Special Issue Reprint

Advances in Structural
Analysis and Rehabilitation
for Existing Structures

Edited by
Alessio Cascardi

mdpi.com/journal/eng
Advances in Structural Analysis and
Rehabilitation for Existing Structures
Advances in Structural Analysis and
Rehabilitation for Existing Structures

Guest Editor
Alessio Cascardi

Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Novi Sad • Cluj • Manchester

Guest Editor
Alessio Cascardi
Civil Engineering
University of Calabria
Arcavacata di Rende
Italy

Editorial Office
MDPI AG
Grosspeteranlage 5
4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Eng
(ISSN 2673-4117) (available at: www.mdpi.com/journal/eng/special issues/KN03J54453).

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and
using the guide below:

Lastname, A.A.; Lastname, B.B. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume Number, Page Range.

ISBN 978-3-7258-1962-1 (Hbk)

ISBN 978-3-7258-1961-4 (PDF)
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© 2024 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative
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Contents

About the Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Alessio Cascardi
Special Issue: Advances in Structural Analysis and Rehabilitation for Existing Structures
Reprinted from: Eng 2024, 5, 95, doi:10.3390/eng5030095 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Noor Alhuda Sami Aljabbri, Abdulamir Atalla Karim and Fareed Hameed Majeed
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites Integrated Beam–Column Joints with Improved
Strength Performance against Seismic Events: Numerical Model Simulation
Reprinted from: Eng 2024, 5, 61, doi:10.3390/eng5020061 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Hussein Kareem Sultan, Abbas Abdulhssein Abd Noor and Ghasan Fahim Huseien
Performance Evaluation of Self-Compacting Glass Fiber Concrete Incorporating Silica Fume at
Elevated Temperatures
Reprinted from: Eng 2024, 5, 57, doi:10.3390/eng5020057 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Hussein Kareem Sultan and Ghasan Fahim Huseien

Minimum Shear Reinforcement for Reactive Powder Concrete Beams
Reprinted from: Eng 2024, 5, 43, doi:10.3390/eng5020043 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Ali Naghshineh, Oliver Fischer, Nasreen B. Pathan, Logan Couch and Fariborz M. Tehrani
Numerical Investigation of the Seismic Performance of an Innovative Type of Buckling-
Restrained Brace (BRB)
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 167, doi:10.3390/eng4040167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Maria Cristina M. Publio, Jessica F. Delgado, Bruno S. Pierri, Leonardo da S. Lima, Christine
C. Gaylarde, José Antônio Baptista Neto, et al.
Assessment of Groundwater Contamination in the Southeastern Coast of Brazil: A Potential
Threat to Human Health in Marica Municipality
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 151, doi:10.3390/eng4040151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Alexandre Rossi, Adriano Silva de Carvalho, Vinicius Moura de Oliveira, Alex Sander
Clemente de Souza and Carlos Humberto Martins
A Parametric Study on the LDB Strength of Steel-Concrete Composite Beams
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 128, doi:10.3390/eng4030128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Karim Touati, Baraa Al Sahmarany, Malo Le Guern, Yassine El Mendili, François Streiff and
Steve Goodhew
Insight into the Optimization of Implementation Time in Cob Construction: Field Test and
Compressive Strength Versus Drying Kinetics
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 117, doi:10.3390/eng4030117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Ali Naghshineh, Ashutosh Bagchi and Fariborz M. Tehrani

Seismic Resilience and Design Factors of Inline Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFDs)
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 114, doi:10.3390/eng4030114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Lorena Carias de Freitas Gomes, Henrique Comba Gomes and Elvys Dias Reis
Surface Waterproofing Techniques: A Case Study in Nova Lima, Brazil
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 106, doi:10.3390/eng4030106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Marzieh Zamani Kouhpangi, Shaghayegh Yaghoubi and Ahmadreza Torabipour

Improved Structural Health Monitoring Using Mode Shapes: An Enhanced Framework for
Damage Detection in 2D and 3D Structures
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 99, doi:10.3390/eng4020099 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

v
Noemi Schclar Leitão and Eloı́sa Castilho
Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical FEA as a Support Tool for Damage Diagnostic of a Cracked
Concrete Arch Dam: A Case Study
Reprinted from: Eng 2023, 4, 74, doi:10.3390/eng4020074 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

vi
About the Editor
Alessio Cascardi
Alessio Cascardi is an associate professor at the University of Calabria. He is a multi-graduate
in Building Systems Engineering and Civil Engineering with a Ph.D. in Materials and Structural
Engineering and is mainly interested in the field of structural and energy reinforcement and the
consolidation of existing built heritage in masonry and/or reinforced concrete with traditional and
innovative composite materials. He currently focuses his research on the experimental, analytical,
and numerical aspects aimed at defining new predictive formulas for the design and sizing of
reinforcement. This goal is pursued through traditional data processing techniques, such as simple
and multiple linear regressions, and innovative ones such as artificial neural networks and data
mining. He is the author of more than 70 scientific articles published in national and international
journals. He is the holder of two patents relating to the S.S.D. ICAR/09 – Construction Technique.

vii
Editorial
Special Issue: Advances in Structural Analysis and Rehabilitation
for Existing Structures
Alessio Cascardi

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci Cube 45B, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy;
[email protected]

