touch.
Hardware can be classified as:

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 Input Hardware
 Processing hardware
 Memories
 Output devices
 Storage Hardware

A typical looks for personal computer

1: Input Devices:
You use input devices to put information into the computer or convert any format of information in a format that
can be processed by computer. Typical input devices are listed below.
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joystick
 Touch Sensitive Screen
 Light Pen
 Digital Stills Camera
 Bar Code Reader
 Voice Data Entry
 Video Capture

Joystick: The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an aircraft's control stick, it enables you to move within the
screen's environment, and is widely used in the computer games industry.

A joystick
Mouse: A mouse is an input device used to move the cursor on the computer’s screen when it is moved on a
surface and give different commands to the computer by clicking over user interface components.

Touch Sensitive Screen

A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that enables the user to interact with the computer by touching the
screen.

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Light Pen : A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU.
The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against the screen, detects the light
from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

A light pen
Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing' directly onto the screen, but this can become uncomfortable, and they
are not as accurate as digitizing tablets.

Digital Stills Camera: Digital Stills Cameras capture an image which is stored in memory within the camera.
When the memory is full it can be erased and further images captured.
The digital images can then be downloaded from the camera to a computer where they can be displayed,
manipulated or printed.

A digital stills camera

Bar Code Reader: You might have seen bar codes on goods in supermarkets, in libraries and on magazines. Bar
codes provide a quick method of recording the sale of items.

An infra-red bar code reader

A bar code
A bar code is a pattern printed in lines of differing thickness. The system gives fast and error-free entry of
information into the computer.

Voice Data Entry: This system accepts the spoken word as input data or commands.
Human speech is very complex, involving emphasis and facial expressions, so complete voice recognition will
not be developed for some time.

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A microphone used for data input

However, simple commands from one user can be used to control machines.
In this way a paralyzed person can operate a wheelchair or control heating and lighting.

2 Processor - CPU
The CPU of the computer is the brain of the computer which performs all arithmetic, logical and control
operations. The function of the CPU is to execute programs stored in the main memory by fetching instructions,
examining them, and executing them one after the other.
They are processor chips which are very large integrated circuits mainly made up of silicon and gold. Processor
chips vary slightly in look depending on which company has made them.

The underside of a Pentium processor

CPU - Architecture
The CPU consists of a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.

Units of a processor chip (CPU)

Control Unit
Tasks carried out by a CPU are listed below:
1. decoding the instructions within a computer
2. sequencing the reading and writing of data within the CPU and externally on the data bus
3. controlling the sequence in which instructions are executed
4. controlling the operations performed by the ALU
ALU (arithmetic and logic unit)
The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical operations and
comparisons of data.

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CPU - Registers
The CPU also contains a small high speed memory which is used to store temporary results and control
information.

3. Output Devices
These devices display information that has been held or generated within a computer. Convert information
processed by CPU to human understandable format either visually or in any format.
Some examples are shown below.
 VDU or Monitor
 Printer
 Robot
 Machine Tool
 Synthesized Voice
 Plotter

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Visual Display Units (VDU)
Also called monitors are used to visually interface with the computer and are similar in appearance to a television.

A cathode ray monitor A plasma monitor

Printers Are devices used to print out information that is in the computer onto paper. By printing you create what
is known as a 'hard copy'.

Robots
 Robots are able to perform a variety of tasks as a result of executing instructions contained within a
program.
 We are still a long way from the science fiction robots and androids portrayed by the film industry.

A robot arm
Robots in a business sense mean automated machines designed to perform mundane operations which require
accuracy, such as assembling cars.
They are seldom manufactured to resemble the human form.
Voice
 Voice synthesis has a robotic sound due to the difficulties of replicating the complexities of human speech
and pronunciation.
 Voice answer back (VAB) is used to respond to telephone enquiries, such as the speaking clock.

A speak and spell toy

.
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Plotters
 Plotters are used to produce graphs or diagrams.

A drum plotter
4 Storage Devices
There are two types of memories. The primary storage devices and the secondary storage devices.
A) Primary Storage Devises
 The memory of a computer is the part used to hold /store/ programs and data.
 The memory of a computer is constructed from microchips. Memory can be thought of as a set of
pigeon holes or cells with each one having a unique address. Each pigeon hole can store 8 bits of
data.
 A computer contains two types of memory, Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM).
Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM) is responsible for storing the instructions and data that the
computer is using at that present moment in time. It is described as volatile memory as the
contents of RAM chips can be lost when the computer is turned off or when new data is
being written to RAM while other data is being processed.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
 ROM is responsible for storing permanent data and instructions.

