AS PHYSICS: Unit 1 - Mechanics

Chapter 01: Physical Quantities & Units

Measurable quantities are called physical quantities. There are two types of physical
quantities:

1. Base Quantity
2. Derived Quantity

1. Base Quantity: A quantity which is defined without the help of other quantities is
called a base quantity. There are only 7 base quantities:

i. Mass
ii. Length
iii. Time interval
iv. Temperature difference
v. Electric current
vi. Amount of substance
vii. Luminous intensity

2. Derived Quantity: A quantity which is defined with the help of two or more base
quantities is known as a derived quantity. Example:
i. Force
ii. Charge
iii. Velocity
iv. Density

Units:

A unit is a standard measured value compared with which other measurements are
expressed.
For e.g. 1m is the length defined by someone in science museum.

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There are 2 types of units:

1. Base Unit
2. Derived Unit
1. SI Base Unit: The unit of a base quantity is called a base unit. Since there are only 7
base quantities, base units are also 7 in number. They are:

i. Kilogram (kg)  mass

ii. Meter (m)  length
iii. Second (s)  time
iv. Kelvin (K)  temperature  E.g. 1200C = (120+273) K
v. Ampere (A)  electric current
vi. Mole (mol)  amount of substance
vii. Candela (Cd)  luminous intensity

1. Derived Unit: The unit of a derived quantity is called a derived unit.

Derived quantity Formula Derived Unit SI Base Unit form

Force F=ma N (Newton) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 −2
Charge Q=It C (Coulomb) As
𝑑𝑑
Speed 𝑉𝑉 = ms-1 ms-1
𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚
Density 𝜌𝜌 = Kgm-3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−3
𝑣𝑣
𝐹𝐹
Pressure 𝑃𝑃 = Pa (Pascal)
𝐴𝐴
Work done W= F x d Joule (J)
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
Power 𝑃𝑃 = Watt
𝑡𝑡

Prefixes: To represent very large numbers or very small numbers, some words are used
in front of the units.

Pico Nano Micro milli Centi Unit Kilo Mega Giga Tera
(p) (n) (μ) (m) (c) (K) (M) (G) (T)
X10-12 X10-9 X10-6 X10-3 X10-2 X103 X 106 X109 X1012

Only mass should be represented in Kilogram (that is with a prefix).

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Homogeneous Equation:
An equation containing the same type of physical quantities is called a homogeneous
equation. Example:
v = u +at
Unit on the left-hand side =
Unit on the right-hand side =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ≡ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
The equation is homogenous

All correct equations are homogeneous, but all homogeneous equations are not correct!
1
i) s = ut + at2
2
Unit on the left-hand side =
Unit on the right-hand side =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ≡ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
The equation is homogenous.

ii) v2 = u2 + as

Unit on the left-hand side =

Unit on the right-hand side =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ≡ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
The equation is homogenous.

This equation is homogeneous, but with respect to its units only. Not all the equations
are correct in terms of their coefficients.

Problem:
What is this equation of?
𝑙𝑙
2π�
𝑔𝑔
Where l = Length and g = acceleration of free fall.

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What is this equation of?

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
� 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹, 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ, 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚

Unit:

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Rectilinear Motion
Scalar Quantities: Quantities which have magnitude (size) only, but no direction,
are known as scalar quantities. Example:

1. length
2. distance
3. time
Vector Quantities: Quantities which have both magnitude and direction are known
as vector quantities. Example:
5.0 m
1. force A B
2. displacement -2.5 m
3. velocity

Distance travelled: This is the change in position in any direction. Unit : m

It’s a scalar quantity.
Displacement: This is the distance travelled or change in position in a particular
direction. Unit: m. It’s a vector quantity.

Displacement

For a runner running in a circle, his displacement might be zero even if he is covering a
distance.

Speed: It is the rate of change of position or rate of change of distance, travelled in

any direction.
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Word equation: speed =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝒔𝒔
v = = constant speed
𝒕𝒕

Unit : ms-1

It is a scalar quantity

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Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement, or rate of change of distance travelled
in a specified direction.
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Word equation: velocity =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Unit: ms-1

It is a vector quantity.

Question: A sprinter runs on track of length of 200m in 40sec and completes the lap.
What is the sprinter’s i) speed and ii) Velocity?