1. Introduction
In the dynamic realm of civil engineering, the principles of structural analysis and
rehabilitation are pivotal in extending the lifespan and enhancing the performance of
existing structures. The following Special Issue, entitled “Advances in Structural Analysis and
Rehabilitation for Existing Structures”, delves into the forefront of research and innovation in
the field. It explores the evolving methodologies, technologies, and strategies that engineers
and researchers worldwide are employing to address the challenges posed by aging infras-
tructure. As populations grow and urbanization intensifies, the demand for sustainable
infrastructure becomes increasingly urgent. Existing structures, whether historic landmarks
or essential infrastructure, require continuous assessment and maintenance to ensure safety,
functionality, and longevity. This collection of contributions aims to illuminate the latest
advancements that enable engineers to analyze, diagnose, and rehabilitate structures with
precision and efficiency. From advanced computational models and non-destructive testing
techniques to innovative materials and retrofitting strategies, the chapters in this Special
Issue encompass a broad spectrum of approaches. Each article offers insights into how
these advancements are reshaping the practice of structural engineering, paving the way
for more resilient and sustainable built environments.
Moreover, the following Special Issue serves as a platform for collaboration and
knowledge exchange among researchers, practitioners, and academicians. By sharing
cutting-edge research and practical applications, we aim to inspire further innovation and
foster a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in maintaining and upgrading
our infrastructure. Through this compilation, we invite readers to explore the frontiers of
structural analysis and rehabilitation, where theory meets practice and where the future
Citation: Cascardi, A. Special Issue: of sustainable infrastructure is being defined. Whether you are a seasoned professional, a
Advances in Structural Analysis and budding researcher, or simply curious about the evolving landscape of civil engineering,
Rehabilitation for Existing Structures. we hope that this collection sparks new ideas and insights that contribute to the ongoing
Eng 2024, 5, 1804–1810. https:// evolution of our built environment.
doi.org/10.3390/eng5030095 Welcome to “Advances in Structural Analysis and Rehabilitation for Existing Structures”—a
Received: 1 August 2024 testament to the ingenuity and dedication driving the advancement of structural engineer-
Accepted: 3 August 2024 ing worldwide.
Published: 6 August 2024
2. Overview of the Published Articles
This Special Issue contains eleven papers, including eight reviews, published by a
number of authors interested in cutting-edge developments in the field of engineering. The
Copyright: © 2024 by the author. authors hail from 12 countries, including Germany, France, Portugal, Canada, the UK, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. USA, Singapore, Brazil, China, Malaysia, Iran, and Iraq.
This article is an open access article The authors of the paper “Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites Integrated
distributed under the terms and
Beam–Column Joints with Improved Strength Performance against Seismic Events: Nu-
conditions of the Creative Commons
merical Model Simulation” explore the use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
composites in beam–column joints to enhance their strength and resilience during seismic
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Eng 2024, 5, 1804–1810. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030095 1 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2024, 5

events. The study authors utilize numerical simulations to investigate how CFRP can effec-
tively reinforce these critical structural connections, offering insights into its performance
and potential benefits in seismic-resistant design. Key findings highlight the improved
strength and durability of CFRP-integrated joints, suggesting promising applications for
enhancing structural safety in earthquake-prone regions.
The authors of the paper “Performance Evaluation of Self-Compacting Glass Fiber
Concrete Incorporating Silica Fume at Elevated Temperatures” examine the behavior of
self-compacting concrete (SCC) reinforced with glass fibers and silica fume when subjected
to high temperatures. Through a series of experimental tests, the study authors evaluate the
concrete’s mechanical properties, including its strength, workability, and durability under
elevated temperature conditions. The results indicate that the addition of glass fibers and
silica fume enhances the thermal resistance and overall performance of SCC, making it a
viable option for construction applications where high-temperature exposure is a concern.
The authors of the paper “Minimum Shear Reinforcement for Reactive Powder Con-
crete Beams” investigate the requirements for shear reinforcement in reactive powder
concrete (RPC) beams. Through experimental testing and analysis, the study authors
determine the optimal amount of shear reinforcement needed to ensure structural integrity
and prevent failure. Findings suggest that RPC beams, known for their high strength and
durability, require less shear reinforcement compared to conventional concrete beams, due
to their superior material properties. The research provides guidelines for the design of
RPC beams, aiming to improve efficiency and safety in structural engineering applications.
The authors of the paper “Numerical Investigation of the Seismic Performance of an
Innovative Type of Buckling-Restrained Brace (BRB)” explore the effectiveness of a newly
designed buckling-restrained brace in enhancing the seismic performance of structures.
Using numerical simulations, the study assesses the brace’s ability to withstand seismic
loads and prevent buckling under stress. Their study results indicate that the innovative
BRB design significantly improves energy dissipation and overall structural resilience
during earthquakes. The findings highlight the potential of this new BRB type to provide
superior seismic protection, offering valuable insights for improving earthquake-resistant
building design.
The authors of the paper “Assessment of Groundwater Contamination in the South-
eastern Coast of Brazil: A Potential Threat to Human Health in Marica Municipality”
investigate the quality of groundwater in Marica Municipality, Brazil, and its implications
for human health. Through comprehensive water quality testing and analysis, the study
authors identify various contaminants present in the groundwater, including heavy metals
and microbial pollutants. The findings reveal significant levels of contamination, posing
potential health risks to the local population. The research underscores the urgent need for
effective groundwater management and pollution mitigation strategies to protect public
health in the region.
The authors of the paper “A Parametric Study on the LDB Strength of Steel-Concrete
Composite Beams” examine the lateral–distortional buckling (LDB) strength of steel-
concrete composite beams through a series of parametric analyses. By varying key parame-
ters such as beam geometry, material properties, and loading conditions, the study authors
evaluate their impact on the LDB behavior and strength of these composite structures. The
results provide a deeper understanding of the factors influencing LDB strength and offer
guidelines for optimizing the design of steel-concrete composite beams to enhance their
stability and performance in structural applications.
The authors of the paper “Insight into the Optimization of Implementation Time in
Cob Construction: Field Test and Compressive Strength Versus Drying Kinetics” explore
the optimal timing for implementing cob construction to balance compressive strength
and drying kinetics. Through field tests, the study authors examine how different im-
plementation times affect the drying process and the resulting compressive strength of
cob materials. Findings indicate that optimizing the implementation time is crucial for
achieving desirable strength characteristics while ensuring efficient drying. The research

