Test Bank for Cryptography and Network Security

Principles and Practice 6th Edition by Stallings

ISBN 0133354695 9780133354690 download

http://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-cryptography-and-
network-security-principles-and-practice-6th-edition-by-
stallings-isbn-0133354695-9780133354690/

Explore and download more test bank or solution manual

at testbankpack.com
Here are some suggested products you might be interested in.
Click the link to download

Test Bank for Computer Security Principles and Practice

3rd Edition by Stallings ISBN 0133773922 9780133773927

https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-computer-security-
principles-and-practice-3rd-edition-by-stallings-
isbn-0133773922-9780133773927/

Solution Manual for Computer Security Principles and

Practice 3rd Edition by Stallings ISBN 0133773922
9780133773927
https://testbankpack.com/download/solution-manual-for-computer-
security-principles-and-practice-3rd-edition-by-stallings-
isbn-0133773922-9780133773927/

Test Bank for Business Data Communications Infrastructure

Networking and Security 7th Edition by Stallings ISBN
0133023893 9780133023893
https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-business-data-
communications-infrastructure-networking-and-security-7th-edition-by-
stallings-isbn-0133023893-9780133023893/

Test bank for Principles of Information Security 6th

Edition Whitman Mattord 1337102067 9781337102063

https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-principles-of-
information-security-6th-edition-whitman-
mattord-1337102067-9781337102063/
Test Bank for Principles and Practice of American Politics
Classic and Contemporary Readings 6th Edition Kernell
1483319873 9781483319872
https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-principles-and-
practice-of-american-politics-classic-and-contemporary-readings-6th-
edition-kernell-1483319873-9781483319872/

Test Bank for Fundraising Principles and Practice 1st

Edition by Worth ISBN 1483319520 9781483319520

https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-fundraising-
principles-and-practice-1st-edition-by-worth-
isbn-1483319520-9781483319520/

Solution Manual for Principles of Information Security 6th

Edition Whitman Mattord 1337102067 9781337102063

https://testbankpack.com/download/solution-manual-for-principles-of-
information-security-6th-edition-whitman-
mattord-1337102067-9781337102063/

Solution Manual for Operating Systems Internals and Design

Principles 9th Edition Stallings 0134670957 9780134670959

https://testbankpack.com/download/solution-manual-for-operating-
systems-internals-and-design-principles-9th-edition-
stallings-0134670957-9780134670959/

Test Bank for Computer Organization and Architecture 10th

Edition by Stallings ISBN 0134101618 9780134101613

https://testbankpack.com/download/test-bank-for-computer-organization-
and-architecture-10th-edition-by-stallings-
isbn-0134101618-9780134101613/
 Test Bank for Cryptography and Network Security Principles and
Practice 6th Edition by Stallings ISBN 0133354695 9780133354690
Full link download
Test Bank
https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-for-cryptography-and-network-
security-principles-and-practice-6th-edition-by-stallings-isbn-0133354695-
9780133354690/

CHAPTER 2: CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

TRUE OR FALSE

T F 1. Symmetric encryption remains by far the most widely used of the

two types of encryption.

T F 2. Rotor machines are sophisticated precomputer hardware devices

that use substitution techniques.

T F 3. Symmetric encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which

encryption and decryption are performed using different keys. It is
also known as non- conventional encryption.

T F 4. With the use of symmetric encryption, the principal security

problem is maintaining the secrecy of the key.

T F 5. The process of converting from plaintext to ciphertext is known as

deciphering or decryption.

T F 6. The algorithm will produce a different output depending on the

specific secret key being used at the time. The exact substitutions
and transformations performed by the algorithm depend on the
key.

T F 7. When using symmetric encryption it is very important to keep the

algorithm secret.

T F 8. On average, half of all possible keys must be tried to achieve

success with a brute-force attack.

T F 9. Ciphertext generated using a computationally secure encryption

scheme is impossible for an opponent to decrypt simply because
the required information is not there.
T F 10. Monoalphabetic ciphers are easy to break because they reflect the
frequency data of the original alphabet.

T F 11. As with Playfair, the strength of the Hill cipher is that it

completely hides single letter frequencies.

T F 12. A scheme known as a one-time pad is unbreakable because it

produces random output that bears no statistical relationship to
the plaintext.

T F 13. The one-time pad has unlimited utility and is useful primarily for
high-bandwidth channels requiring low security.

T F 14. The most widely used cipher is the Data Encryption Standard.

T F 15. Steganography renders the message unintelligible to outsiders by

various transformations of the text.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. techniques map plaintext elements (characters, bits) into ciphertext

elements.

