COURSE NOTES

EMG 2401 – Industrial Hydraulics

BSc. in Mechanical Engineering (4th Year)

2023 - 2024 Semester 1 (Sept - Dec 2023)

Lecturer: Ms. Stellamaris N. Nzove

 Outline
Purpose
The purpose of this course is to enable the student to;
1. understand hydraulic systems.
2. gain skills on design and operation of hydraulic systems.
3. service, maintain and diagnose faults in hydraulic systems.

Learning outcomes
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
1. identify and describe the operations of various hydraulic components
2. size components and appropriately incorporate them in hydraulic design circuits,
3. carry out fault diagnosis in hydraulic circuits.

Course description
Hydraulic fluids: Incompressibility and Pascal’s law; types and properties. Hydraulic Pumps:
Pump types, performance characteristics; Hydraulic actuators: motors and hydraulic cylinders;
different types of actuators and performance characteristics. Filters and strainers. Valves:
Pressure control valves, pressure relief valves, check valves, 2 and 3-position directional
control valves, different configurations, pilot valves, flow control valves, restrictor valves.
Gauges. Accumulators. Coolers and heaters. Pipes and fittings. Seals and packings. Hydraulic
symbology. Hydrostatic transmission systems. Design of simple circuits: Sizing of hydraulic
components. Fault diagnosis. Service and maintenance.
Prerequisites: EMG 2205 Fluid Mechanics I, EMG 2301 Fluid Mechanics II.

Prescribed text books

1. Esposito A. (1994) Fluid Power with Applications, McGraw Hill, 5th Ed.
2. Stewart H. L. (1977) Fluid Power Technology, Industrial Press Inc., 4th Ed.

References
1. Cundiff J. S. (2001) Fluid Power Circuits and Control, Fundamentals and Applications,
CRC Press, 1st Ed.
2. Richard J. M. & Pippenger J. J. (1997) Fluid Power Maintenance, Basics and
Troubleshooting, CRC Press.
3. Journal of Fluids Engineering

Teaching methodology: 2-hour lecture, 1-hour tutorial per week and at least three 3-
hour practical sessions per semester organized on a rotational basis.

Instruction materials/equipment: 1. Mechanical Engineering laboratories;

2. Overhead projector

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Mode of Assessment:
1. Assignments - 5%
2. Continuous Assessment Tests - 10%
3. Practical - 15%
4. Final Exam - 70%

Total - 100%

Practical:
1. Hydraulic system operation – ELA 03 Fluid Dynamics Lab
2. Hydraulic pumps performance – ENW Construction shop

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 1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
Fluid power is probably as old as civilization itself. Water was used for centuries to
produce power by means of water wheels and air was used to turn wind mills and propel
ships. Fluid power technology actually begun in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal’s
law which states that pressure is transmitted undiminished and perpendicular to the
surface of a confined fluid body.
Pascal found that when he rammed a cork down into a jug completely full of wine, the
bottom of the jug broke and fell out. Pascal’s law indicated that pressures were equal at
the top and bottom of the jug. However, the jug has a small opening area at the top and
a large area at the bottom. Thus, the bottom absorbs a greater force due to its larger
area.
In 1750 Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for fluid flowing in a
pipe. These two laws were applied during the industrial revolution in 1850 in Great
Britain. By 1870 fluid power was already being used to drive hydraulic equipment such
as cranes, presses, winches, extruding machines, hydraulic jacks, shearing machines
and riveting machines since electrical energy was not yet developed.