2
Eng 2024, 5

provides practical recommendations for enhancing the durability and performance of cob
structures, contributing to more effective and sustainable building practices.
The authors of the paper “Seismic Resilience and Design Factors of Inline Seismic
Friction Dampers (ISFDs)” investigate the effectiveness of ISFDs in enhancing the seismic
resilience of structures. By analyzing various design factors, the study authors evaluate
how these dampers perform under seismic loading conditions. The results show that ISFDs
significantly improve energy dissipation and structural stability during earthquakes. Key
design factors such as damper configuration, material properties, and installation methods
are found to influence the overall performance of ISFDs. The research offers valuable
insights and guidelines for incorporating ISFDs into building designs to achieve superior
earthquake resistance.
The authors of the paper “Improved Structural Health Monitoring Using Mode Shapes:
An Enhanced Framework for Damage Detection in 2D and 3D Structures” present a novel
approach to structural health monitoring that leverages mode shapes for more accurate
damage detection. The enhanced framework is designed to identify and locate damage in
both two-dimensional and three-dimensional structures. Through numerical simulations
and experimental validation, the study authors demonstrate that using mode shapes
improves the sensitivity and reliability of damage detection methods. The findings suggest
that this advanced monitoring technique can significantly contribute to maintaining the
safety and integrity of various structural systems.
The authors of the paper “Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical FEA as a Support Tool for
Damage Diagnostic of a Cracked Concrete Arch Dam: A Case Study” explore the use
of finite element analysis (FEA) incorporating chemical, thermal, and mechanical factors
to diagnose damage in a cracked concrete arch dam. The case study demonstrates how
this comprehensive FEA approach can effectively simulate the complex interactions and
stressors affecting the dam’s integrity. Their study results highlight the method’s ability
to accurately identify damage locations and assess the severity of cracks. The research
supports the use of chemo-thermo-mechanical FEA as a valuable tool for enhancing the
precision of structural diagnostics and maintenance strategies for concrete arch dams.
The authors of the paper “Surface Waterproofing Techniques: A Case Study in Nova
Lima, Brazil” investigate various surface waterproofing methods applied to structures in
Nova Lima, Brazil. The study authors evaluate the effectiveness of different techniques in
preventing water infiltration and mitigating related damage. Through field experiments
and performance assessments, the authors identify which waterproofing strategies provide
the best protection under local environmental conditions. The study findings suggest
that certain techniques significantly enhance the durability and lifespan of the structures.
The study offers practical insights and recommendations for selecting and implementing
surface waterproofing solutions in similar climatic regions.

3. Closing Remarks
In editing the eleven papers comprising the herein-presented Special Issue, several
key insights and conclusions emerge, highlighting the evolving landscape of structural
engineering and materials science.
The integration of advanced materials and innovative design approaches plays a
crucial role in improving structural resilience. For instance, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer
(CFRP) composites have been shown to enhance the strength and seismic performance of
beam–column joints, offering a promising solution for earthquake-resistant structures. Sim-
ilarly, the use of glass fibers and silica fume in self-compacting concrete has demonstrated
significant improvements in thermal performance and mechanical properties, indicating
their potential for high-temperature applications.
Recent research on reactive powder concrete (RPC) beams reveals that their superior
properties allow for reduced shear reinforcement compared to traditional concrete, optimiz-
ing material use without compromising structural integrity. The above aligns with findings
on buckling-restrained braces (BRBs), where innovative designs have been found to signifi-

3
Eng 2024, 5

cantly improve energy dissipation and stability during seismic events, underscoring the
importance of advanced seismic protection technologies.
Groundwater contamination studies in Nova Lima, Brazil, highlight a critical public
health concern, emphasizing the need for effective water management and pollution miti-
gation strategies. This concern extends to the structural domain as well, where optimizing
design parameters for steel–concrete composite beams can enhance their lateral–distortional
buckling strength, contributing to more stable and efficient construction practices.
In the realm of construction techniques, the optimization of implementation time in
cob construction has been shown to affect both compressive strength and drying efficiency,
illustrating the importance of precise timing for material performance. This principle of
optimization extends to the use of inline seismic friction dampers (ISFDs), which offer
improved seismic resilience through enhanced energy dissipation.
Structural health monitoring benefits from the use of mode shapes, which provide
more accurate damage detection in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional structures.
This method’s reliability is further supported by advanced chemo-thermo-mechanical finite
element analysis (FEA) techniques, which have proven effective in diagnosing damage in
concrete arch dams by considering a comprehensive range of factors.
Lastly, the evaluation of surface waterproofing techniques in Nova Lima, Brazil,
underscores the variability in effectiveness based on environmental conditions, stressing
the importance of selecting appropriate methods to prevent water damage and extend the
lifespan of structures.
Together, these studies reflect a growing emphasis on integrating advanced materials,
innovative designs, and precise monitoring techniques to enhance the performance, safety,
and longevity of structures across diverse applications and environments.
In addition, a valuable short references list is reported herein in order to make the
present section as comprehensive as possible. In their study, Cascardi et al. (2024) [1]
explore the use of carbon fabric-reinforced cementitious mortar (CFRCM) for enhancing
the confinement of concrete cylinders. The study authors focus on evaluating the effective-
ness of multi-ply wrapping configurations in improving the mechanical properties and
structural performance of concrete under different loading conditions. Key findings from
the research highlight the influence of the mortar matrix in CFRCM on overall performance,
particularly in terms of strength enhancement and ductility. The authors experimentally
investigate various parameters such as ply orientation, number of layers, and mortar com-
position to determine their impact on confinement efficiency. The results suggest that the
matrix composition significantly affects the confinement effectiveness of CFRCM, with
implications for optimizing design and application in structural engineering. The study
provides valuable insights into the mechanics of composite materials and offers practical
guidelines for utilizing CFRCM in enhancing the resilience and durability of concrete
structures. Overall, Cascardi et al. contribute to the understanding of CFRCM technol-
ogy by emphasizing the importance of mortar matrix properties in achieving enhanced
performance of reinforced concrete elements through multi-ply wrapping techniques.
The authors of [2] investigate the application of fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) as
a removable method for confining and reinforcing heritage masonry columns. The study
aims to address the need for reversible strengthening techniques in the preservation of
historical structures. The authors propose a novel approach that allows FRP materials
to be used temporarily, ensuring that the original state of the masonry columns can be
restored when necessary. This method balances the preservation requirements of heritage
structures with the need for structural enhancement to improve their load-bearing capacity
and stability. Key aspects of the research include experimental tests on masonry columns
confined with removable FRP wraps. The results demonstrate that the FRP confinement
significantly enhances the mechanical performance of the columns, increasing their strength
and ductility. Additionally, the reversibility of the FRP application is confirmed, making it a
viable solution for temporary strengthening. The study provides detailed insights into the
behavior of FRP-confined masonry columns, including the effects of various confinement