B. Secondary Storage Devices

In many cases the information that has been processed is stored in machine-readable format so that it may be
accessed at a later time by a computer. This data is stored in binary form in 'bits'.
This practice requires the use of storage devices.
Storage Devices:
 Hard Disk
 Magnetic Tape
 Floppy Disk
 Optical Disk

Hard Disk The hard disk is direct-access storage medium with a rigid magnetic disk. The data is stored as
magnetized spots arranged in concentric circles (tracks) on the disk.Each track are divided into sectors. The
number of tracks and sectors on a disk is known as its 'format'.

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Hard disk showing internal mechanisms

High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a high speed (about 3,600 rpm). As the disk rotates read/write
heads move to the correct track. The storage capacity of a hard disk can be Gigabytes (Gb), i.e. thousands of
Megabytes (1000Mb), of information.
Magnetic tape A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic material, used for
recording analogue or digital data. Magnetic tape is a serial access medium, similar to an audio cassette, and so
data (like the songs on a music tape) cannot be quickly located.

Magnetic Tape

One of the many types of magnetic storage devices available

However large amounts of information can be stored within magnetic tape. This characteristic has prompted its
use in the regular backing up of hard disks.
Floppy Disk A floppy disk is a thin magnetic-coated disk contained in a flexible or semi-rigid protective jacket.

A 3.5" floppy disk

The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size. However, older floppy disks may be in use; these would be 5.25" in size.
Double sided high density 3.5" disks can hold 1.44 Mb of data.
Once data is stored on a floppy disk it can be 'write protected' by clicking a tab on the disk. This prevents any new
data being stored or any old data being erased.

Optical Disk An optical disk is impressed with a series of spiral pits in a flat surface. A master disk is burnt by
high-intensity laser beams in bit-patterns from which subsequent copies are formed which can be read optically
by laser.

A CD-ROM
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The optical disk is random access storage medium; information can be easily read from any point on the disk. A
standard CD-ROM can store up to 650Mb of data, with 14,500 tracks per inch (tpi).
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory. It is now possible to have CD-ROMs where extra
tracks of information can be written onto them by the user. These are called read/writable CD-ROMs and these
are becoming a popular and cheap method for storage.

Computer software
Computer hardware can not perform alone. To accomplish any task, hardware must given a serious of instructions
called software.
The finite set of instructions that the computer follows to do a given job is called program. The group of programs
that the computer needs to function is known as software.
We can classify software in two major parts
1. System Software
2. Application Software
1.System software
Refers to programs designed to perform tasks associated with directly controlling and utilizing computer
hardware. It does not accomplish specific task to the user, such as creating document or analyzing data. System
software constitutes those programs, which increase the facilities of the hardware system. It lies the hardware and
the application software.
Systems software was developed in order to automate the following routine tasks:
 Allocation of various programs to main memory
 Loading of programs that perform routines to control peripheral devices.
 Execution of programs.
Systems software provides a means of standardizing the various activities performed during the execution of these
tasks.
Systems Software Systems software has been categorized into Operating Systems, utility software and
programming language.

A. Operating Systems The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose
computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as
recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories
on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Operating systems are responsible for providing essential services within a computer system:
 Initial loading of programs and transfer of programs between secondary storage and main memory
 Supervision of the input/output devices
 File management
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 Protection facilities
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it
makes sure those different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The
operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.

B. Utility programs : this is another category for system software generally used to support , enhance , or
expand existing programs in a computer system. Many operating systems have utility programs built in for
common purposes. Additional utility programs are available separately. Some of examples of the utility programs
are the following.
 Backup software it is a type of software which facilitate to a user to have a recovery copy if his/her
computer suddenly stop.
 Data recovery : it is used to restore data that has been physically damaged or corrupted. Data can be
damaged by viruses, bad software, hardware failure and power fluctuation.
 Virus protection if there is an attack of computer viruses on your computer system there may be a need to
have antivirus utility software.
 Data compression utility remove redundant elements , gaps and unnecessary data from the computer
storage space so that you will have enough space to work and to transport data.

C.Language software: it is the other subdivision of system software which is normally used by the programmer
to develop application program. It is a generic name consisting of various programs that serves as compliers and
translators to develop program in a number of different programming language.