A) Transposition B) Substitution

C) Traditional D) Symmetric

2. Joseph Mauborgne proposed an improvement to the Vernam cipher that uses a

random key that is as long as the message so that the key does not need to be
repeated. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt a single message and then is
discarded. Each new message requires a new key of the same
length as the new message. This scheme is known as a(n) .

A) pascaline B) one-time pad

C) polycipher D) enigma
3. An original intelligible message fed into the algorithm as input is known as
, while the coded message produced as output is called the
.

A) decryption, encryption B) plaintext, ciphertext

C) deciphering, enciphering D) cipher, plaintext

4. Restoring the plaintext from the ciphertext is .

A) deciphering B) transposition

C) steganography D) encryption

5. A attack involves trying every possible key until an intelligible

translation of the ciphertext is obtained.

A) brute-force B) Caesar attack

C) ciphertext only D) chosen plaintext

6. Techniques used for deciphering a message without any knowledge of the

enciphering details is .

A) blind deciphering B) steganography

C) cryptanalysis D) transposition

7. The takes the ciphertext and the secret key and produces the
original plaintext. It is essentially the encryption algorithm run in reverse.

A) Voronoi algorithm B) decryption algorithm

C) cryptanalysis D) diagram algorithm

8. If both sender and receiver use the same key, the system is referred to as:

A) public-key encryption B) two-key

C) asymmetric D) conventional encryption

9. attacks exploit the characteristics of the algorithm to attempt to

deduce a specific plaintext or to deduce the key being used.
 A) Brute-force B) Cryptanalytic

C) Block cipher D) Transposition

10. The was used as the standard field system by the British Army in
World War I and was used by the U.S. Army and other Allied forces during World
War II.

A) Caesar cipher B) Playfair cipher

C) Hill cipher D) Rail Fence cipher

11. The attack is the easiest to defend against because the opponent
has the least amount of information to work with.

A) ciphertext-only B) chosen ciphertext

C) known plaintext D) chosen plaintext

12. refer to common two-letter combinations in the English language.

A) Streaming B) Transposition

C) Digrams D) Polyalphabetic cipher

13. A way to improve on the simple monoalphabetic technique is to use different

monoalphabetic substitutions as one proceeds through the plaintext
message. The general name for this approach is .

A) rail fence cipher B) cryptanalysis

C) polyalphabetic substitution cipher D) polyanalysis cipher

14. A technique referred to as a is a mapping achieved by performing

some sort of permutation on the plaintext letters.

A) transposition cipher B) polyalphabetic cipher

C) Caesar cipher D) monoalphabetic cipher

 15. The methods of conceal the existence of the message in a graphic
image.

A) steganography B) decryptology

C) cryptology D) cryptography

SHORT ANSWER

1. encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption

are performed using the same key.

2. A technique for hiding a secret message within a larger document or picture in such a
way that others cannot discern the presence or contents of the hidden message is
.

3. An encryption scheme is said to be if the cost of breaking the cipher

exceeds the value of the encrypted information and the time required to break the
cipher exceeds the useful lifetime of the information.

4. The two types of attack on an encryption algorithm are cryptanalysis based on

properties of the encryption algorithm, and which involves trying all possible
keys.

5. Cryptographic systems are characterized along three independent dimensions: The

type of operations used for transforming plaintext to ciphertext; The way in which the
plaintext is processed; and .

6. All encryption algorithms are based on two general principles: substitution and
.

7. One of the simplest and best known polyalphabetic ciphers is cipher. In

this scheme, the set of related monoalphabetic substitution rules consists of the 26
Caesar ciphers with shifts of 0 through 25. Each cipher is denoted by a key letter which
is the ciphertext letter that substitutes for the plaintext letter a.

8. A cipher processes the input one block of elements at a time producing

an output block for each input block whereas a cipher processes the input
elements continuously producing output one element at a time.
9. An encryption scheme is secure if the ciphertext generated by the
scheme does not contain enough information to determine uniquely the corresponding
plaintext, no matter how much ciphertext is available.

10. The earliest known and simplest use of a substitution cipher was called the
cipher and involved replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter
standing three places further down the alphabet.

11. The best known multiple letter encryption cipher is the which treats
digrams in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into ciphertext
digrams.

12. The task of making large quantities of random keys on a regular basis and
distributing a key of equal length to both sender and receiver for every message sent
are difficulties of the scheme.

13. The simplest transposition cipher is the technique in which the plaintext
is written down as a sequence of diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows.

14. The most widely used cipher ever is the .

15. The consist of a set of independently rotating cylinders through which

electrical pulses can flow. Each cylinder has 26 input pins and 26 output pins with
internal wiring that connects each input pin to a unique output pin.
CHAPTER 2: CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

TRUE OR FALSE

1. T
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. F
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. F
10. T
11. T
 12. T
13. F
14. T
15. F

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. B
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. D
9. B
10. B
11. A
12. C
13. C
14. A
15. A

SHORT ANSWER

1. Symmetric
2. Steganography
3. computationally secure
4. brute-force
5. The number of keys used
6. transposition
7. Vigenère
8. block, stream
9. unconditionally
10. Caesar
11. Playfair
12. one-time pad
13. rail fence
14. Data Encryption Standard (DES)
15. rotor machines
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Plate XIV.