1.2 Definitions and applications

Hydraulics refers to the science that deals with transmission of power through confined
fluids (liquids or gases).
A fluid is a material substance that can flow. It cannot sustain a shearing stress when at
rest. Indeed, it is the inability of fluids at rest to resist shearing stresses that gives them
characteristic ability to flow. Fluids are conventionally classified as either liquids or
gases. A liquid is a substance that, under suitable conditions of temperature, will in time
deform to take up the shape of any container that it is placed in. A liquid is relatively
incompressible, and if all pressure, except its own vapour pressure is removed, the
cohesion between the molecules holds them together so that it does not expand
indefinitely. Therefore, a liquid may form a free surface. Water was the first hydraulic
fluid to be used since it is readily available, non-flammable and environmentally clean.
However, the following drawbacks hinder its application as a hydraulic liquid:
- It freezes freely and easily under extremely low temperatures
- It has poor lubrication properties
- It corrodes metal components in contact
When water is used though, additives are necessary in order to improve lubrication
properties, reduce corrosion and prevent freezing. Alternative approach is to use
hydraulic oils. Pneumatic systems, on the other hand, use air as the gas medium because
air is abundant and is readily exhausted back into the atmosphere after completing the
assigned task.
A gas is a substance that will deform and expand to occupy the entire volume of any
container holding it without developing a free surface. Unlike liquids, gases are highly
compressible.

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Fluid power refers to the technology that deals with the general control and
transmission of power using pressurized fluids in a confined system. It is the muscle
that moves the industry since it is used to push, pull, regulate and drive virtually all
machines of the modern industry. Fluid power is applied in the following areas:

i. Automobile steering and braking systems, shock absorbers

ii. Spacecraft launch
iii. Construction machinery i.e., excavators, bull dozers, graders, trucks and
forklifts
iv. Crop harvesting
v. Machine tools i.e., hydraulic press, car jacks,
vi. Control of airplanes, ships, boats etc.

Fluid systems can be classified into the following two categories:

1. Fluid transport systems - these deliver fluids from one location to another in order
to accomplish some useful tasks. For example, pumping water to homes, cross
country gas lines and pipelines and systems where chemical processing occur.
2. Fluid power systems - these systems are specifically designed to perform work.
Work is accomplished by pressurized fluid acting directly on an operating fluid
cylinder or fluid motor. A fluid cylinder produces a force resulting in a linear motion
whereas a fluid motor produces torque resulting in rotary motion.

1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic systems

Advantages:
1. Flexibility – confined liquid is the most flexible power source. Replacing
mechanical elements e.g., shafts, gears etc, with pipes and hoses eliminates
locational and alignment problems.
2. Easy and accurate (precision) control – simple levers and push buttons can be used
by an operator to readily start, stop, speed up/ slow down and position forces that
provide desired power with precise tolerances.
3. Force multiplication – Fluid power can multiply very small forces (without using
cumbersome gears, pulleys and levers) simply and efficiently to move and control
much larger forces i.e., in hydraulic presses and car jacks.
4. Constant force or torque – only fluid power systems can provide constant force or
torque regardless of speed changes
5. Simplicity – generally, fluid power systems use fewer moving parts compared to
equivalent mechanical or electrical systems.
6. Compactness – have simpler component designs compared to equivalent
complicated mechanical devices. For example, the size of a hydraulic motor is far
smaller than an equivalent electric motor.
7. Safety – pressure relief valves (safety valves) protect the system against any
overload breakdown that may arise.
8. Economy – simplicity and compactness of such systems make them quite
economical. In addition, the system undergoes self-lubrication.

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9. Smooth operation – hydraulic systems are smooth and quiet in their operation.

Disadvantage:
Fluid power systems must be properly designed, installed and maintained in order to
operate in a safe, reliable, efficient and cost-effective manner. Hydraulic systems are
prone to oil spillage.

1.4 Hydraulic system components

A hydraulic system refers to a power-transmitting assembly that does work by
employing a pressurized liquid to transmit energy from an energy-generating source to
an energy-utilizing point. The main components that make up a hydraulic system
include: an actuator (hydraulic cylinder or hydraulic motor); pump; hydraulic oil; oil
tank/ reservoir; pressure regulator; directional control valves (DCV); oil filter and a
drive motor as illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Components of a hydraulic system

Functions of the various components of the hydraulic system shown in Fig. 1.1 are
explained as follows:
1. Hydraulic actuator – converts fluid power or hydraulic energy (i.e., pressure
energy and kinetic energy) into mechanical power in order to do useful work. An
actuator may be linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g.,
hydraulic motor).
2. Hydraulic pump – pumps hydraulic fluid from the reservoir to the rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Hydraulic valves – control direction, pressure and rate of flow of fluid flowing
through a hydraulic circuit.
4. Drive motor (external power supply) – drives the hydraulic pump.
5. Reservoir – hold the hydraulic liquid which is usually a hydraulic oil. A hydraulic
oil is the media used for transmitting hydraulic power.