2. Application software
Application software refers to those programs developed to meet particular user requirements for specific
application.
The common application programs are.
Word processing: it is a type of software which permit the user to create, edit, format, file and print usually text
documents. Eg MS-WORD, WordPerfect, WordStar, WordPad.
Spreadsheet: it is an electronic tabular spreadsheet displayed on the VDU of the computer. It provide the user the
opportunity to create, edit, format, file , print, calculate, analyze data in tabular form. E.g. FoxPro, MS-Excel and
so on.
Database management: serve to create computerized datable, to insert records, to make queries , to analyze
data, and append data. Eg.MS-acess
Graphics software: these are a type of application software which provide the user the workspace to create, edit,.
Format image and graphical information. Eg Autocad,
Presentation application software: which provide the user to create edit and present presentations, eg. MS-
power point

Chapter Three
Basics of information, Data, Data Processing and Data Representation
Data and information:
Data can be defined as any type of representation of an object or an event
Representation could be in the form of , number , text symbols , voice, static or dynamic image and so on.
Most data represent only a very small number of attributes of the object or the event in question.

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Information can be defined as a processed or summarized data for a particular analysis or decision making. What
are useful are both:-
 Specific to the task and
 The knowledge of analyst (decision maker)
We can also define as compiled or useful data for decision making.
For many task (information) useful data is observations of behaviors recorded as numerical measurements, text,
symbols, voice message or images. Such observation enables the analyst to determine the current status of the
observed behavior and to predict future behavior.

Data Processing
Is the process of converting data in to information? The process usually assumed to be automated and
running on a personal computer (Generally information communication technology). More generally the term
data processing can apply to any process that converts data form one formats to another ; for this perspectives ,
data processing becomes the processes of converting data in to information and also the converting of information
back in to data.

Basics Operations of data processing

Data processing may be done manually, mechanically, electronically or a combination of both. For our lesson we
give emphasis on electronic data processing. The following are the basic operations during data processing
electronically.
1. Input refers capturing the information. During the operation data is entered or otherwise capture
electronically and is converted to a form that can be processed by the electronic machine (computer).
2. Processing the data is manipulated (analyzed) to transform in to useful information. During the operation
useful actions like arithmetic operation, sorting, classifying and summarization may made on the row data.
3. Output generating the processed data ( information) to the user using different devices
4. Disseminating dispatching the information to the appropriate user through communication Medias.
5. Storing accumulating the processed data for later use or processing.

Data processing
Addition Disseminating
Subtraction
Input Division
Row data multiplication Out put
sorting Processed data
expertise knowledge (information
Classification etc...

Storing

Storing Storing
For later processing For later use

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Information source
Information sources generally categorized in to two broad categories. These are
1. Documentary information sources: those information sources which we normally obtain them either in
paper printed format or electronically recorded format. Documentary information sources again categorized in
to three groups.
o Primary documentary information sources: - they are original material. They are from the time
period involved and have not been filtered through interpretation. Examples of primary information
sources are
 Diaries
 Interviews( legal proceedings, personal, telephone, e-mail)
 Letters
 Original document
 Patents
 Photographs
 Proceedings( meeting, Conference, and Symposia)
 Survey research
 Works of Literature
o Secondary sources: are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are
interpretation and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather
commentary on and discussion of evidence. Examples of secondary information sources are
 Scholarly periodicals
 Books
 Text books
 Commentaries
 Monographs
o Tertiary information sources: consists of information which is a distillation on collection of primary
and secondary sources.
 Almanac
 Encyclopedias
 Fact books
 Indexes(used to locate primary and secondary information sources)

2. Non-documentary information sources. Those information sources which don’t recorded in any format. E.g.
public speech, informal talks with friends, discussion group etc…
o Formal : an information sources from formal meetings , conferences
o Non formal: informal communication with friends, discussion group etc…

Data Representation and Numbering Systems

We know that the computer is an electronic device ie it works using electrical signals. Electrical signals can
represent only two states; on and off. (Eg an electric bulb). So any information that has to be processed by
a digital computer has to be converted in to a format which has two states. So in digital information
processing we use the binary number system which has two digits.

The Binary Number System

Binary numbers all consist of combinations of the two digits '0' and '1'. These are some examples of binary
numbers: 1, 10,1010,11111011, and 11000000 10101000 00001100 01011101
sometimes the binary numbering system called a base-two system because binary numbers only contain two
digits.