When velocity of a body continuously changes, we deal with two types of velocities: 1)
Instantaneous velocity & 2) Average velocity

Instantaneous Velocity:
Velocity of an accelerating body at a particular instant is called instantaneous velocity.
This velocity continuously changes as the body accelerates or decelerates. It is measured
as displacement over a short period of time.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Instantaneous velocity =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Average Velocity:
𝑉𝑉1 +𝑉𝑉2 +𝑉𝑉3
(i)
3
𝑢𝑢+𝑣𝑣
(ii) For a uniformly accelerated body: Av. Vel =
2
(iii) Average velocity of an accelerating body is defined as the total displacement
over total time.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Average velocity =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
For a runner running in a circle, his displacement might be zero even if he is covering a
distance. Hence his average velocity might be zero even if he has a speed.

Since both Displacement and Velocity are vector quantities so if the direction is
changed and the quantity (displacement or velocity) is changed.
Example: A person moving with 2m/s towards East will have a different velocity when
he turns towards South even if he keeps on moving at 2m/s.

To measure velocity or acceleration we need some specific apparatuses to get exact

result.
1. Friction compensated runways
2. Timing Devices

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 Friction compensated runway:
a. Air Track: The runway is comprised of a triangular shaped structure and with air
outlets and air inlets. As the blower starts, air comes out through the outlets and
makes the trolley float. As the contact between trolley/Glider and runway becomes
negligible so friction almost disappears and runway becomes friction compensated.
L1 L2
Interrupter card

Air Track
Air Supply

Gliders

b. The second type of runway is an ordinary type of runway but slightly tilted in order
to compensate for friction.
Dynamics
Wooden
Trolley
Runway

Packing pieces.

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Timing Devices

1. Stopwatch
2. Light gate

3. Ticker timer
4. Multi flash camera
5. Video camera

Light gate:

𝑳𝑳
v=
𝒕𝒕

A light gate consists of a light source producing a narrow beam of light and a light sensor
connected to an electronic timer. The timer is switched ON/OFF, depending on the light
beam reaching the detector or not.

 EXPERIMENT: To measure the “instantaneous” velocity of an accelerating trolley

when it passes a point on the runway.
Light gate

Intelligent Data Logger Computer

timer

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The trolley is released from the top of the ramp. The ramp is high enough to make the
trolley accelerate. As the trolley passes the light gate, the timer records the time of
interruption ‘T’. Length of the trolley is measured ‘L’ using a meter rule.
𝑳𝑳
The instantaneous velocity of the trolley as it runs down is given by v = .
𝑻𝑻
The experiment is repeated several times and an average value is calculated.

 EXPERIMENT: To measure the average velocity of an accelerating trolley when it

passes a distance.

The trolley is released from the top of the runway so that it accelerates. As the interrupter
card interrupts the first light gate, the timer is switched ON. As the interrupter interrupts
the second light gate, the timer is switched OFF. So, the time taken for the trolley to travel
the distance AB is recorded from the timer.

Length of AB is measured ‘x’ using a measuring tape/meter rule.

𝒙𝒙
Average velocity over AB is given by v = .
𝒕𝒕

Precaution:

1. The light gate must be checked for zero error.

2. The distance readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid
parallax error.

Acceleration:
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The rate of change of velocity of a body is called its acceleration.
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Word equation: acceleration =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

It is a vector quantity; its SI unit is ms-2.

Since velocity is a vector quantity, it has magnitude (Speed) and direction.
If direction of a body changes, so does its velocity (even if the speed remains constant).
Since rate of change of velocity is acceleration so the object accelerates.
 An experiment to measure acceleration using a light gate.

s Timer Data Logger Computer

Procedure: The mass hanger is released and the glider is allowed to accelerate. The
glider then passes the light gate and the interrupter interrupts the light gate.
Measurements:
The distance between the initial position of the glider and the light gate: s, using a meter
rule
The length of the interrupter: l, using a meter rule.
The time of interruption, by the interrupter: t, from the intelligent timer.
Calculations:
Initial velocity of the glider: u = 0
𝑙𝑙
Average velocity after distance s, is v = .
𝑡𝑡

Since, v2 = u2 +2as,
𝑣𝑣 2
∴ Acceleration a:
2𝑠𝑠

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Precaution:

1. The timer must be checked for zero error.

2. The distance readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid
parallax error.
3. Each trial must be repeated at least twice more and an average value should be
calculated.