4
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tural engineering by providing a detailed and practical framework for the seismic assess-
ment and retrofitting of existing RC structures. The study emphasizes the importance of
a thorough evaluation to ensure that these structures can withstand seismic events,
Eng 2024, 5
thereby safeguarding lives and reducing economic losses.
Lastly, in the paper by Mesquita et al. (2016) [4], the authors provide a comprehensive
review of the advancements in structural health monitoring (SHM) technologies. The
studyother
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sensors such as strain gauges and accelerometers, as well as advanced optical fiber
In conclusion,
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provide a detailed and insightful
These technologies areoverview of the
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and integration of new technologies to address the challenges in SHM and to enhance the
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able information about structural health. The use of machine learning and artificial
Acknowledgments:
intelligence in I extend
SHMmy personal
data heartfelt
processing isgratitude to all of the authors who contributed
also explored.
to thisThe
➢ Special Issue. review
authors Your dedication, expertise, of
the integration andSHM
rigorous research
systems havecommunication
with significantly advanced
platforms,
our understanding of critical topics in structural engineering and materials science.
enabling remote monitoring and analysis. The authors also highlight the importance I am particularly
thankful for the insightful papers provided, which explore a wide range of innovative solutions—
of robust and secure communication channels for the effective implementation of
from advanced materials such as CFRP composites and glass fiber-reinforced concrete to cutting-edge
SHMinsystems.
techniques structural health monitoring and seismic resilience. Each contribution has enriched
this collection with valuable knowledge and practical applications. My appreciation also goes to the
reviewers and editorial team whose constructive feedback and support ensured the high quality of
the presented research. Your efforts in refining and shaping these papers have been instrumental in
bringing this Special Issue to fruition. Thank you all for your commitment to advancing the field and
for your valuable contributions to this important collection of research.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

List of Contributions
1. Leitão, N.; Castilho, E. Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical FEA as a Support Tool for Damage Di-
agnostic of a Cracked Concrete Arch Dam: A Case Study. Eng 2023, 4, 1265–1289. https:
//doi.org/10.3390/eng4020074.
2. Zamani Kouhpangi, M.; Yaghoubi, S.; Torabipour, A. Improved Structural Health Monitoring
Using Mode Shapes: An Enhanced Framework for Damage Detection in 2D and 3D Structures.
Eng 2023, 4, 1742–1760. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4020099.
3. Gomes, L.; Gomes, H.; Reis, E. Surface Waterproofing Techniques: A Case Study in Nova Lima,
Brazil. Eng 2023, 4, 1871–1890. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030106.
4. Naghshineh, A.; Bagchi, A.; Tehrani, F. Seismic Resilience and Design Factors of Inline Seismic
Friction Dampers (ISFDs). Eng 2023, 4, 2015–2033. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030114.
5. Touati, K.; Al Sahmarany, B.; Le Guern, M.; El Mendili, Y.; Streiff, F.; Goodhew, S. Insight into
the Optimization of Implementation Time in Cob Construction: Field Test and Compressive
Strength Versus Drying Kinetics. Eng 2023, 4, 2075–2089. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030117.
6. Rossi, A.; de Carvalho, A.; de Oliveira, V.; de Souza, A.; Martins, C. A Parametric Study
on the LDB Strength of Steel-Concrete Composite Beams. Eng 2023, 4, 2226–2253. https:
//doi.org/10.3390/eng4030128.
7. Publio, M.; Delgado, J.; Pierri, B.; Lima, L.; Gaylarde, C.; Baptista Neto, J.; Neves, C.; Fonseca, E.
Assessment of Groundwater Contamination in the Southeastern Coast of Brazil: A Potential
Threat to Human Health in Marica Municipality. Eng 2023, 4, 2640–2655. https://doi.org/10.3
390/eng4040151.
8. Naghshineh, A.; Fischer, O.; Pathan, N.; Couch, L.; Tehrani, F. Numerical Investigation of the
Seismic Performance of an Innovative Type of Buckling-Restrained Brace (BRB). Eng 2023, 4,
2978–2990. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4040167.
9. Sultan, H.; Huseien, G. Minimum Shear Reinforcement for Reactive Powder Concrete Beams.
Eng 2024, 5, 801–818. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020043.
10. Sultan, H.; Noor, A.; Huseien, G. Performance Evaluation of Self-Compacting Glass Fiber
Concrete Incorporating Silica Fume at Elevated Temperatures. Eng 2024, 5, 1043–1066. https:
//doi.org/10.3390/eng5020057.

6
Eng 2024, 5

11. Aljabbri, N.; Karim, A.; Majeed, F. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites Integrated
Beam–Column Joints with Improved Strength Performance against Seismic Events: Numerical
Model Simulation. Eng 2024, 5, 1112–1139. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020061.