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Number Base Conversion
Binary to Decimal
It is very easy to convert from a binary number to a decimal number. Just like the decimal system, we multiply
each digit by its weighted position, and add each of the weighted values together. For example, the binary value
1100 1010 represents:
1x27 + 1x26 + 0x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 =1 x 128 + 1 x 64 + 0 x 32 + 0 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2
+ 0 x 1 =128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 202
Decimal to Binary
To convert decimal to binary is slightly more difficult. There are two methods that may be used to convert
from decimal to binary, repeated division by 2, and repeated subtraction by the weighted position value.
Repeated Division By 2
For this method, divide the decimal number by 2, if the remainder is 0, on the side write down a 0. If the remainder is 1, write down a 1.
This process is continued by dividing the quotient by 2 and dropping the previous remainder until the quotient is 0. When performing the
division, the remainders which will represent the binary equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning at the least significant
digit (right) and each new digit is written to more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number 2671.

Division Quotient Remainder Binary Number

2671 / 2 1335 1 1

1335 / 2 667 1 11

667 / 2 333 1 111

333 / 2 166 1 1111

166 / 2 83 0 0 1111

83 / 2 41 1 10 1111

41 / 2 20 1 110 1111

20 / 2 10 0 0110 1111

10 / 2 5 0 0 0110 1111

5/2 2 1 10 0110 1111

2/2 1 0 010 0110 1111

1/2 0 1 1010 0110 1111

Binary Number Formats

We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits (bits is short for binary digits). We have defined boundaries for these bits. These
boundaries are:

Name Size (bits) Example

Bit 1 1

Nibble 4 0101

Byte 8 0000 0101

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Word 16 0000 0000 0000 0101

Double Word 32 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
In any number base, we may add as many leading zeroes as we wish without changing its value. However, we normally add leading
zeroes to adjust the binary number to a desired size boundary. For example, we can represent the number five as:

Bit 101

Nibble 0101

Byte 0000 0101

Word 0000 0000 0000 0101

We'll number each bit as follows:
1. The rightmost bit in a binary number is bit position zero.
2. Each bit to the left is given the next successive bit number.
Bit zero is usually referred to as the LSB (least significant bit). The left-most bit is typically called the MSB (most
significant bit). We will refer to the intermediate bits by their respective bit numbers.

The Bit
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a single bit is capable of representing only
two different values (typically zero or one).
The Nibble
A nibble is a collection of bits on a 4-bit boundary.
The Byte
A byte also contains exactly two nibbles. Bits b0 through b3 comprise the low order nibble, and bits b4 through
b7 form the high order nibble.

The Word

A word also contains either 16-bits or two bytes.

The Double Word

A double word is exactly what its name implies, two words. Therefore, a double word quantity is 32 bits.
Naturally, this double word can be divided into a high order word and a low order word, four bytes, or eight
nibbles.

Chapter Four
Operating systems
3.1 Introduction to operating systems

It is the most important system software that runs on a computer. It is a layer of software which takes care of
technical aspects of a computer's operation. It shields the user of the machine from the low-level details of the
machine's operation and provides frequently needed facilities. Every general-purpose computer must have an
operating system to run other programs. You can think of it as being the software which should already be
installed on a machine, before you add anything of your own (Eg- application soft wares). At the foundation of all
system software, an operating system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing

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system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking, and managing file systems.
Normally the operating system has a number of key elements:

 a technical layer of software for driving the hardware of the computer, like disk drives, the keyboard
and the screen;
 a file system which provides a way of organizing files logically, and
 a simple command language which enables users to run their own programs and to manipulate their
files in a simple way. Since the operating system (OS) is in charge of a computer, all requests to use its
resources and devices need to go through the OS. An OS therefore provides
 legal entry points into its code for performing basic operations like writing to devices.

In general operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. Some of the currently in
use operating systems are MS windows, Unix, Linux, Mac OS and the likes.

3.2 Operating system functions

i. Controlling operations (control program)

 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.