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 6. Piping system – include pipes and hoses, and carries hydraulic liquid (oil) from
one location to another. Also act as a link for connecting the various components
of the hydraulic system.
7. Filters – remove foreign particles from the fluid system to keep it clean and
efficient, and also to avoid damage to the pump, actuator, valves and other
components of the system.
8. Pressure regulator – regulates (i.e., maintains) pressure of the hydraulic fluid to
the required level.

The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the
storage tank to one side of the piston and returned to the tank from the other side of the
piston. Fluid is drawn from the tank by the pump that provides fluid flow at the required
level of pressure.

Hydraulic fluid reservoirs:

Fluids used in industrial hydraulic components or systems must be contained within the
system and protected from contamination. A part from storing the hydraulic fluid, a
hydraulic reservoir/ tank may also serve the following purposes:
1. Dissipate heat – Reservoirs can dissipate heat by radiation from the external wall
or by use of integral cooling coils or more complex finned radiating devices.
2. Trap foreign matter – foreign matter may be trapped using filters, magnets and
baffles.
3. Separate air bubbles from the fluid – this can be achieved by use of proper reservoir
design that slows down the fluid flow as it returns to the reservoir. When fluid
moves at a lower velocity, air bubbles have a greater chance of escaping from the
fluid surface.

Various parts of a hydraulic fluid reservoir are illustrated in Fig. 1.2 and their functions
briefly explained after.

Fig. 1.2: Components of a hydraulic reservoir

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 • Filler cap – it should be air-tight when closed but with air vent that filters air
entering the reservoir to provide gravity push for proper oil flow. Air vent filter
must be kept clean to prevent development of partial vacuums which may hinder
gravity flow from the reservoir.
• Oil level gauge – it indicates the level of oil in the reservoir without opening
the tank. In some cases, dip sticks are used to determine the level of oil. These
devices should always be protected from mechanical damage.
• Baffle – separates the return oil from the oil entering the pump. The slow oil
circulation allows it to settle and prevents constant release of the same oil.
• Outlet and return lines – they are connected to the reservoir where the effect
of air and turbulence are the least. They can join the reservoir from the top or
sides, however, their ends should always be near the bottom of the reservoir. If
the return line hangs above the oil level, the return oil can foam and draw in air.
• Intake filter – it is usually a screen installed in the reservoir and used in series
with the oil filter for the hydraulic system.
• Drain plug – it is used for draining oil from the reservoir. Some are magnetic
for removal of metal chips and burrs from the oil.

Note:
1. reservoir temperature can affect the operation of a hydraulic system and hence a
thermometer is usually used to monitor the system temperature.
2. Reservoirs may be pressurized to about 7 bars or less in order to improve the pump
suction characteristics and also prevent contamination from surrounding
atmosphere.

Basic requirements of a hydraulic reservoir:

A good hydraulic reservoir should have the following basic requirements:
1. Compact and large enough to hold all the oil that may drain back by gravity.
2. Always maintain the oil level above the suction line opening.
3. Dissipate excess heat during normal operation.
4. Allow air and foreign matter to separate from the oil.

1.5 Hydraulic fluids

Different types of hydraulic fluids (liquids) are used in industrial hydraulic systems.
Mineral oils started being used as hydraulic liquids in hydraulic systems as early as
1920. In 1940s, additives were first used to improve the physical and chemical
properties of hydraulic mineral oils. The first additives were developed to counter rust
and oxidation. However, mineral oils are highly flammable, and fire risk increases when
operating at high temperatures. This led to the development of fire-resistant fluids that
are mainly water based, with limitations on the operating conditions. The need for
operation at extreme temperatures and pressures led to the development of synthetic
fluids. Personnel who operate, service, or design fluid power systems should have
knowledge of the individual characteristics of different hydraulic fluids.