The Tower Bridge in course of Construction 298

Plate XV.

The Brooklyn Bridge 304

Plate XVI.

The North Mouth of the Great Tunnel, St. Gothard Railway 374

Plate XVII.

Spectra (Coloured Plate) 422

Wind, Steam, and Speed (after Turner).

 INTRODUCTION.

nly by knowledge of Nature’s laws

can man subjugate her powers and
appropriate her materials for his own
purposes. The whole history of arts
and inventions is a continued
comment on this text; and since the
knowledge can be obtained only by
observation of Nature, it follows that
Science, which is the exact and
orderly summing-up of the results of
such observation, must powerfully
contribute to the well-being and
progress of mankind.
Some of the services which have been rendered by science in
promoting human welfare are thus enumerated by an eloquent
writer: “It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; it has
extinguished diseases; it has increased the fertility of the soil; it has
given new securities to the mariner; it has furnished new arms to
the warrior; it has spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of
form unknown to our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt
innocuously from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the night with
the splendour of the day; it has extended the range of the human
vision; it has multiplied the power of the human muscles; it has
accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated
intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all dispatch of
business; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea, to
soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of
the earth, to traverse the land in cars which whirl along without
horses, to cross the ocean in ships which run ten knots an hour
against the wind. These are but a part of its fruits, and of its first-
fruits; for it is a philosophy which never rests, which has never
attained, which is never perfect. Its law is progress. A point which
yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its starting-point
tomorrow.”—(Macaulay).
Thus every new invention, every triumph of engineering skill, is the
embodiment of some scientific idea; and experience has proved that
discoveries in science, however remote from the interests of every-
day life they may at first appear, ultimately confer unforeseen and
incalculable benefits on mankind. There is also a reciprocal action
between science and its application to the useful purposes of life; for
while no advance is ever made in any branch of science which does
not sooner or later give rise to a corresponding improvement in
practical art, so on the other hand every advance made in practical
art furnishes the best illustration of scientific principles.
The enormous material advantages which this age possesses, the
cheapness of production that has placed comforts, elegancies, and
refinements unknown to our fathers within the reach of the
humblest, are traceable in a high degree to the arrangement called
the “division of labour,” by which it is found more advantageous for
each man to devote himself to one kind of work only; to the steam
engine and its numerous applications; to increased knowledge of the
properties of metals, and of the methods of extracting them from
their ores; to the use of powerful and accurate tools; and to the
modern plan of manufacturing articles by processes of copying,
instead of fashioning everything anew by manual labour. Little more
than a century ago everything was slowly and imperfectly made by
the tedious toil of the workman’s hand; but now marvellously perfect
results of ingenious manufacture are in every-day use, scattered far
and wide, so that their very commonness almost prevents us from
viewing them with the attention and admiration they deserve.
Machinery, actuated by the forces of nature, now performs with ease
and certainty work that was formerly the drudgery of thousands.
Every natural agent has been pressed into man’s service: the winds,
the waters, fire, gravity, electricity, light itself.
But so much have these things become in the present day matters
of course, that it is difficult for one who has not witnessed the
revolution produced by such applications of science to realize their
full importance. Let the young reader who wishes to understand why
the present epoch is worthy of admiration as a stage in the progress
of mankind, address himself to some intelligent person old enough
to remember the century in its teens; let him inquire what wonderful
changes in the aspect of things have been comprised within the
experience of a single lifetime, and let him ask what has brought
about these changes. He will be told of the railway, and the steam-
ship, and the telegraph, and the great guns, and the mighty ships of
war—
“The armaments which thunderstrike the walls
Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake,
And monarchs tremble in their capitals.”

He will be told of a machine more potent in shaping the destinies of

our race than warlike engines—the steam printing-press. He may
hear of a chemistry which effects endless and marvellous
transformations; which from dirt and dross extracts fragrant
essences and dyes of resplendent hue. He may hear something of a
wonderful instrument which can make a faint beam of light, reaching
us after a journey of a thousand years, unfold its tale and reveal the
secrets of the stars. Of these and of other inventions and discoveries
which distinguish the present age it is the purpose of this work to
give some account.
 STEAM ENGINES.