 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications software and the user.
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive.
 It performs all its controlling tasks with out the involvement or awareness of the user.
 Memory management
 File management

ii. Input/output Management

 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow of data to the
display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key board or other input
devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.

iii. Command Processing (command Interpreter)

 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input devices.
If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it is external command or other
executable file it searches for the corresponding file in the default (current disk) or the user specified disk, loads
the file into memory and transfers control to that program. Once this program is terminated, control returns to
operating system and the program for that command or file is discarded from memory.

iv. Protection facilities

 Internal security can be thought of as protecting the computer's resources from the programs concurrently
running on the system. Most operating systems set programs running natively on the computer's processor, so the
problem arises of how to stop these programs doing the same task and having the same privileges as the operating
system (which is after all just a program too). Processors used for general purpose operating systems generally
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have a hardware concept of privilege. Generally less privileged programs are automatically blocked from using
certain hardware instructions, such as those to read or write from external devices like disks. Instead, they have to
ask the privileged program( the operating system ) to read or write. The operating system therefore gets the
chance to check the program's identity and allow or refuse the request.
v. Networking
 Most current operating systems are capable of using the TCP/IP networking protocols. This means that
one system can appear on a network of the other and share resources such as files, printers, and scanners using
either wired or wireless connections.

For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it
makes sure those different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The
operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.

3.3 Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems may be classified by both how many tasks (programs) they can perform `simultaneously' and
by how many users can be using the system `simultaneously'(i.e. terminals or micro-computers connected to a
central computer). That is: single-user or multi-user and single-task or multi-tasking . In addition they can also
classified on the way they process a single program. The following are the possible types of operating systems
based on the above points.

 Single user: can only accommodate a single user at a time. Do not support more than one user to use the
system.
 Single tasking operating systems: With single tasking operating systems only one program can
be run on a computer at a time. In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the
computers main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more programs at a time)
 Multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit
hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
 Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently. . A multi-user system must clearly be
multi-tasking.
 Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
 Real time: Responds to input instantly. A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so
quickly that the results are available to influence the activity currently taking place. A real-time operating system
(RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for real-time applications. Such applications include
embedded systems (programmable thermostats, household appliance controllers, mobile telephones), industrial
robots, spacecraft, industrial control and scientific research equipment.

3.4 Introduction to MS-Windows OS

In 1983 Microsoft software company announced its development of Windows, a graphical user interface (GUI)
for its own operating system (MS-DOS) that had shipped for IBM PC and compatible computers since 1981.
Microsoft modeled the GUI, which was first known as Interface Manager, after that of Apple's Mac OS. From
there on windows operating system has passed through different versions of Windows 1.0 (1985), Windows 2.0
(1987), Windows 3.0 (1990),Windows 3.1(1992), Windows NT (1993), Windows 95 (1995), Windows 98(1998),
Windows ME and Windows 2000( 2000), Windows XP( 2002/03/05) and Windows Vista (2005).

User interface
Among the currently used operating systems in the world, latest versions of windows operating system are the
one leading the market for that they are more user friendly and easy to get used to it. It features a task-based
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graphical user interface. In a sharp contrary command line interface (CLI), which use only text and are accessed
solely by a keyboard. The most familiar example of a CLI to many people is MS-DOS. Another example is Linux
when it is used in console mode (i.e., the entire screen shows text only).
A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface which allows people to interact with a computer and
computer-controlled devices which employ graphical icons, visual indicators or special graphical elements , along
with text labels or text navigation to represent the information and actions available to a user. The actions are
usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Adding to this intuitiveness of operation
is the fact that GUIs generally provide users with immediate, visual feedback about the effect of each action.
The windows, icons, Start menu and search capabilities were designed good and many visual effects makes the
windows operating system GUI very simple and convenient for users.

Fig:- Windows XP desktop with 3 windows opened.

A window is a (usually) rectangular portion of the monitor screen that can display its contents (e.g., a program,
icons, a text file or an image) seemingly independently of the rest of the display screen. A major feature is the
ability for multiple windows to be open simultaneously. Each window can display a different application, or each
can display different files (e.g., text, image or spreadsheet files) that have been opened or created with a single
application.
An icon is a small picture or symbol in a GUI that represents a program (or command), a file, a directory or a
device (such as a hard disk or floppy). Icons are used both on the desktop and within application programs.
Examples include small rectangles (to represent files), file folders (to represent directories), a trash can (to
indicate a place to dispose of unwanted files and directories) and buttons on web browsers (for navigating to
previous pages, for reloading the current page, etc.).

Chapter 5
Introduction to Networking and Internet
What is Network?

Network is a system of interconnected computers, telephones, or other communication devices that can
communicate with one another and share applications, devices, softwares, and data. It is a tying together of so
many communication devices in so many ways.