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1.5.1 Types of hydraulic fluids
Different types of hydraulic fluids have different properties. In general, when selecting
a suitable oil for hydraulic application, the following important factors are considered:
First, its compatibility with seals, bearing and components; second, its viscosity and
other parameters such as fire resistance and environmental stability. There are five
major types of hydraulic fluids which meet the various needs of a system. These are
briefly discussed as follows:

1. Petroleum-based/ mineral-based oils:

These are the most widely used hydraulic fluids due to their excellent lubricating
properties of not causing rusting, compatible with most seal materials, least
corrosion problems and readily dissipate heat. They are also easily available and
economical. Their disadvantage is that they can easily catch fire at elevated
temperature conditions. They pose fire hazards, mainly from leakages, in high-
temperature environments such as steel industries, etc.
Mineral oils are good for operating temperatures below 50° C. At higher
temperatures, these oils lose their chemical stability and form acids, varnishes, etc
which lead to loss of lubrication characteristics, increased wear and tear, corrosion
and related problems. Fortunately, additives are available that improve chemical
stability, reduce oxidation, foam formation and other problems.

A petroleum oil is still by far the most commonly used base for hydraulic fluids due
to its possession of the following properties:
- Excellent lubricity.
- Higher demulsibility.
- More oxidation resistance.
- Higher viscosity index.
- Protection against rust.
- Good sealing characteristics.
- Easy dissipation of heat.
- Easy cleaning by filtration.
Most of the desirable properties of the fluid, if not already present in the crude oil,
can be incorporated through refining or use of additives. A principal disadvantage
of petroleum oil is that it burns easily. For applications where fire could be a hazard,
such as heat treating, hydroelectric welding, die casting, forging and many others,
there are several types of fire-resistant fluids available.

2. Emulsions:
Emulsions are a mixture of two fluids that do not chemically react with each other.
The most commonly used emulsions are those of petroleum-based oil and water.
An emulsifier is normally added to the emulsion to keep one liquid as small droplets
and remain suspended in the other liquid. The two main types of emulsions include:
- Oil-in-water emulsion: This type of emulsion has water as the main phase with
small droplets of oil being dispersed in it. Generally, oil dilution is limited to
about 5%, hence, it exhibits characteristics of water. Its limitations are poor

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 viscosity, leading to leakage problems, loss in volumetric efficiency and poor
lubrication properties. These problems can be overcome to a greater extent by
using certain additives. Such emulsions are used in high-displacement, low-
speed pumps (such as in mining applications).
- Water-in-oil emulsions: These are also called inverse emulsions and are
basically oil based with small droplets of water being dispersed throughout the
oil phase. They are the most popular fire-resistant hydraulic fluids. They exhibit
more of an oil-like characteristic; hence, they have good viscosity and
lubrication properties. The commonly used emulsion has a dilution of 60% oil
and 40% water. These emulsions are good for operations at 25° C since at
higher temperatures, water evaporates and leads to the loss of fire-resistant
properties.

3. Water glycol:
Water glycol is another non-flammable fluid commonly used in aircraft hydraulic
systems. Generally, it has a low lubrication ability compared to the mineral oils and
is not suitable for high-temperature applications to avoid evaporation of water. It
has water and glycol in the ratio of 1:1. Due to its aqueous nature and presence of
air, it is prone to oxidation and related problems and therefore requires blending
with oxidation inhibitors. Enough care is essential in using this fluid as it is toxic
and corrosive toward certain metals like zinc, magnesium and aluminium.
However, it is very good for low-temperature applications due to its high antifreeze
characteristics.

4. Synthetic fluids:
Synthetic fluid, based on phosphate ester, is another popular fire-resistant fluid. It
is mainly suitable for high-temperature applications due to its good viscosity and
lubrication characteristics. It is not compatible with common sealing materials such
as nitrile. Basically, being expensive, it requires expensive sealing materials
(Viton). However, phosphate ester is not an environmentally-friendly fluid, it also
attacks aluminium and paints.