T o track the steps which led up to the invention of the Steam

Engine, and fully describe the improvements by which the genius
of the illustrious Watt perfected it at least in principle, are not
subjects falling within the province of this work, which deals only
with the discoveries and inventions of the present century. But as it
does enter into our province to describe some of the more recent
developments of Watt’s invention, it may be desirable to give the
reader an idea of his engine, of which all the more recent
applications of steam are modifications, with improvements of detail
rather than of principle.
Watt took up the engine in the condition in which it was left by
Newcomen; and what that was may be seen in Fig. 2, which
represents Newcomen’s atmospheric engine—the first practically
useful engine in which a piston moving in a cylinder was employed.
In the cut, the lower part of the cylinder, c, is removed, or supposed
to be broken off, in order that the piston, h, and the openings of the
pipes, d, e, f, connected with the cylinder, may be exhibited. The
steam was admitted beneath the piston by the attendant turning the
cock k, and as the elastic force of the steam was only equal to the
pressure of the atmosphere, it was not employed to raise the piston,
but merely filled the cylinder, the ascent of the piston being caused
by the weight attached to the other side of the beam, which at the
same time sent down the pump-rod, m; and when this was at its
lowest position, the piston was nearly at the top of the cylinder,
which was open. The attendant then cut off the communication with
the boiler by closing the cock, k, at the same time opening another
cock which allowed a jet of cold water from the cistern, g, to flow
through the opening, d, into the cylinder. The steam which filled the
cylinder was, by contact with the cold fluid, instantly condensed into
water; and as the liquefied steam would take up little more than a
two-thousandth part of the space it occupied in the gaseous state, it
followed that a vacuum was produced within the cylinder; and the
weight of the atmosphere acting on the top of the piston, having no
longer the elastic force of the steam to counteract it, forced the
piston down, and thus raised the pump-bucket attached to the rod,
m. The water which entered the cylinder from the cistern, together
with that produced by the condensation of the steam, flowed out of
the cylinder by the opening, f, the pipe from which was conducted
downwards, and terminated under water, the surface of which was
at least 34 ft. below the level of the cylinder; for the atmospheric
pressure would cause the cylinder to be filled with water had the
height been less. The improvements which Watt, reasoning from
scientific principles, was enabled to effect on the rude engine of
Newcomen, are well expressed by himself in the specification of his
patent of 1769. It will be observed that the machine was formerly
called the “fire engine.”

Fig. 2.—Newcomen’s Steam

Engine.
 Fig. 3.—Watt’s Double-
action Steam Engine.

“My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and

consequently fuel, in fire engines, consists of the following
principles:—First. That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be
employed to work the engine (which is called the cylinder in
common fire engines, and which I call the steam-vessel), must,
during the whole time the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the
steam that enters it; first, by enclosing it in a case of wood, or any
other materials that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it
with steam or other heated bodies; and thirdly, by suffering neither
water nor any other substance colder than the steam to enter or
touch it during that time.—Secondly. In engines that are to be
worked either wholly or partially by condensation of steam, the
steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct from the steam-vessels
or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them,—these
vessels I call condensers; and whilst the engines are working, these
condensers ought to be kept at least as cold as the air in the
neighbourhood of the engines by the application of water or other
cold bodies.—Thirdly. Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not
condensed by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the
working of the engine, is to be drawn out of the steam-vessels or
condensers by means of pumps, wrought by the engines themselves
or otherwise.—Fourthly. I intend in many cases to employ the
expansive force of steam to press on the pistons, or whatever may
be used instead of them, in the same manner in which the pressure
of the atmosphere is now employed in common fire engines. In
cases where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be
wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into
the air after it has done its office.—Lastly. Instead of using water to
render the pistons and other parts of the engines air- and steam-
tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous bodies, fat of animals, quicksilver,
and other metals in their fluid state.”

Fig. 4.—Governor and Throttle-Valve.