References
1. Cascardi, A.; Verre, S.; Ombres, L.; Aiello, M.A. Carbon Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Mortar confinement of concrete cylinders:
The matrix effect for multi-ply wrapping. Compos. Struct. 2024, 332, 117919. [CrossRef]
2. Micelli, F.; Cascardi, A.; Aiello, M.A. A removable use of FRP for the confinement of heritage masonry columns. Mater. Struct.
2023, 56, 184. [CrossRef]
3. Ghobarah, A. Seismic assessment of existing RC structures. Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater. 2000, 2, 60–71. [CrossRef]
4. Mesquita, E.; Antunes, P.; Coelho, F.; André, P.; Arêde, A.; Varum, H. Global overview on advances in structural health monitoring
platforms. J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit. 2016, 6, 461–475. [CrossRef]

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people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

7
Article
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites Integrated
Beam–Column Joints with Improved Strength Performance
against Seismic Events: Numerical Model Simulation
Noor Alhuda Sami Aljabbri *, Abdulamir Atalla Karim and Fareed Hameed Majeed

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Basrah, Basrah 61004, Iraq;
[email protected] (A.A.K.); [email protected] (F.H.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +964-772-629-4505

Abstract: Strength enhancement of non-seismic concrete beam–column joints (NSCBCJs) via carbon
fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs) integration has become a viable strategy. However, the
implementation of these NSCBCJs without transverse reinforcement shows poor performance during
earthquakes in seismic locations. Thus, strengthening the anti-seismic performance of NSCBCJs to
meet the acceptance criteria of ACI 374.1-05 is fundamentally significant. Yet, in addition to limited
experimental results, only a few numerical studies based on the finite element model have been
performed to determine the anti-seismic behavior of NSCBCJs. Consequently, the stress contribution
of CFRPCs to NSCBCJs is not clearly understood. Therefore, we used a finite element model
to examine the strength contribution of CFRPCs to NSCBCJs. The performance of the proposed
finite element model was validated using the experimental results, demonstrating a good agreement
between them. It was shown that the strength of NSCBCJs was improved due to CFRPC incorporation,
thereby achieving compliance with the seismic requirements of ACI 374.1-05. In addition, CFRPCs
presence could enhance the confinement, reduce the deformation of the NSCBCJs and, thus, decrease
their stiffness and strength degradation, while simultaneously improving the energy dissipation.

Citation: Aljabbri, N.A.S.; Karim, Keywords: CFRPCs; NSCBCJs; strength performance; finite element model; plastic hinge
A.A.; Majeed, F.H. Carbon
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Composites Integrated
Beam–Column Joints with Improved 1. Introduction
Strength Performance against Seismic
In the context of construction technology, the term “strengthening” refers to the retrofit,
Events: Numerical Model Simulation.
rehabilitation, and repair of building materials. In retrofitting, the structural components
Eng 2024, 5, 1112–1139.
are installed with the goal of improving their overall performance in terms of shear, flexural,
https://doi.org/10.3390/
and compressive strength [1–3]. This improvement in the structural integrity becomes
eng5020061
more significant than the initial performance. Rehabilitation is the process of repara-
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi tion and restoration of the performance and strength lost in the structures under varied
situations [4–7]. In the repairing process, the structural members’ quality are improved to
Received: 11 May 2024
Revised: 7 June 2024
meet the desired requirements. Over the decades, numerous experimental and analytical
Accepted: 11 June 2024
studies have been conducted to gain an in-depth understanding regarding the behavior of
Published: 14 June 2024 beam-to-column joints (BCJs). In the reinforced concrete structures, the critical zones are
identified at the BCJ wherein the vertical and lateral loads meet and are transferred to the
footing [8–10]. Consequently, the risk of failure at the joints is much higher compared to
other structural components. During an earthquake, the plastic hinge mechanism (PHM)
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. can potentially occur near the joints. Essentially, BCJs are a segment of columns shared
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. by the beams at their intersections in reinforced concrete buildings [11–13]. Needless to
This article is an open access article say that with the increase in the frequency of earthquakes worldwide, the sustainability of
distributed under the terms and building structures in the civil engineering sectors has become a major concern unless steps
conditions of the Creative Commons are taken to inhibit this damage. It has been realized that the implementation of stable
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
and durable BCJs with high performance is essential in the construction process [14]. To
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Eng 2024, 5, 1112–1139. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020061 8 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2024, 5

determine the legitimacy of such joints, in-depth experimental, analytical, and numerical
modelling and simulation studies are vital.
In recent years, many details of the BCJs have been examined to protect the BCJs
from failure during seismic vibration. In this regard, impacts of several critical factors,
such as the degree of steel reinforcement in various types of concretes [15], changes in
the longitudinal reinforcement [16] and shear reinforcement [17–20], and the use of rebar
at different diameters [21] on the BCJs were evaluated. It is established that diverse
strengthening methods, like the incorporation of different carbon fiber sheets (CFRP and
glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)) [22–24], steel plate jacketing [25], and external
post-tension rods [26], can effectively be used to improve the anti-seismic behavior of
BCJs. The results of several experimental and theoretical studies on the BCJs concerning
influencing factors and strengthening methods have significantly contributed towards their
anti-seismic performance.
The concept of using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) confinement involves bonding
the FRP to the concrete surface with a bonding agent, such as epoxy resin. This bond
allows the FRP and concrete to function as a composite structure, enhancing the BCJs’ seis-
mic performance when properly designed and constructed [27,28]. FRP is an anisotropic
material with superior engineering properties along the direction of the reinforcing fiber,
but it is weak in the transverse direction. Therefore, it is highly recommended to con-
fine the structure in the principal fiber direction of the FRP [29–31]. The application
process of FRP begins with cleaning the concrete surface, applying a layer of primer and
epoxy, and then laying up the FRP sheets with epoxy until the required number of lay-
ers is achieved. A variety of FRP materials have been used to retrofit BCJs, including
CFRP [32–34], GFRP [35,36], aramid fiber-reinforced polymer [37], basalt fiber-reinforced
polymer (BFRP) [38], FRP hybrid composites [39], quasi-isotropic laminates [40], and
sprayed FRP [41]. Among these composite materials, CFRP is the most common due to its
superior mechanical properties [42].
The application of CFRP has become a recognized method for strengthening or re-
habilitating existing reinforced concrete elements (RCEs). Many studies have reported
the excellent efficacy of CFRP in enhancing the flexural performance of RC beams under
monotonic loading [29,43,44]. The main elements of the CFRP-concrete bonded system
used for external reinforcement of RC structures include CFRP dry fiber sheets, adhesive,
and anchors when necessary [45]. It is generally assumed that complete composite action
occurs between the concrete elements, like beams, and the CFRP materials. However,
the bonding quality relies heavily on the shear stiffness and strength of the adhesive,
which must be sufficient to transfer shear forces between the CFRP and the concrete
substrate [46–48]. Furthermore, the bond quality is notably affected by the properties of
the concrete and the preparation of the surface.
In study conducted by Laseima et al. [49], the authors have been examined the seismic
behavior of exterior RC-BCJs strengthened with CFRP. From the obtained results and com-
pared to control specimens, the authors reported that the strengthened system improved by
62%, 209%, and 61.9% in terms of strength, energy dissipation, and ductility, respectively.
In [50], the authors examined the impact of using CFRP with different anchors on the seis-
mic performance of RC-BCJs assemblies. The results showed that the ultimate load-carrying
capacity increased by between 19 and 43.6%, depending on the anchoring configurations,
compared to the control specimens. Additionally, all strengthened specimens demonstrated
greater total energy dissipation and damping ratios than the control specimens.
In a recent study conducted by Karayannis and Golias [51], the authors investigated
full-scale RC-BCJs that were externally reinforced with CFRP ropes. The joints were
strengthened using X-shaped ropes, either singly or doubly, on each side of the joint, while
single or double straight ropes were applied to each side of the beam. The strengthened
specimens demonstrated an improved hysteretic response compared to the unstrengthened
ones. Enhancements were observed in maximum loads per loading step, stiffness, and