5. Vegetable oils/ Biodegradable hydraulic fluids:

Increase in global pollution has led to the use of more environmentally-friendly
fluids. Again, as more and more organizations are understanding their social
responsibility and are turning toward eco-friendly machinery and work regime, a
biodegradable hydraulic fluid is increasingly becoming a sought-after product in
the dawn of an environmentalist era. Vegetable-based oils/ biodegradable hydraulic
fluids, alternatively known as bio-based hydraulic fluids, use sunflower, rapeseed,
soybean, etc., as the base oil and hence cause less pollution in the case of oil leaks
or hydraulic hose failures. They are biodegradable, environmentally safe, have good
lubrication properties, moderate viscosity and are less expensive. They can be
formulated to have good fire resistance characteristics with certain additives. These
fluids carry similar properties to a mineral oil–based anti-wear hydraulic fluid.

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 However, vegetable oils have a tendency to easily oxidize and absorb moisture. The
acidity, sludge formation and corrosion problems are more severe in vegetable oils
than in mineral oils. Hence, vegetable oils need good oxidation inhibitors to
minimize oxidation problems.

1.5.2 Functions of a hydraulic fluid

A hydraulic fluid is the medium for transmitting hydraulic power in a hydraulic system.
Therefore, it is an essential part of the system which must be well understood to ensure
efficient operation of the hydraulic system. Petroleum-based mineral oil is the most
common hydraulic liquid used in fluid power systems. The primary functions of a
hydraulic fluid in fluid power systems include:
1. Transmit power, which is the primary function.
2. Lubricate various parts of the system in order to avoid metal-to-metal contact and
reduce friction, wear and heat generation.
3. Dissipate the heat generated in the system. This can be done through a reservoir
or a heat exchanger.
4. Seal the moving elements to avoid leakage.
5. Carry along contaminations to the oil reservoir for removal through filtration.

1.5.3 Properties of a hydraulic fluid

In order to accomplish the above functions properly and efficiently, an ideal hydraulic
fluid should possess the following properties:
1. Ideal viscosity
The most basic desirable property of a hydraulic fluid is optimum viscosity. It is a
measure of
a fluid’s resistance to flow. A low viscous fluid is thin and can flow easily while a
high viscous fluid is thick and flows with difficulty. The viscosity of a fluid should be
high enough to seal the working gap between the parts and prevent leakage but should
also be low enough to cause easy flow throughout the system. A high-viscosity fluid
requires high energy to overcome the internal friction, resulting in excess heat
generation. On the other hand, a low-viscosity fluid flows easily but causes leakages
and reduces the volumetric and overall efficiency. Therefore, an optimum viscosity is
desired for a hydraulic fluid to perform effectively and efficiently. High viscosity
leads to:
- High resistance to flow
- Increased power consumption due to frictional loss
- High temperature caused by friction
- Increased pressure drop due to flow resistance
- Possibility of sluggish or slow operation
- Difficulty in separating air from oil in a reservoir
- Greater vacuum at the pump inlet, causing cavitation
- Higher system noise level.

Low viscosity on the other hand can lead to:

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 - Increased internal leakage
- Excessive water
- Possibility of decreased pump efficiency, hence slow actuator operation
- Increased temperature resulting from leakage losses

There are two basic methods of specifying the viscosity of fluids: absolute and
kinematic viscosity. Viscosity index is an arbitrary measure of a fluid resistance to
viscosity change with temperature. Thus, viscosity is affected by changes in
temperature. An increase in temperature leads to a decrease in fluid viscosity. A fluid
that has a relatively stable viscosity at extreme temperatures has a high viscosity
index. A fluid that is very thick when cold and very thin when hot has a low viscosity
index.

Hydraulic oils have been standardized by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO). Table 1.1 shows the ISO viscosity grades (VG) for engine oils.