Computer network refers to the system of two or more interconnected computers to share data, device,
peripherals and remote computer databases.

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Types of Computer networks

Depending on their geographical coverage networks are generally categorized in to the following types:
1 Wide area network (WAN): is a communication network that covers a wide geographical area such as a
state or a country.
2 Metropolitan network (MAN): is a communication network covering a geographical area such as the size of
city or sub-urban.
3 Local area network (LAN): is a privately owned communications network that serves users within a
confined geographical area. The range is usually within a mile – perhaps one office, one building, or a group
of building close together, as a college campus.

Types of LAN

Local area networks are two principal types: client/server and peer-to-peer.
1. Client/server LANs: consists of requesting microcomputers, called clients, and supplying devices that
provide a service called server. The server is a relatively powerful computer that manages shared devices,
computers or dump terminal and shared files. Here in Client/server network the server is more powerful and
has more privilege than clients (connected computers) over the network.
2. Peer-to-peer: Is one in which all computers on the network communicate directly with one another with out
relying on a server. Here in this case each and every component (microcomputers) connected on the network
has equal power and privilege on the network.
Network Topologies

Networks can be laid out in different ways. The logical layouts or structure of a network is called a topology. The
following are some of the topologies adapted to install local area networks.
1 Star topologies: In star network topologies, all computers and other communication devices are connected to
a central server. Electronic messages are routed through the central hub (switch) or their destinations, so the
central hub (switch) monitors the flow of traffic. Advantages of this topology are the hub(switch ) reduce
collision of messages and because of failurity of one node in the network the whole system will not affected .

2) Ring network topology: a ring network topology is one in which all computers and other communication
devices are connected in a continuous loop. The electronic messages are passed around the ring until they
reach the right destination. There is no central device. The advantage of the ring topology is that the
messages flow in only one direction. Thus there is no danger of collisions. The disadvantage is that if a
connection is broken the entire network stops working.

3 Bus topology: the bus network topology works like a bus system at rush hour, with various buses pausing in
different bus zones to pick up passengers.
In a bus system all communication devices are connected to a common channel. There is no central server. Each
communication devices transmit electronic message to other devices.

Advantage of Networking
1 Sharing information
2 Share computer resources
3 Reduce hardware and software costs
4 Avoid software compatibility problem
5 Improve communications
6 Increase user productivity
7 Enhance security
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8 Provide to access a wide variety of information

Network Devices and Transmission Media

In general,a computer network is composed of one or more servers,workstations,network interface cards,active

and passive hub,routers,bridges,gateways,modem,software components likenetwork operating systems,and other
application softwares.
The following componenets are widely used for the construction of networks.

Server:-It is the most powerful computer of the network.There are two types of servers normally employed in a
local area network.They are dedicated and non dedicated servers.

In dedicated server, the server compuer performs functions and services of the whole network.It provides e-mail
service, sharing of multiplehard disks, and sharing of other resources and faster response time.For larger networks
with heavey load,dedicated servers are usaully employed.

In non-dedicated server, apart from the role of the network controller,a sever also acts as an individual
workstation.

File Server:-The primary goal of a compurt network is to share data among several users.The file server is a
powrfull computer,which runs special software.It provides the files and other shared resources to different users
in the network.It can be accessed through network operatin system.

Workstation/client:-is an individual computer with capabilities to comunicate with other machines.It must be
equiped with the hardware and software neccessary to connect to LAN. Usually a Network Interface
Card(NIC),or an Ethernet card is used for thie purpose.It can comminicate with the server or with other
workstations.

Bridges, routers, and gateways: - a LAN may stand alone, but it may also connect with other networks, either
similar or different in topology and technology. Network designers determine some hard ware and software
devices – e.g,Bridge, routers, gateways - as necessary componenets for networking purpose.

A bridge: is a hardware and a software combination used to connect the similar type of networks.
A router: is a special computer that directs communicating messages when several networks are connected
together. High speed routers can serve as part of internet backbones, a transmission path, handling the major data
traffic.
A gateway: is an interface that enables dissimilar networks to communicate, such as a LAN with a WAN or two
LANs based on different topologies or network operating systems.

Local area networks are made up of several standard components.