From the engraving we give of Watt’s double-action steam engine,

Fig. 3, and the following description, the reader will realize the high
degree of perfection to which the steam engine was brought by
Watt. The steam is conveyed to the cylinder through a pipe, B, the
supply being regulated by the throttle-valve, acted on by rods
connected with the governor, D, which has a rotary motion. This
apparatus is designed to regulate the admission of steam in such a
manner that the speed of the engine shall be nearly uniform; and
the mode in which this is accomplished may be seen in Fig. 4, where
D D is a vertical axis carrying the pulley, d, which receives a rotary
motion from the driving-shaft of the engine, by a band not shown in
the figures. Near the top of the axis, at e, two bent rods work on a
pin, crossing each other in the same manner as the blades of a pair
of scissors. The two heavy balls are attached to the lower arms of
these levers, which move in slits through the curved guides intended
to keep them always in the same vertical plane as the axis, D D. The
upper arms are jointed at f f to rods hinged at h h to a ring not
attached to the axis, but allowing it to revolve freely within it. To this
ring at F is fastened one end of the lever connected with the throttle-
valve in a manner sufficiently obvious from the cut. The position
represented is that assumed by the apparatus when the engine is in
motion, the disc-valve, z, being partly open. If from any cause the
velocity of the engine increases, the balls diverge from increased
centrifugal force, and the effect is to draw down the ring at F, and,
through the system of levers, to turn the disc in the direction of the
arrows, and diminish the supply of steam. If, on the other hand, the
speed of the engine is checked, the balls fall towards the axis, and
the valve is opened wider, admitting steam more freely, and so
restoring its former speed to the engine. On one side of the cylinder
are two hollow boxes, E E, Fig. 3, communicating with the cylinder by
an opening near the middle of the box. Each of these steam-chests
is divided into three compartments by conical valves attached to
rods connected with the lever, H. These valves are so arranged that
when the upper part of the cylinder is in communication with the
boiler, the lower part is open to the condenser, I, and vice versâ. The
top of the cylinder is covered, and the piston-rod passes through an
air and steam-tight hole in it; freedom of motion, with the necessary
close fitting, being attained by making the piston-rod pass through a
stuffing-box, where it is closely surrounded with greased tow. The
piston is also packed, so that, while it can slide freely up and down
in the cylinder, it divides the latter into two steam-tight chambers. In
an engine of this kind, the elastic force of the steam acts alternately
on the upper and lower surfaces of the piston; and the condenser,
by removing the steam which has performed its office, leaves a
nearly empty space before the piston, in which it advances with little
or no resistance. On the rod which works the air-pump, two pins are
placed, so as to move the lever, H, up and down through a certain
space, when one pin is near its highest and the other near its lowest
position, and thus the valves are opened and closed when the piston
reaches the termination of its stroke. In the condenser, I, a stream of
cold water is constantly playing, the flow being regulated by the
handle, f. The steam, in condensing, heats the cold water, adding to
its bulk, and at the same time the air, which is always contained in
water, is disengaged, owing to the heat and the reduced pressure.
Hence it is necessary to pump out both the air and the water by the
pump, J, which is worked by the beam of the engine. In his engines
Watt adopted the heavy fly-wheel, which tends to equalize the
movement, and render insensible the effects of those variations in
the driving power and in the resistance which always occur. In the
action of the engine itself there are two positions of the piston,
namely, where it is changing its direction, in which there is no force
whatever communicated to the piston-rod by the steam. These
positions are known as the “dead points,” and in a rotatory engine
occur twice in each revolution. The resistance also is liable to great
variations. Suppose, for example, that the engine is employed to
move the shears by which thick plates of iron are cut. When a plate
has been cut, the resistance is removed, and the speed of the
engine increases; but this increase, instead of taking place by a
sudden start, takes place gradually, the power of the engine being in
the meantime absorbed in imparting increased velocity to the fly-
wheel. When another plate is put between the shears, the power
which the fly-wheel has gathered up is given out in the slight
diminution of its speed occasioned by the increased resistance. But
for the fly-wheel, such changes of velocity would take place with
great suddenness, and the shocks and strains thereby caused would
soon injure the machine. This expedient, in conjunction with that
admirable contrivance, the “governor,” renders it possible to set the
same engine at one moment to forge an anchor, and at the next to
shape a needle. One of the most ingenious of Watt’s improvements
is what is termed the “parallel motion,” consisting of a system of
jointed rods connecting the head of the piston-rod, R, with the end
of the oscillating beam. As, during the motion of the engine, the
former moves in a straight line, while the latter describes a circle, it
would be impossible to connect them directly. Watt accomplished
this by hinging rods together in form of a parallelogram, in such a
manner that, while three of the angles describe circles, the fourth
moves in nearly a straight line. Watt was himself surprised at the
regularity of the action. “When I saw it work for the first time, I felt
truly all the pleasure of novelty, as if I was examining the invention
of another man.”

AB is half the beam, A being the main

centre; B E, the main links, connecting
the piston-rod, F, with the end of the
beam; G D, the air-pump links, from the
centre of which the air-pump-rod is
suspended; C D moves about the fixed
centre, C, while D E is movable about the
 centre D, itself moving in an arc, of which
C is the centre. The dotted lines show the
position of the links and bars when the
beam is at its highest position.

Fig. 4a.—Watt’s Parallel Motion.