Table 1.1: ISO VG for engine oils

ISO VG Kinematic viscosity (cS at 40o C)

Minimum Maximum

ISO VG 2 1.98 2.42

ISO VG 3 2.88 3.52

ISO VG 5 4.14 5.06

ISO VG 7 6.12 7.48

ISO VG 10 9 11.0

ISO VG 15 13.5 16.5

ISO VG 22 19.8 24.4

ISO VG 32 28.8 35.2

ISO VG 46 41.4 50.6

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 ISO VG 68 61.2 74.8

ISO VG 100 90 110

ISO VG 150 135 165

ISO VG 220 198 244

ISO VG 320 288 352

ISO VG 460 414 506

ISO VG 680 612 748

ISO VG 1000 900 1100

ISO VG 1500 1350 1650

2. Good lubrication capability

Hydraulic fluids must have good lubricating properties to prevent friction and wear
between closely fitted working parts like pump vanes, valve spools, piston rings and
bearings etc. Wear is the removal of surface material due to frictional force between
two metal-to-metal contact surfaces. This can result in a change in dimensional
tolerances, which can lead to improper functioning and failure of the components.
Therefore, the hydraulic oil film formed between parts in contact should be strong
enough to resist wiping out by the moving parts.

The two main types of lubrication mechanisms include thick film and boundary film. In
low-speed hydraulic systems such as hand-operated pumps and cylinders, a fluid
providing thick-film (about 10 times the surface roughness) lubrication is sufficient
since the film is thick enough to provide total surface separation. Under such conditions,
there is no metal-to-metal contact as illustrated in Fig. 1.3, hence there is no wear.
Coefficient of friction in this case is as low as 0.01 – 0.02.

Fig. 1.3: Illustration of thick film lubrication

However, as the speed of the moving parts increases like in high-speed motors,
actuators, valves etc, the film thickness reduces to about 3 - 5 times the surface

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roughness and the lubrication type is now referred to as boundary film lubrication,
illustrated in Fig. 1.4. This increases metal-to-metal contact, coefficient of friction and
the wear rate for the parts. In such cases, additives are included to the hydraulic fluid to
increase the film load-carrying capacity.

Fig. 1.4: Illustration of boundary film lubrication

Friction force F is defined as the force parallel to any two mating surfaces that slide
relative to each other. This force actually opposes the sliding movement between the
two surfaces and the greater the frictional force, the greater the wear and heat generated.
This, in turn, results in power losses and reduced life, leading to increased maintenance
cost. Frictional force is proportional to the normal force N that forces the two surfaces
to be in contact. The constant of proportionality between these two forces is called the
coefficient of friction 𝜇𝜇 and the three parameters are related by the following equation.

𝐹𝐹 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 (1.1)
From Eq. (1.1), the greater the values of coefficient of friction and the normal force,
the greater the frictional force and hence the wear. Magnitude of the normal force
depends on the amount of power and the forces being transmitted and not on the
properties of the hydraulic fluid. However, coefficient of friction depends on the ability
of the fluid to prevent metal-metal contact of closely fitting mating parts.

3. Demulsibility
This is the ability of a hydraulic fluid to rapidly separate from moisture and successfully
resist emulsification. Emulsification of oil with water promotes destruction of the
lubricating and sealant properties of the oil. Highly refined oils are basically water
resistant by nature.

4. Good chemical and environmental stability

For a good hydraulic fluid, a good chemical and environmental stability is desirable
property of a good hydraulic fluid i.e., it should be able to properly resist both oxidation
and corrosion. Most fluids are vulnerable to oxidation, as they come in contact with
oxygen in air. Mineral oils or petroleum-based oils (widely used in hydraulic systems)
contain carbon and hydrogen molecules, which easily react with oxygen. The oxidation
products are highly soluble in oil and being acidic in nature they can easily corrode
metallic parts. The soluble acidic products cause corrosion, whereas insoluble products

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make the operation sluggish. Oxidation leads to deterioration in the chemical nature of
fluid, which may form some chemical sludges, gum or varnish at low velocity or
stagnation points in the system.

Factors that influence the rate of oxidation include temperature, pressure, moisture etc,
the most significant one being temperature whose increase severely increases the rate
of oxidation. The moisture entering a hydraulic system with air causes the parts that are
made of ferrous materials to rust (chemical reaction between iron or steel and oxygen).
Corrosion, on the other hand, is the chemical reaction between a metal and an acidic
substance. Both rust and corrosion eat away metal surfaces of the hydraulic system
components thereby causing excessive leakage between the moving parts. They can be
prevented by including additives that plate on the metal surface to prevent chemical
reaction.