 EXPERIMENT: To measure acceleration using a Video Camera

Retort Stand
Video Camera

The trolley is allowed to move down the calibrated runway. Motion of the trolley is
recorded by the video camera. If the video camera takes 25 pictures (frames)per second,
1
the time between two consecutive frames is or 0.04 seconds.
25

The video is played back 1 frame at a time. Distance ‘x’ moved by the trolley between
successive frames is measured from the scale.

𝑥𝑥
Average velocity, v, of the trolley between the frames is calculated ,
0.04

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 where x = x1, x2, x3, etc

If a graph is plotted v against t, it will be a straight line. Gradient (slope) of this line is the
acceleration.
V (ms )
-1

t (sec)
Precaution:

1. The video camera must be pointed perpendicularly with respect to the ramp
otherwise parallax error will occur. This is done by using a set square.

Advantage of a video camera:

1. Can be played over again

2. Can be paused.
3. Can be zoomed in.

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 Multi Flash camera

Assume multiflash camera, just like a video camera, takes same number of pictures per second.
The gap between the vertical lines represents horizontal distance travelled at regular interval
of time. Since they are equal, the horizontal speed of the ball is constant.
The gap between the horizontal lines gives the vertical distance moved by the ball at regular
interval of time.
When the ball goes up, the vertical distance between the balls decreases between each line,
which implies the vertical velocity when the ball goes up decreases with time.
When the ball comes down, the vertical distance between the balls increases between each line,
which implies the vertical velocity when the ball comes down increases with time.
If velocities between consecutive pictures are calculated and a graph of velocity against time is
plotted then the gradient of the graph is acceleration.

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 Motion graph using Ticker-timer & tape:

* The ticker-timer makes 50 dot spaces/sec.

1
∴ 1 dot space is made in sec = 0.02 sec.
50
∴ 5 dot spaces are made in 0.02 x 5 = 0.1 sec.
𝑥𝑥1
Initial velocity: u = ms-1
0.1
𝑥𝑥2
Final velocity: v= ms-1
0.1

Calculation of Acceleration (using one set of data):

𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
a= ms-2
𝑡𝑡

𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙
− 𝟏𝟏
a= 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏
ms-2
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏
Time between u and v should be taken between same types of points.

OR
Calculating velocities at regular time interval, if a graph of v against t is plotted, then from
the gradient of the graph, acceleration can be calculated.

Precaution:

1. First few dots should be ignored.

2. The distance readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid
parallax error.

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 Using Motion-Sensor and Data-Logger:

The motion sensor sends and receives ultrasound pulses. It has an inbuilt stopwatch
which can measure the time gap between sending and receiving of the pulse. If time
between sending and receiving the pulse is ‘t’ then distance between the sensor and the
𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
reflector is 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. The sensor does this
2
many times at equal but short time intervals and keeps on recording distances at regular
interval.

The data logger (which records the data) sends the recorded data to computer and the
computer then can plot a distance – time graph. From the gradient of the distance – time
graph it can calculate a velocity time graph (and acceleration from the gradient of the
velocity –time graph).

Advantages of a digital/Information and Communication Technology system:

(1) It can take a large number of readings within a short time

(2) No human reaction errors.

(3) Graphs can be plotted automatically.

(4) Data can be recorded with high precision.

Advantage of plotting graphs in any experiment:

Allows trend/relationship to be identified OR allows equation to be derived

Anomalous readings can be identified
Systematic errors can be detected
Line of best fit ‘averages’ a good set of results
Allows interpolation/extrapolation
Allows intercept/gradient/area to be determined

Motion graphs for different types of motion

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Things to remember:

 Gradient of an “s-t” graph is velocity.

 Gradient of a “v-t” graph is acceleration.
 Area under “v-t” graph is displacement.
 Area under an “a-t” graph is velocity
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 In the equation y=mx+c, m = gradient/Rate of change/ .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If gradient is positive = (for any graph shape) Line will go up.
If gradient is negative = (for any graph shape) Line will come down.