Many improvements in the details and fittings of almost every part of

the steam engine have been effected since Watt’s time. For example,
the opening and closing of the passages for the steam to enter and
leave the cylinder is commonly effected by means of the slide-valve
(Fig. 5). The steam first enters a box, in which are three holes
placed one above the other in the face of the box opposite to the
pipe by which the steam enters. The uppermost hole is in
communication with the upper part of the cylinder, and the lowest
with the lower part. The middle opening leads to the condenser, or
to the pipe by which the steam escapes into the air. A piece of
metal, which may be compared to a box without a lid, slides over
the three holes with its open side towards them, and its size is such
that it can put the middle opening in communication with either the
uppermost or the lowest opening, at the same time giving free
passage for the steam into the cylinder by leaving the third opening
uncovered. In A, Fig. 5, the valve is admitting steam below the
piston, which is moving upwards, the steam which had before
propelled it downwards now having free exit. When the piston has
arrived at the top of the cylinder, the slide is pushed down by the
rod connecting it with the eccentric into the position represented at
B, and then the opposite movement takes place. The slide-valve is
not moved, like the old pot-lid valves, against the pressure of the
steam, and has other advantages, amongst which may be named
the readiness with which a slight modification renders it available for
using the steam “expansively.” This expansive working was one of
Watt’s inventions, but has been more largely applied in recent times.
In this plan, when the piston has performed a part of its stroke, the
steam is shut off, and the piston is then urged on by the expansive
force of the steam enclosed in the cylinder. Of course as the steam
expands its pressure decreases; but as the same quantity of steam
performs a much larger amount of work when used expansively, this
plan of cutting off the steam is attended with great economy. It is
usually effected by the modification of the slide-valve, shown at C,
Fig. 5, where the faces of the slides are made of much greater width
than the openings. This excess of width is called the “lap,” and by
properly adjusting it, the opening into the cylinder may be kept
closed during the interval required, so that the steam is not allowed
to enter the cylinder after a certain length of the stroke has been
performed. The slide-valve is moved by an arrangement termed the
eccentric. A circular disc of metal is carried on the shaft of the
engine, and revolves with it. The axis of the shaft does not, however,
run through the centre of the disc, but towards one side. The disc is
surrounded by a ring, to which it is not attached, but is capable of
turning round within it. The ring forms part of a triangular frame to
which is attached one arm of a lever that communicates the motion
to the rod bearing the slide. Expansive working is often employed in
conjunction with superheated steam, that is, steam heated out of
contact with water, after it has been formed, so as to raise its
temperature beyond that merely necessary to maintain it in the state
of steam, and to confer upon it the properties of a perfect gas.
Experience has proved that an increased efficiency is thus obtained.
 Fig. 5.—Slide Valve.

The actual power of a steam engine is ascertained by an instrument

called the Indicator, which registers the amount of pressure exerted
by the steam on the face of the piston in every part of its motion.
The indicator consists simply of a very small cylinder, in which works
a piston, very accurately made, so as to move up and down with
very little friction. The piston is attached to a strong spiral spring, so
that when the steam is admitted into the cylinder of the indicator the
spring is compressed, and its elasticity resists the pressure of the
steam, which tends to force the piston up. When the pressure of
steam below the piston of the indicator is equal to that of the
atmosphere, the spring is neither compressed nor extended; but
when the steam-pressure falls below that of the atmosphere, as it
does while the steam is being condensed, then the atmospheric
pressure forces down the piston of the indicator until it is balanced
by the tension of the now stretched spring. The extension or
compression of the spring thus measures the difference between the
pressure of the atmosphere and that of the steam in the cylinder of
the engine, with which the cylinder of the indicator freely
communicates.
From the piston-rod of the indicator a pencil projects horizontally,
and its point presses against a sheet of paper wound on a drum,
which moves about a vertical axis. This drum is made to move
backwards and forwards through a part of a revolution, so that its
motion may exactly correspond with that of the piston in the cylinder
of the steam engine. Thus, if the piston of the indicator were to
remain stationary, a level line would be traced on the paper by the
movement of the drum; and if the latter did not move, but the
steam were admitted to the indicator, the pencil would mark an
upright straight line on the paper. The actual result is that a figure
bounded by curved lines is traced on the paper, and the curve
accurately represents the pressure of the steam at every point of the
piston’s motion. The position of the point of the pencil which
corresponds with each pound of pressure per square inch is found
by trial by the maker of the instrument, who attaches a scale to
show what pressures of steam are indicated.
If the pressure per square inch is known, it is plain that by
multiplying that pressure by the number of square inches in the area
of the piston of the engine, the total pressure on the piston can be
found. The pressure does not rise instantly when the steam is first
admitted, nor does it fall quite abruptly when the steam is cut off
and communication opened with the condenser. When the steam is
worked expansively, the pressure falls gradually from the time the
steam is shut off. Now, the amount of work done by any force is
reckoned by the pressure it exerts multiplied into the space through
which that pressure is exerted. Therefore the work done by the
steam is known by multiplying the pressure in pounds on the whole
surface of the piston into the length in feet of the piston’s motion
through which that pressure is exerted. The trace of the pencil on
the paper—i.e., the indicator diagram—shows the pressures, and
also the length of the piston’s path through which each pressure is
exerted, and therefore it is not difficult to calculate the actual work
which is done by the steam at every stroke of the engine. If this be
multiplied by the number of strokes per minute, and the product
divided by 33,000, we obtain what is termed the indicated horse-
power of the engine. The work done per minute is divided by
33,000, because that number is taken to represent the work that a
horse can do in a minute: that is, the average work done in one
minute by a horse would be equal to the raising of the weight of
1,000 lbs. thirty-three feet high, or the raising of thirty-three pounds
1,000 feet high. The number, 33,000, as expressing the work that
could be done by a horse in one minute, was fixed on by Watt, but
more recent experiments have shown that he over-estimated the
power of horses, and that we should have to reduce this number by
about one-third if we desire to express the actual average working
power of a horse. But the power of engines having come to be
expressed by stating the horse-power on Watt’s standard, engineers
have kept to the original number, which is, however, to be
considered as a merely artificial unit or term of comparison between
one engine and another; for the power of a horse to perform work
will vary with the mode in which its strength is exerted. The source
of the power which does the work in the steam engine is the
combustion of the coal in the furnace under the boiler. The amount
of work a steam engine will do depends not only on the quantity of
steam which is generated in a given time, but also upon the
pressure, and therefore the temperature at which the steam is
formed.