1 Connection or cabling system: LANs do not use the telephone network. Instead,they use some other cabling
or connection system, either wired or wireless.
 Wired connection may be twisted-pair wiring, coaxial cable, or fiber optics.
 Wireless connection may be infrared or radio-wave transmission. They are
especially useful if computers are portable and are moved often.
2 Microcomputer with interface card: - two or more microcomputers are required, along with network
interface card (NIC). NIC (network interface card), which is inserted in to an expansion slot or may came
integrated with mother board that enables the computer to send receive message on the Local area network.
3 Network operating system: - the network operating system software manages the activity of the network.
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Depending on the type of network, the operating system software may be stored on the fileserver, on each
microcomputer on the network or a combination of both. Example Microsoft Windows NT, Novell’s
NetWare.
4 Other shared devices: - printers, fax machines, scanners, storage devices, and other peripherals may be
added to the network as necessary and shared by all users.

INTERNET

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a global network of computers connecting individual computers and networks together into one
huge network.
The Internet was first developed in the 1960s by the U.S. military to avoid the loss of communication in the event
of any single installation being inaccessible due to war or natural disasters.

Even if a main centre is not functioning, data can take a different route through the Internet to reach its final
destination.
It was not until the end of the 1980s that the Internet really began to grow. The National Science Foundation
(NSF) set up five supercomputer centers for university research so information could be shared between
universities throughout the USA.
IP and TCP/IP
Data is transferred around the Internet in packets using the Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol sets the
standard for communication over the Internet.

On top of the Internet Protocol is TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) which makes sure
that data is not lost in its long journey from one computer to another.
Each computer that is connected to the Internet has an IP address composed of four numbers, each between 1 and
255, e.g. 193.117.1.9 this unique address allows information to be retrieved from and sent to a specific computer
just like a postal address specifies a building.
Connecting to the Internet
In general there are two ways to connect to the Internet: one is to have a permanent connection to the Internet
(leased line), and the other is to use the telephone line to connect (dial-up), whenever the user wishes to gain
access. Businesses that need constant access to the Internet, or provide information for others to access, have
permanent connections to backbone providers. These backbone providers have very fast permanent connections
to various sites around the world.

Common use of the Internet

Telnet

allows the user to run programs that are loaded onto another computer. One has to log in to a remote computer in
order to manipulate files, run programs, read mail etc. Some libraries allow Telnet access to their on-line
catalogues so that one can look for a book anywhere in the world to see if it is available.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a method of transferring files between computers without concern for
incompatible architecture on the different machines (e.g. transferring files from a PC to a UNIX server). There are
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a few simple commands in FTP such as GET (to get a file from a remote computer), PUT (to put a file on a
remote computer), as well as normal style commands to move between directories or view the contents of the
directory. Programs like Fetch or numerous Windows based FTP programs make File Transfer much more user
friendly, so rather than using commands such as PUT and GET, the files on the remote server can be seen as if
they were on your own computer.

E-mail

In many ways Electronic Mail is the most important part of the Internet as it allows people to communicate
almost instantly with others around the world.

It is an asynchronous method of communication because the mail takes time to be sent from one place to another,
unlike the telephone, but it allows very fast communication of ideas around the world; it allows people to send a
message to more than one person.
E-mail messages are simple text messages. However, it is possible to send files as attachments to the e-mail
message. In this way formatted documents and other large files can be sent from one Internet user to another.

Newsgroups

Newsgroups and mailing lists are discussion forums that anybody can read and write to. They allow people with
similar interests to create specialized discussion groups and allow others to ask questions of the experts.

Newsgroups are organized by threads so that you can watch a particular discussion develop while other
discussions also continue in the same newsgroup. Messages are e-mailed to newsgroups and these are stored on a
server for people anywhere in the world to read.
Mailing lists are sent directly to your email account and popular lists often generate large volumes of mail.

IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

Internet Relay Chat is a text-based conferencing facility. Groups of people can log in to IRC servers and choose a
channel to join. IRC is synchronous, which means that people can have real time conversations. The major
problem with IRC is trying to make sense of the conversation on a channel when many people are speaking at
once.

Some IRC based programs (i.e. Microsoft Comic Chat) allow the users to specify who they wish to speak to, and
using a graphical format they can show emotions (happy, sad, angry etc.). These programs make IRC much more
fun and easier to use.

WWW (World Wide Web )

The World Wide Web is accessed through a web browser, an application that runs on the user's computer. The
Browser allows the user to receive text, graphics, sound and animation. Using special additional software called
'plug-ins' it is possible to do even more sophisticated things like listen to live music, watch videos, move around
three dimensional worlds, and the list continues to grow all the time.

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