Generic graph shapes:

Gradient Constant Increasing Decreasing
Positive

Negative

Gradient = 0

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1. A body at rest s(m)
s(m)

t(s)
t(s)
Gradient of an s-t graph = velocity

v v

t(s) t(s)

a
a

t(s)
t(s)

2. A body moving with constant velocity

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3. Object moving at a uniform 4. Object moving with uniform
acceleration deceleration
s(m) s(m)

t(s) t(s)

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 ) v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

t(s) t(s)

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

t(s)

t(s)

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5. Acceleration increasing at a constant 6. Acceleration increasing at an
rate increasing rate

s(m) s(m)

t(s) t(s)

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 ) v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

t(s) t(s)

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

t(s) t(s)

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7. Acceleration increasing at a 8. Acceleration decreasing at a constant
decreasing rate rate

s(m)

s(m)
Displacement Displacement is
increasing at an increasing at a
increasing rate constant rate

Displacement is
t(s)
increasing at an
increasing rate

t(s)
v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

Velocity Velocity is increasing

increasing at a at a decreasing rate
constant rate Velocity is
constant
Velocity
t(s)
increasing at an
increasing rate
a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) t(s)

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

Acceleration is
constant

t(s)

Acceleration
increasing at a
t(s)
decreasing rate Acceleration is
zero

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9. Acceleration decreasing at an 10. Acceleration decreasing at a
increasing rate. decreasing rate.

s(m) s(m)
Displacement is
Displacement is increasing at a
increasing at a constant rate
constant rate

Displacement is Displacement is
increasing at an increasing at an
increasing rate increasing rate

t(s) t(s)

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 ) v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

Velocity is increasing Velocity is constant Velocity is increasing

at a decreasing rate at a decreasing rate

Velocity is constant

t(s) t(s)

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

Acceleration
decreasing at an
Acceleration decreasing rate
decreasing at an
increasing rate

t(s) t(s)

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11. A body is moving with a constant 12. A body is moving with a constant
acceleration in the opposite direction velocity in the opposite direction.

s(m) s(m)
Displacement decreasing
at a constant rate
Displacement
decreasing at an
increasing rate in the
opposite direction.

t(s) t(s)

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 ) v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

t(s) t(s)

Velocity increasing at
a constant rate in the Velocity is constant
opposite direction. but in the opposite
direction

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

t(s)

-2
Accelerating in the opposite
direction.

t(s)

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13. A body is moving with a constant
deceleration in the opposite direction.

s(m)

Decreasing at a decreasing rate.

t(s)

v(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

t(s)

Velocity decreasing at a constant

rate

a(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

Decelerating in the opposite direction

t(s)

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 s-t, v-t, and a-t graph for a round trip.
s/m

t/s

v/𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1

t/s

a/𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2

t/s

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Motion graph for a bouncing ball

A ball is dropped from a certain height, it hits the ground and bounces few more times. For
this case, upward is taken to be positive and downward is to be negative. Ground is taken
to be zero. All measurements were taken from the ball’s centre of gravity. Air resistance is
considered to be negligible.

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Explanation of Displacement – Time graph: A ball was dropped from a certain height and
it accelerates downwards due to its weight. The displacement decreases at an increasing
rate.

The ball hits the ground. It exerts a force on the ground and the ground gives it an equal and
opposite force and hence the direction of the ball’s velocity changes upward. So, the ball
starts moving upward after remaining in contact for a short time known as ‘impact time’.
Since the gravity always acts downwards, this time it is against the ball’s motion. The ball’s
displacement increases at decreasing rate because the ball is now decelerating. The ball
reaches a maximum height and at that point, the velocity of the ball becomes zero and the
ball starts falling again. With every bounce, some of the kinetic energy of the ball gets
transferred to internal (thermal) energy and hence its peak height decreases and impact
time increases.

Explanation of Velocity – Time graph:

The ball is initially dropped and it moves downward. The ball accelerates at a constant rate
(-9.81ms-2), so the velocity increases at a linear rate. The downward direction is considered
negative. So, the velocity increases with negative sign.

The ball goes up after bouncing. Upward is taken positive. The ball decelerates at a constant
rate (-9.81ms-2), so the velocity decreases at a constant rate until it becomes zero (at
maximum height). But all values of velocities are taken to be positive.

