AIR CRAFT PERFORMANCE AND

STATIC STABILITY
Range and Endurance-Propeller driven Air
plane
 Range:
 The total distance (measured respect to the ground) traversed
by the airplane on a tank of fuel

 Endurance:
 Total time an airplane stays in the air on a tank of fuel
PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
 Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

 SFC = Ib of fuel k
 (bhp)(hours)

lb _ of _ fuel
 ( SFC )(hpR )
h
 Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs
when the airplane is flying at minimum power required

 Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when

the airplane is flying at a velocity such that is a maximum
3/ 2
C L
D C
 On a dimensional basis
lb _ of _ fuel ( SFC )(hpR )

mi V

 Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs

when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that C L
is maximum CD
QUALITATIVE FORMULATION
 Specific fuel consumption:
lb of fuel N of fuel
or
(ft.lb/s)(s) (J/s)(s)

 Considering c = fuel consumption, P=engine power,

lb of fuel ft.lb
cPdt = (s) = lb of fuel
(ft.lb/s)(s) s
 W = weight of the aircraft at any given instant
 W0 = Gross weight (weight with full fuel and payload)
 Wf = weight of the fuel load
 W1 = weight of the airplane without fuel

Thus,

W1 = W0 − W f
dW f = dW = −cPdt
dW
dt = −
cP
 Integrating from t=0, (where W=W0→tanks are full) to
t=E ( where W=W1→tanks are empty)
E W1
dW
0 dt = −W cP
0

W0
dW
E= 
W1
cP
 For range: V dW
V dt = −
cP
V dW
ds = −
cP
 The total distance covered throuhout the flight = integral
from s=0 (where W=W0 → full fuel tank),
to s=R (where W=W1→ empty tank):
R W1
V dW
0 ds = −W cP
0

W0
V dW
R= 
W1
cP
Formula for range and endurance
 J.G. Coffin
 Walter S. Diehl

Loius-Charles Breguet (1880-1955)

BERGUET FORMULAS (Propeller-driven
Airplane)
 Brake power output of the engine;
PA DV
P= =
 
W0
V dW
 Recall R =
W cP
1

Then
VdW dW
 W0 W0 W0
V dW
R=  = =
W1
cP W1
cDV W1 cD
 Multiply the equation by W/W and noting that for straight
and level flight, L=W,

 W  L dW
W0 W0

R=  cD W dW =  c D
W1 W1
W
 For further simplification, assume that , L/D=CL/CD and
c are constant. Then:
 CL
W0
dW
c CD W1 W
R=

 CL W0
R= ln
c CD W1
The Breguet Range Formula
 To maximize range, we want:
 The largest possible propeller efficiency
 The lowest possible specific fuel consumption
 Highest ratio of W0/W1 , obtained with the largest fuel weight
 Flight at maximum L/D.
The Breguet Endurance Formula
W0
 Recall… P = DV  and L=W and dW
E= 
 cP
W1

 Then
 dW  L dW
W0 W0 W0
dW
E=  = =
W1
cP W1 c DV W1 c DV W

 Assuming L = W = 12  V 2 SC L

 CL   SCL dW
W0

E= cC
W1 D 2 W 3/ 2
 Assuming that CL.CD, , c and  are constant (for
constant altitude),

C   S 
3/ 2 1/ 2
−1 / 2 W0
E = −2 L
  [W ]W1
c CD  2 

C 3/ 2
E= L
(2 S ) 1/ 2
[W1
−1/ 2
− W0
−1/ 2
]
c CD
The Breguet Endurance Formula
 To maximize range, we want:
 The highest propeller efficiency

 Lowest specific fuel consumption

 Highest fuel weight, Wf where W0 = W1 +Wf


 Flight at maximum C L3 / 2 / C D

 Flight at sea level,

 Because E   1/ 2
 , and density is largest at sea level
Everything tastes better in
someone else’s house
Range and Endurance-Jet Aircraft
 TSFC = Ib of fuel k
 lb of thrust x hours
 Endurance:
 Maximum endurance occurs when aircraft is flying at minimum
pounds of fuel per hour
lb of fuel
= (TSFC)(TA )
h
 In steady, u-naccelerated flight, TA=TR,

 Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the

airplane is flying at minimum thrust required.

 Maximum endurance for a airplane occurs when the

airplane is flying at a velocity where C /C is a maximum.
 Range
 Occurs for a minimum pounds of fuel per mile.
 Ib of fuel = (TSFC) TA
 mile V

 Maximum range for a jet plane occurs when the airplane

is flying at a velocity such that C 1 2 / C is a maximum
L D
QUALITATIVE FORMULATION
 Let ct be thrust specific fuel consumption

 Recall lb of fuel N of fuel

or
(lb of thrust)(s) (N of thrust)(s)

 Elemental change in the weight of the aircraft due to fuel

consumption over an elemental time increment:
dW = −ctTA dt

− dW
dt =
ctTA
 Considering between t=0 → W=W0
t=E → W=W1
W1
Then dW

E = −
W0
ctTA
W0
Recall TA=TR=D and W=L then: 1 L dW

E= 
c D W
W1 t

 Assuming constant Ct, CL/CD=L/D we have

1 CL W0
E= ln
ct CD W1
 1 CL W0
E= ln
ct CD W1

 To maximize endurance we want:

 Minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption
 Maximum fuel weight
 Flight at maximum L/D
Consider Range
 Recall − dW
dt =
ctTA

Multiplying by V➔ V dW

ds = V dt = −
ctTA

 Integrate→ s=0 where W=W0 to

s=R where W=W1
R W1
V dW
R =  ds = − 
0 W0
ctTA
 Note for straight and level flight,
W0
V CL dW
R= 
c CD W
W1 t

 Since V = 2W /   SC L

W0
2 CL1/ 2 / CD dW
R= 
W1
 S ct W 1/ 2
 Assume that ct, ,CL, ,CD and  are constant, we can
rewrite:
W0 3/ 2 W0
2 C 1 dW
R= 
W1
L
  S CD ct W W 1/ 2
1

1/ 2
1C 2
R=2 (W0 − W1 )
1/ 2 1/ 2
L
  S ct CD
 To maximize range for a jet plane, we want:
 Maximum thrust-specific fuel consumption
 Maximum fuel weight
 Flight at maximum
 Flight at high altitudes
 Boeing Phantom Eye – stays aloft for up to 4 days at
65,000ft