5. Incompressibility
Even though hydraulic fluids are considered as incompressible, in practice, they are
relatively compressible. Most mineral oils undergo reduction in the volume of about
0.7% for every 100 bar rise in pressure. In fact, compressibility of a fluid is greatly
influenced by temperature and pressure. Incompressibility of a fluid refers to a measure
of its stiffness and is given by its bulk modulus (B) which is the ratio of the volumetric
stress to volumetric strain, expressed as:
∆𝑃𝑃
𝐵𝐵 = (1.2)
∆𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉

Where: B is the bulk modulus (Pa), ΔP is the change in pressure (Pa), ΔV is the change
in volume (m3) and V is the original volume (m3).
Compressibility of a fluid influences the hydraulic system response and makes it
susceptible to shock waves. In normal hydraulic systems, its effect on system response
is not considered. Decompression valves are usually used to avoid the shock wave
problems.

6. Fire resistance
Hazardous applications where human safety requires use of a fire-resistant fluid include
coal mines, hot metal processing equipment, aircraft and marine fluid power systems
etc. A fire-resistant fluid is one that can be ignited but does not support combustion
when ignition source is removed. Flammability is defined as the ease of ignition and
ability to propagate the flame. The usual characteristics tested in order to determine
flammability of hydraulic fluids are:

- Flash point: The lowest temperature at which an oil surface gives off sufficient
vapors to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is passed over the surface.
A high flash point is desirable since it is an indication of a good resistance to
combustion and a low degree of evaporation at normal working temperatures.
Commercial mineral-based oils usually have a high flash point. Temperatures
around machine tools are normally close to the ambient temperature. However,
certain types of machines like the die-cast machines and foundry equipment
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 may require special fluids (i.e., water-based hydraulic oils – fire resistant oils)
during operation due to their proximity to hot metals.
- Pour point: Temperature at which an oil will solidify. It is also defined as the
lowest temperature at which a fluid will flow. It is a very important parameter
that must be specified for hydraulic systems that are exposed to extremely low
temperature operating conditions. Pour point values normally vary from oil to
oil depending on the nature of the crude oil, refining methods, and oil viscosity.
Chemical additives can be used to lower the pour point. However, addition of
the pour point depressants should not affect the oil viscosity for the given
temperature ranges.
- Fire point: The lowest temperature at which an oil releases sufficient vapors to
continuously support combustion for about 5 seconds when a flame is passed
over the surface.

7. Low flammability
Flammability refers to the ease with which a fluid gets ignited and propagates the flame.
Hence, it is desirable for a hydraulic fluid to have a low flammability to avoid catching
fire easily.

8. Foam resistance
Air can either be dissolved or entrained in a hydraulic fluid. For example, if the return
line to the reservoir is not submerged, the jet of oil entering the liquid surface will carry
air with it. This causes air bubbles to form in the oil. If these bubbles rise to the surface
too slowly, they will be drawn into the pump intake. This can cause pump damage due
to cavitation. Another adverse effect of entrained and dissolved air is a great reduction
in the bulk modulus of the hydraulic fluid. A hydraulic fluid should have a good foam
resistance to avoid such problems.

9. Low volatility
A fluid should possess either low vapor pressure or high boiling point. The vapor
pressure of a fluid varies with temperature and hence the operating temperature range
of the system is important in determining the stability of the fluid.

10. Good heat dissipation

A hydraulic fluid should have a high heat dissipation capability. Fluid temperature
normally shoots up for poor heat dissipation characteristics. Very high fluid
temperatures can cause a hydraulic system to malfunction. Overheating of a hydraulic
fluid may lead to the following problems:

1. Give off vapor and cause cavitation in the pump.

2. Increase oxidation rate causing its rapid deterioration by producing sludges,
varnishes, etc., thus shortening its useful life.
3. Reduce viscosity of the fluid resulting in increased leakage, both internal and
external.
4. Cause thermal distortion in the hydraulic system components.

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 5. Damage seals and packaging due to embrittlement.