The ball comes down again and hits the ground. Due to the ground’s force on the ball, in the
upward direction, the ball’s direction of velocity changes to upward in the impact time.

Within impact time, the velocity changes from negative to positive. So, the graph has a very
high gradient/slope.

The graph repeats with every bounce.

Explanation of Acceleration – Time graph:

During free fall (and free rise), the only force acts on the ball is gravitational. So, the
acceleration is -9.81 ms-2 (negative because the gravity always acts downwards). Also, the
velocity time graph is a linear one which shows the gradient is constant.

When the ball is in contact with ground, the force from ground is upwards. Now an
unbalanced force always causes acceleration. THIS acceleration is NOT AN ACCELERATION

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OF FREE FALL. This acceleration causes the ball’s velocity to change upwards from
downward. So, the acceleration during impact time is positive.

With every hit, some energy gets dissipated to the surrounding and every time the velocity
with which the ball rebounds decreases and contact time increases so acceleration during
impact time decreases.

Equations of Motion: For a uniformly accelerating body, Newton derived four equations of
motion. They are:

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Straight Line Graphs:

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 EXPERIMENT: To measure the value of g (acceleration due to free fall)

i) Direct Method:
Procedure:

When the switch is moved from A to B, the

electromagnet loses its magnetism, the ball
starts to fall and simultaneously the timer
is automatically switched ON. As the ball
h hits the trap door, the contact is broken
and the timer stops.

Measurements:

The height, h, is measured by using a meter rule.

The time taken by the ball to travel the height, h, is recorded, t from the timer.

The experiment is repeated several times by altering the height, h and corresponding
times ‘t’ are recorded.
1
h = gt2
2

The equation of a straight line : y = mx

1
Here, h y- axis , t2 x- axis, g m (gradient)
2

A graph is plotted h against t2.

A straight line passing through the origin is obtained.

1
h (m) gradient = g
2

∴ g = 2 x gradient

1
gradient = m = 𝑔𝑔
2

t2/ (s2)
Precaution:
29 Nazrul IP | O & A Level Physics Teacher | Educo International School
1. The timer must be checked for zero error.
2. The distance readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid
parallax error
3. The sphere should be small and smooth to avoid effects of air resistance.

ii) Using Light Gate and Double Interrupter:

Timer Data Logger Computer

Procedure: The lengths of identical interrupters are measured ‘l’. The double interrupter
is released vertically so that it accelerates downward due to gravity. Time for 1st
interruption is recorded t1, in seconds. Time taken for 2nd interruption is recorded t2, in
seconds. Finally, the time taken between the interruptions is recorded t, from the intelligent
timer.

Calculations:
𝑙𝑙
Average velocity over the 1st interruption is u =
𝑡𝑡1

𝑙𝑙
Average velocity over the 2nd interruption is v =
𝑡𝑡2

𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
Acceleration of free fall is g = .
𝑡𝑡

Precaution:

1. The timer must be checked for zero error.

2. The length readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid parallax
error.
3. The interrupter should be dropped in a clean manner and in a vertical orientation as
much as possible.
4. The thickness of the double interrupter must be kept low.
iii) Using Light Gate and long tube:

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The interrupter card is dropped from a certain height ‘s’ and it was allowed to fall freely. As
the interrupter passes the light gate, the time of interruption is recorded from the timer.

The experiment is repeated by changing the height of drop ‘s’ and the corresponding
velocities are calculated.

Measurements:

Height ‘s’ from which the ball was dropped is measured using a meter rule.

Length of the card ‘l’ is measured using a meter rule.

Time of interruption ‘t’ is recorded from the light gate.

Calculations:
𝑙𝑙
Average velocity after distance s, is v = .
𝑡𝑡

A graph of 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 is plotted. It will be a straight line passing through the origin since
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
u =0. The gradient of the graph will be 2g so g can be calculated by
2

Precaution:

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1. The light gate must be checked for zero error.
2. The length readings must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid parallax
error.
3. The object must be dropped vertically.
4. The object must not have any initial velocity.

Bring graph paper and protractor next

class. If you don’t bring then
…………………………….

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