9
Eng 2024, 5

energy dissipation. The maximum strength of the reinforced samples increased by 20% to
57%, depending on the number of CFRP ropes used.
In experiments conducted by Lim et al. [52], four RC-BCJs were retrofitted utilizing
two different techniques involving CFRP grids covered with engineered cementitious
composite materials and high-strength mortar. The dimensions of the retrofitted specimens
were preserved by removing the concrete cover of the joint and applying a cementitious
matrix. The results showed that the failure mode of the specimens could be modified by
redistributing the load concentration from the joint to the beam. Additionally, the overall
performance of the specimens in terms of strength improved, exhibiting greater ductility
and, therefore, delaying failure.
For instance, Atari et al. [53] strengthened ten BCJs through different types of fibers
and evaluated their influence on the ductility, durability, strength performance, and energy
dissipation capacity against earthquakes. Golias et al. [54] examined six external joints
subjected to seismic loads, where three of them were strengthened with carbon fiber
ropes of different shapes. In addition, Mady et al. [55] designed five T-shaped joints to
withstand seismic loads wherein the effects of some vital factors, like the details of the
reinforcement with carbon fiber GFRP in strengthening the performance were determined.
Bsisu and Hiari et al. [56] theoretically studied the behavior and strength of CFRPG-
reinforced joints to examine the feasibility of improving their performance against seismic
loading. Ercan et al. [57] used four different strengthening patterns for the joints to examine
their anti-seismic response. These joints were strengthened from the inside by changing
the reinforcement details and from the outside with carbon fiber CFRPCs.
In early structural designs, the significance of BCJs is frequently overlooked, making
the retrofitting of these joints crucial for structural stability. Over time, external con-
finement has proven to be one of the most effective retrofit methods. Nevertheless, its
practical application is hindered by several factors, such as the absence of comprehen-
sive guidelines for analysis, design, and confinement schemes. Few studies have exam-
ined the seismic performance of reinforced concrete structures enhanced with carbon
fiber-reinforced polymers.
Considering the basic significance of and applied interest in high-performance CBCJs,
we performed a numerical study to determine the possibility of strengthening NSCBCJs
by integrating CFRPCs. The results obtained from the numerical model simulation were
compared with the state-of-the-art experimental findings available in the literature. In
addition, more details about the selected specimens and evaluation methods are presented.
The results revealed NSCBCJ strength enhancement because of CFRPC integration, fulfilling
the compliance with the seismic requirements standard ACI 374.1-05.

2. Experimental Work
Following the recommendation of Trung et al. [58], this work selected four concrete
specimens to examine the anti-seismic behavior of the proposed NSCBCJ-integrated CBCJs.
The first specimen was designed using non-seismic details. The second specimen was
made based on the first specimen details of CFRPC to strengthen the joint, beam area,
and volume adjacent to the joint. Those specimens had identical dimensions and degrees
of reinforcement. Figure 1 illustrates the reinforcement details of specimens for the non-
seismic (NS) and seismic design (SD). The designed specimens (NS and SD) had identical
dimensions and the same number of longitudinal reinforcements. The NS specimen differed
from the SD specimen in that it lacked transverse reinforcements in the beam–column joint
region, had relatively large stirrup spacing in the beam, and featured down-bending
anchorage of beam bars away from the joints. In contrast, the SD specimen was designed
to meet the requirements for an intermediate moment frame as specified by the ACI 318-02
code [59], which included confinement reinforcement in the beam–column joint region
and relatively small stirrup spacing in the beam. Comparing the behaviors of these two
specimens under cyclic loading can reveal the impact of adequate transverse reinforcement
on the shear capacity and ductility of the joints. Figure 2a shows the experimental design