Hydraulic systems should always be designed in order to allow for heat balance to occur
at satisfactory operating temperatures.

11. Low density

The relative density of a mineral oil is about 0.9 (the exact value depends on the base
oil and the additive used). However, synthetic fluids can have a relative density greater
than 1. The relative density is important when designing the layout of pumps and
reservoir.

12. System compatibility

A hydraulic fluid should be inert to materials used in or near the hydraulic equipment.
If the fluid in anyway attacks, destroys, dissolves or changes the parts of hydraulic
system, the system may lose its functional efficiency and may start to malfunction.

Other properties of a hydraulic fluid include:

13. Good thermal resistance
14. Readily available
15. Non-toxic
16. Inexpensive

It is almost impossible for a hydraulic fluid to achieve all these properties. Although a
good hydraulic fluid with desirable properties can always be selected, some
characteristics of the fluid change in the process of application. For example, it is
common for the temperature of a fluid to rise due to friction in the system, which
consequently reduces its viscosity. This may in turn increase leakage and reduce its
lubrication ability. Also, depending on the application environment, a fluid may be
oxidized and become acidic. Certain additives, therefore, are added to preserve the
desirable properties of a hydraulic fluid and make it more stable.

1.5.4 Additives in Hydraulic Fluids

Some of the commonly used additives in hydraulic fluids are as follows:
1. Pour point depressant: Minimum operating temperature in a hydraulic system
should be at least 10° C above the pour point. Pour point depressants inhibit the
formation of wax crystals in the mineral oils. Examples of pour point depressant
additives include polymethacrylates, polyacrylates and alkalated naphthalene.

2. Viscosity index improvers: These additives are long-chain polymers that stay in a
coiled form in the hydraulic fluid. They have no effect on the fluid viscosity at low
operating temperatures. However, when temperature rises, these polymers uncoil and
intermesh to cause thickness effect in the fluid, thereby preventing a drop in viscosity.

3. Defoamers (anti-foam additives): Certain additives like silicon polymer, act as

defoamers that cause rapid breakdown of the foam by removing the entrained air

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bubbles. Foaming occurs in oil as a surface phenomenon where air bubbles are
encircled by an oil film to prevent their escape. Under pressure, these bubbles become
very hot and can be the cause for overheating of the system. Foam usually forms in the
reservoir and, if drawn into the pump suction, can cause noisy pump operation and may
even damage pump parts. Control response is spongy and unreliable. Although, all
fluids are susceptible to foaming, the amount of foam in a system can be reduced to a
minimum by addition of chemical depressants.

4. Oxidation inhibitors: Oxidation causes chemical reaction and formation of acidic

products that lead to corrosion problems. Oxidation rate increases with temperature.
Certain additives with greater affinity for oxygen are added to react with oxygen instead
of oxygen reacting with oil.

5. Corrosion inhibitors: These additives form a thin film on the metal surface and
shield it from coming into direct contact with chemicals/acids in the fluid, hence
preventing corrosion problems.

6. Anti-wear additives: These are either long-chain polymers or extreme pressure (EP)
additives. The long-chain polymers are adsorbed at the metal surfaces, causing a high
local temperature and polish the surface. This helps in reducing the surface roughness,
hence the wear problem.

7. Load-carrying capacity: The load-carrying capacity of a hydraulic fluid is a

measure of the capability of oil to maintain a film of lubricant between two metal
surfaces under extreme loads or pressures. All hydraulic oils have a natural load-
carrying capacity that can be enhanced by special additives known as extreme pressure
additives. These additives help in reducing wear especially in hydraulic pumps and
motors by providing lubrication when almost all the oil film has been squeezed out
under heavy load conditions.

1.5.5 Factors influencing selection of a hydraulic fluid

Selection of a hydraulic fluid for a given system is governed by the following factors:
- Operating pressure of the system
- Operating temperature of the system and its variation
- Material of the system and its compatibility with oil used
- Speed of operation
- Availability of replacement fluid
- Cost of transmission lines
- Contamination possibilities
- Environmental condition (fire proneness, extreme atmosphere like in mining,
etc.)
- Lubricity
- Safety of operator
- Expected service life

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