### Introduction to Operating Systems

1. **Definition**:

An Operating System (OS) is software that manages hardware and software resources in a

computer.

It acts as an intermediary between users and hardware.

2. **Functions of Operating Systems**:

- **Process Management**: Scheduling, creating, and terminating processes.

- **Memory Management**: Allocating and deallocating memory space.

- **File Management**: Organizing, storing, and retrieving files.

- **Device Management**: Controlling I/O devices.

- **Security and Protection**: Ensuring data safety and access control.

- **User Interface**: Providing interfaces like CLI (Command-Line Interface) or GUI (Graphical

User Interface).

3. **Types of Operating Systems**:

- **Batch Processing OS**: Executes batches of tasks without user interaction.

- **Multi-Programmed OS**: Runs multiple programs by sharing CPU time.

- **Time-Sharing OS**: Allows multiple users to access the system interactively.

- **Real-Time OS**: Processes tasks immediately, critical for time-sensitive applications.

- **Distributed OS**: Manages multiple systems working together as a network.

- **Parallel OS**: Utilizes multiple processors for simultaneous computation.

---
### System Structure

1. **Computer System Operation**:

The OS ensures efficient operation by managing interactions between hardware and software

components.

It controls processes, memory, and device interactions.

2. **I/O Structure**:

Manages input and output operations. Includes device controllers and drivers for communication

between devices and the system.

3. **Storage Structure**:

- Main memory (RAM): Volatile storage for current tasks.

- Secondary storage (HDD/SSD): Non-volatile for long-term data storage.

4. **Storage Hierarchy**:

Faster and more expensive storage at the top:

- Registers > Cache > Main Memory > Secondary Storage > Tertiary Storage.

5. **Types of Protections**:

Mechanisms to protect system resources:

- Memory protection, file access control, and authentication methods.

6. **Operating System Structures**:

- **Simple Structure**: Minimal and direct (e.g., MS-DOS).

- **Layered Structure**: Organized into layers, each handling specific functionalities.

- **Virtual Machine**: Creates multiple isolated environments on the same hardware.

Key services provided by an OS include:

- Program execution, I/O operations, file management, error detection, and resource allocation.

8. **System Calls**:

Interface provided by the OS for user-level processes to request services.

Examples:

- File operations (open, read, write).

- Process control (create, terminate).

- Communication (send, receive).

- Memory management (allocate, free).

---

### Expanded Notes: Types of Operating Systems

1. **Batch Processing OS**:

- **Definition**: Executes a series of jobs (tasks) without user interaction during processing.

- **Characteristics**:

- Jobs are collected, grouped, and processed sequentially.

- Users do not interact directly with the system once a job is submitted.

- **Advantages**:

- Efficient resource utilization for repetitive tasks.

- Suitable for large-volume processing.

- **Disadvantages**:

- No real-time interaction.
 - Errors in jobs might go unnoticed until execution is complete.

- **Example**: Early IBM systems.

2. **Multi-Programmed OS**:

- **Definition**: Allows multiple programs to reside in memory and share CPU time.

- **Characteristics**:

- When one program waits (e.g., for I/O), another is executed.

- Increases CPU utilization.

- **Advantages**:

- Better resource utilization compared to batch systems.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Complexity in managing processes and memory.

- **Example**: UNIX.

3. **Time-Sharing OS**:

- **Definition**: Enables multiple users to interact with the system simultaneously by sharing CPU

time in quick intervals.

- **Characteristics**:

- Each user gets a time slice (quantum) for execution.

- Rapid switching between users gives the illusion of parallelism.

- **Advantages**:

- Interactive system; users receive quick responses.

- **Disadvantages**:

- May face CPU overloading with many users.

- **Example**: Modern Linux and Windows systems.

4. **Real-Time OS (RTOS)**:
 - **Definition**: Processes and responds to inputs immediately, making it suitable for time-critical

tasks.

- **Types**:

- **Hard Real-Time**: Guarantees task completion within strict deadlines (e.g., airbag systems).

- **Soft Real-Time**: Focuses on timely task execution but allows minor delays (e.g., multimedia

systems).

- **Advantages**:

- Ensures timely execution.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Complex to design and implement.

- **Example**: VxWorks, FreeRTOS.

5. **Distributed OS**:

- **Definition**: Manages a collection of independent systems connected via a network, working as

a single cohesive system.

- **Characteristics**:

- Resources (files, devices) are shared across the network.

- Fault tolerance and load distribution.

- **Advantages**:

- Scalability and resource sharing.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Dependency on network connectivity.

- **Example**: Apache Hadoop, Google File System.

6. **Parallel OS**:

- **Definition**: Utilizes multiple processors or cores to perform tasks concurrently.

- **Characteristics**:
 - Designed for high-speed computing.

- Tasks are divided into smaller subtasks for simultaneous execution.

- **Advantages**:

- Increased processing power and efficiency.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Requires specialized hardware and software.

- **Example**: Cray Operating System.