10
Eng 2024,
Eng 5, 5,
2024, FOR PEER
FOR PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 44

Eng 2024, 5
these
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loading can reveal the impact impact of of adequate
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was
the attached
thejoint
joint support under
support was
was the columnunder
attached
attached to thethe
under strong
the column floor.
to The roller support
the strong floor. The
floor. Thewas connected
roller
roller support
support at
the
wasend
was of the beam
connected
connected atatthe
theend to
endenable
of therotation
ofthe beam
beam to toand
enable
enablelongitudinal
rotation and movements
longitudinal
longitudinal only. In contrast,
movements
movements the
only.
only.
column
InIncontrast, base
contrast, the was
the connected
column
column basewas
base to aconnected
was hinge support.
connected to a hingeThesupport.
load onThe the load
The specimens
load on
on the (at
thespecimens the end
specimens
of
(atthe
(at thecolumn)
endof
end ofthe was
the applied
column)
column) was
was using a 500using
applied
applied kN actuator.
using a 500 kNThe cyclic The
actuator. load test was
The cyclic
cyclic load
load conducted
test
testwas
was
under displacement
conducted
conducted under
under displacementcontrol, as control,
displacement described
control, as by Trung [58] in the figure
as described by Trung [58] inbelow
[58] in the (Figure
figure
the figure below2b).
below
A displacement-controlled
(Figure
(Figure 2b).AAdisplacement-controlled
2b). displacement-controlledquasi-staticquasi-static
analysis was
quasi-static performed
analysis in ABAQUS
was performed
performed in using the
in ABAQUS
ABAQUS
dynamic
usingthe
using theimplicit
dynamic
dynamic method,
implicitwhich
implicit method,
method, is optimal
which is
which for simulating
optimal the nonlinear
for simulating
simulating the behavior
nonlinearof
the nonlinear beam–
behav-
behav-
column
ior joints. The default
iorofofbeam–column
beam–column joints. The
joints. full default
The Newtonfull
default solving
full Newton algorithm
solving was utilized.
algorithm
algorithm wasThe
was meshThe
utilized.
utilized. was
The
refined
meshwas
mesh torefined
was increase
refined totonode
increase
increase points,
nodeensuring
node a reasonable
points, ensuring
points, ensuring mesh density
a reasonable mesh
mesh density in thein
density joint
in the areas
thejoint
joint
with
areasan
areas withacceptable
with ananacceptableaspectaspect
acceptable ratio of
aspect theof
ratio
ratio elements.
of The two
the elements.
the elements. Thematerials
The two shared
two materials
materials the same
shared
shared the nodes
thesame
same
because
nodes the
because steelthe reinforcing
steel truss
reinforcing element
truss was
element connected
nodes because the steel reinforcing truss element was connected between the nodeswas between
connected betweenthe nodes
the of
nodes each
of
of
concrete
each
each element
concrete
concrete element
element to createto an an
create
to create embedded
an embedded
embedded bond.
bond.The
bond. Theembedded
The embedded bond assumption
embedded bond assumption
assumption used used
used
in
in the
inthe structural
thestructural
structuralmodeling
modeling did did not
did not result
not result in
result in significant
in significanterrors
significant errorsin
errors inthe
in thepredicted
the predictedload
predicted loadand
load and
and
displacement
displacement response.
displacementresponse.
response.In Inthe CFRPspecimen,
the CFRP
CFRP specimen,full
specimen, fullcontact
full contactwas
contact wassimulated
was simulatedat
simulated atthe
at theinterface
the interface
interface
between
betweenthe
between the CFRP
theCFRP
CFRPshell shellelements
elementsand and the the solid
the solid concrete
solid concrete elements.
concrete elements.
elements.

Figure 1. Details of designed non-seismic beam–column joint [58].

Detailsof
Figure1.1.Details
Figure ofdesigned
designednon-seismic
non-seismicbeam–column
beam–columnjoint
joint[58].
[58].

Figure 2. (a) The proposed experimental setup; (b) lateral displacement applied to the model [58].

11
Eng 2024, 5

3. Model Simulation Using Abacus

3.1. Element Type
The steel reinforcing bar and concrete are the two main components of any reinforced
CBCJs. Moreover, the key components of the retrofitted CBCJs are the concrete, steel rein-
forcement bars, and external CFRP sheet. To introduce a realistic model under cyclic force,
it is necessary to accurately replicate the real material characteristics of every component.
The ABAQUS 19 library (computer software, user’s manual, Providence, RI, Rising Sun
Mills) offers effective material models for three-dimensional (3D) continuum elements
that can simulate the actual behavior of each component with acceptable accuracy. Using
three different element types, including solid, shell, and link, various geometries were
modeled. We used a 3D eight-node linear brick element with reduced integration and
hourglass control (C3D8R) for the solid section, like concrete (Figure 3a). The linear brick
components were chosen because they can be utilized with contact, unlike the quadratic
brick elements that require more time to compute the constant nodal loads over the surface.
The truss elements T3D2 (Figure 3b) used for the steel bars were embedded in the concrete.
The discrete reinforcement bars in the CBCJ are modeled as T3D2 elements. Four-node,
doubly curved, linear, three-dimensional general-purpose shell elements with decreased
integration and hourglass control (S4R5) were used in the CFRP plate (Figure 3c). Since the
nodes of a conventional shell element are situated in a well-defined planar dimension, the
thickness of this shell element can be determined by the section properties. The conven-
tional shell elements are regarded to be more accurate in contact modelling than continuum
shell elements because they can measure strain or slip without affecting the thickness of
the CFRP composite plates. Furthermore, the conventional shell elements have exceptional
computational efficiency.