Fig. 6.—Section of Giffard’s Injector.

The water constantly evaporating in the boiler of a steam engine is
usually renewed by forcing water into the boiler against the pressure
of the steam by means of a small pump worked by the engine. In
the engraving of Watt’s engine this pump is shown at M. But recently
the feed-pump has been to a great extent superseded by a singular
apparatus invented by M. Giffard, and known as Giffard’s Injector. In
this a jet of steam from the boiler itself supplies the means of
propelling a stream of water directly into the boiler. Fig. 6 is a
section of this interesting apparatus through its centre, and it clearly
shows the manner in which the current of steam is made to operate
on the jet of water. The steam from the boiler passes through the
pipe A and into the tube B through the holes. The nozzle of this tube
is of a conical shape, and its centre is occupied by a rod pointed to
fit into the conical nozzle, and provided with a screw at the other
end, so that the opening can be regulated by turning the handle, C.
At D the jet of steam comes in contact with the water which feeds
the boiler, the arrangement being such that the steam is driven into
the centre of the stream of water which enters by the pipe E, and is
propelled by the steam jet through another cone, F, issuing with
such force from the orifice of the latter that it is carried forward
through the small opening at G into the chamber H. Here the water
presses on the valve K, which it raises against the pressure of the
steam and enters the boiler. The water issuing from the cone, F,
actually traverses an open space which is exposed to the air, and
where the fluid may be seen rushing into the boiler as a clear jet,
except a few beads of steam which may be carried forward in the
centre, the rest of the steam having been condensed by the cold
water. The steam, of course, rushes from the cone, B D, with
enormous velocity, which is partly communicated to the water. The
pipe, L, is for the water which overflows in starting the apparatus,
until the pressure in H becomes great enough to open the valve. The
supplies of water and of steam have to be adjusted according to the
conditions of pressure in the boiler, and according to the
temperature of the feed-water. It is found that when the feed-water
is at a temperature above 120° Fahrenheit, the injector will not
work: the condensation of the steam is therefore necessary to the
result. For, as the steam is continually condensed by the cold water,
it rushes from D with the same velocity as into a vacuum, and the
water is urged on by a momentum due to this velocity. We must
observe, moreover, that the net result of the operation is a lessening
of the pressure in the boiler; for the entrance of the feed-water
produces a fall of temperature in the boiler, and the bulk of steam
expended is fourteen times the bulk of the water injected: thus,
although the apparatus before actual trial would not appear likely to
produce the required result, the effect is no more paradoxical than in
the case of the feed-pump. The injector has been greatly improved
by Mr. Gresham, who has contrived to make some of the
adjustments self-acting, and his form of the apparatus is now largely
used in this country. The injector is applicable to stationary,
locomotive, or marine engines.
Steam boilers are now always provided with one of Bourdon’s
gauges, for indicating the pressure of the steam. The construction of
the instrument will easily be understood by an examination of Fig. 7.
The gauge is screwed into some part of the boiler, where it can
always be seen by the person in charge. The stop-cock A
communicates with the curved metallic tube C, which is the essential
part of the contrivance. This tube is of the flattened form shown at
D, having its greatest breadth perpendicular to the plane in which
the tube is curved, and it is closed at the end E, where it is attached
to the rod F, so that any movement of E causes the axle carrying the
index-finger, F, to turn, and the index then moves along the
graduated arc. The connection is sometimes made by wheelwork,
instead of by the simple plan shown in the figure. The front plate is
represented as partly broken away, in order to show the internal
arrangement, which, of course, is not visible in the real instrument,
where only the index-finger and graduated scale are seen, protected
by a glass plate.
 Fig. 7.—Bourdon’s
Pressure Gauge.

When a curved tube of the shape here described is subjected to a

greater pressure on the inside than on the outside, it tends to
become straighter, and the end E moves outward; but when the
pressure is removed, the tube resumes its former shape. The
graduations on the scale are made by marking the position of the
index when known pressures are applied. The amounts of pressure,
when the gauges are being graduated, are known by the
compression produced in air contained in another apparatus. Gauges
constructed on Bourdon’s principle are applied to other purposes,
and can be made strong enough to measure very great pressures,
such as several thousand pounds on the square inch; they may also
be made so delicate as to measure variations of pressure below that
of the atmosphere. The simplicity and small size of these gauges,
and the readiness with which they can be attached, render them
most convenient instruments wherever the pressure of a gas or
liquid is required to be known.
 Fig. 8.—Steam Generator.

A point to which great attention has been directed of late years is

the construction of a boiler which shall secure the greatest possible
economy in fuel. Of the total heat which the fuel placed in the
furnace is capable of supplying by its combustion, part may be
wasted by an incomplete burning of the fuel, producing cinders or
smoke or unburnt gases, another part is always lost by radiation and
conduction, and a third portion is carried off by the hot gases that
escape from the boiler-flues. Many contrivances have been adopted
to diminish as much as possible this waste of heat, and so obtain the
greatest possible proportion of available steam power from a given
weight of fuel. Boilers wholly or partially formed of tubes have
recently been much in favour. An arrangement for quickly generating
and superheating steam is shown in Fig. 8, in connection with a
high-pressure engine.
Steam engines are constructed in a great variety of forms, adapted
to the purposes for which they are intended. Distinctions are made
according as the engine is fitted with a condenser or not. When
steam of a low pressure is employed, the engine always has a
condenser, and as in this way a larger quantity of work is obtainable
for a given weight of fuel, all marine engines—and all stationary
engines, where there is an abundant supply of water and the size is
not objectionable—are provided with condensers. High-pressure
steam may be used with condensing engines, but is generally
employed in non-condensing engines only, as in locomotives and
agricultural engines, the steam being allowed to escape into the air
when it has driven the piston to the end of the stroke. In such
engines the beam is commonly dispensed with, the head of the
piston-rod moving between guides and driving the crank directly by
means of a connecting-rod. The axis of the cylinder may be either
vertical, horizontal, or inclined. A plan often adopted in marine
engines, by which space is saved, consists in jointing the piston-rod
directly to the crank, and suspending the cylinder on trunnions near
the middle of its length. The trunnions are hollow, and are
connected by steam-tight joints, one with the steam-pipe from the
boiler, and the other with the eduction-pipe. Such engines have
fewer parts than any others; they are lighter for the same strength,
and are easily repaired. The trunnion joints are easily packed, so
that no leakage takes place, and yet there is so little friction that a
man can with one hand move a very large cylinder, whereas in
another form of marine engine, known as the side-lever engine,
constructed with oscillating beams, the friction is often very great.
 THE LOCOMOTIVE.

T he first locomotive came into practical use in 1804. Twenty years

before, Watt had patented—but had not constructed—a
locomotive engine, the application of steam to drive carriages having
first been suggested by Robinson in 1759. The first locomotives were
very imperfect, and could draw loads only by means of toothed
driving-wheels, which engaged teeth in rack-work rails. The teeth
were very liable to break off, and the rails to be torn up by the pull
of the engine. In 1813, the important discovery was made that such
aids are unnecessary, for it was found that the “bite” of a smooth
wheel upon a smooth rail was sufficient for all ordinary purposes of
traction. But for this discovery, the locomotive might never have
emerged from the humble duty of slowly dragging coal-laden
waggons along the tramways of obscure collieries. The progress of
the locomotive in the path of improvement was, however, slow, until
about 1825, when George Stephenson applied the blast-pipe, and a
few years later adopted the tubular boiler. These are the capital
improvements which, at the famous trial of locomotives, on the 6th
of October, 1829, enabled Stephenson’s “Rocket” to win the prize
offered by the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
The “Rocket” weighed 4½ tons, and at the trial drew a load of
tenders and carriages weighing 12¾ tons. Its average speed was 14
miles an hour, and its greatest, 29 miles an hour. This engine, the
parent of the powerful locomotives of the present day, may now be
seen in the Patent Museum at South Kensington. Since 1829,
numberless variations and improvements have been made in the
details of the locomotive. In weight, dimensions, tractive power and
speed, the later locomotives vastly surpass the earlier types.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

testbankpack.com