Figure 3. Elements used in ABAQUS to model: (a) C3D8R for concrete, (b) T3D2 for longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement, and (c) the S4R5 four-node shell for FRP.
Fig. 3
3.2. Material Properties
In this study, the material properties used to prepare the specimens, such as concrete
compressive strength and splitting tensile strength, longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups’
yield strength, as well as the tensile strength and the elastic modulus of CRFP and epoxy,
are summarized in Table 1. Concrete is known to exhibit a high compressive strength
(CS) and low tensile strength (TS), and it is prone to fracture when subjected to tensile
loads. This is mainly due to the susceptibility of aggregates in concrete that can endure
compressive stress and, thus, allow it to carry compressive loads. However, cracks that
separate the cement particles in the aggregates are generated due to tensile stresses. The
separation of cement particles causes the entire structure to fail as cracks start propagating.
The issue with concrete can be addressed via the reinforcing of elements, such as metallic
bars or fibers. These components serve as the framework of the entire construction and
can support the aggregates when subjected to tensile forces. This process is referred to as
concrete reinforcing. The term “brittle material” might apply to concrete. The difference
in behavior between concrete and ductile materials, like steel, is due to their distinct load
responses. Brittle materials tend to develop tensile fracture perpendicular to the direction
of the largest tensile strain. Thus, the cracks tend to develop parallel to the maximum

12
 ferred to as concrete reinforcing. The term “brittle material” might apply to concrete. The
difference in behavior between concrete and ductile materials, like steel, is due to their
distinct load responses. Brittle materials tend to develop tensile fracture perpendicular to
the direction of the largest tensile strain. Thus, the cracks tend to develop parallel to the
Eng 2024, 5 maximum compressive stress when a concrete specimen is subjected to a uniaxial com
pressive load. In compression, the stress–strain curve of concrete being elastic can gradu
ally reach up to the maximum CS followed by a decrease into a softening region and even
tually crushing
compressive stressfailure
when aatconcrete
an ultimate strain.
specimen Tao et al.
is subjected to [60] and Chen
a uniaxial et al. [61]
compressive load.modeled
In
thecompression, the stress–strain
normal concrete curve
stress–strain of concrete being
relationship elastic
(Figure can gradually
4). The reachcharacteristics
stress–strain up to
the maximum
of concrete canCSbefollowed by a as
expressed decrease into a softening region and eventually crushing
follows:
failure at an ultimate strain. Tao et al. [60] and Chen et al. [61] modeled the normal concrete
stress–strain relationship (Figure 4). The stress–strain 𝐸0 εcharacteristics
𝑐 of concrete can be
f =
expressed as follows: c
𝐸0 εc ε ε 2 (1
1 + ( E0 εc− 2) ( 𝑐 ) + ( 𝑐 )
fc =  𝑓𝑝  ε𝑝2 ε𝑝 (1)
1 + E0f pεc − 2 εεpc + εεpc
where f , εc , f , εp , and 𝐸0 are the concrete’s corresponding stress (in MPa), strain
where f c c, εc , f p ,p εp , and E0 are the concrete’s corresponding stress (in MPa), strain,
maximumexperimental
maximum experimental stress
stress (in MPa),
(in MPa), strain
strain at maximum
atpmaximum experimental
experimental stressas(taken as
stress (taken
0.002),
0.002),and
andelastic
elastic modulus
modulus (in (in
MPa), E0 =𝐸4700
MPa), 0 = 4700 √fc , respectively.
f c , respectively.

Figure4.4.Uniaxial
Figure Uniaxialstress–strain curve
stress–strain of concrete.
curve of concrete.

The stress–strain curve of concrete under tension is approximately linearly elastic up

The stress–strain curve of concrete under tension is approximately linearly elastic up
to the maximum TS. After this point, the cracks and strength of concrete decrease gradually
to the maximum TS. After this point, the cracks and strength of concrete decrease gradu
to zero [26,27]. The uniaxial TS of concrete can be modeled via the following equation:
ally to zero [26,27]. The uniaxial TS of concrete can be modeled via the following equation
 
f p − 8 2/3 2/3
f t = 1.4 (2)
10 𝑓𝑝 − 8 (2
𝑓𝑡 = 1.4 ( )
10
The damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS is characterized by the degradation of
the compression
The damaged and plasticity
tension. When
model plasticizers
in ABAQUS are introduced, the elastic
is characterized stiffness
by the of the of the
degradation
material decreases due to its deterioration, making it unable to restore the original
compression and tension. When plasticizers are introduced, the elastic stiffness of the ma elastic
stiffness. This is crucial for cyclic loading, as the two damage parameters are considered to
terial decreases due to its deterioration, making it unable to restore the original elastic
be dependent on the plastic strains, indicating a reduction in the elastic stiffness. Figure 5
stiffness.
displays theThis is crucialcurve
stress–strain for cyclic loading,
for tension andas the two damage
compression modeled parameters are considered
using the damage
plasticity model.

13
Eng 2024, 5

Table 1. Concrete, steel bars, CFRP and epoxy properties.

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Properties of Used Materials

Water curing 33.8
to be dependent on the plasticCompressive strength,aMPa
strains, indicating reductionAir
incuring
the elastic stiffness.36.5
Figure
5 Concrete
displays the stress–strain curve for tension and compression modeled using the damage
Water curing 4.0
plasticity model. Tensile strength, MPa
Air curing 3.8
Table 1. Concrete, steel bars, CFRP and epoxy properties. D10 324
Steel bars Yield strength, MPa
Properties of Used Materials Ø4 459
Water curing 33.8
Tensile strength
Compressive 0◦ ,
MPa
strength, MPa 4965.8
Air curing 36.5
Concrete Elastic modulus, GP 240.5
Water curing 4.0
Tensile strength, MPa
Elastic modulus 90◦ , GPa Air curing 103.8
D10 324
Steel bars In-plane shearMPa
Yield strength, modulus, GPa 5
Ø4 459
Tensile strength0°,
Tensile strength ◦ , MPa
90MPa 50
4965.8
Elastic modulus, GP 240.5
Compressive strength 0◦ , MPa 1200
CFRP (CF720) Elastic modulus 90°, GPa 10
Compressive ◦
In-plane shear strength
modulus,90
GPa, MPa 2505
In-plane shear strength,
Tensile strength 90°, MPa MPa 7050
CFRP (CF720) Compressive strength 0°, MPa 1200
Sheet thickness, mm 0.33
Compressive strength 90°, MPa 250
Major Poisson’s
In-plane ratio MPa
shear strength, 0.370
Sheet thickness,3 mm 0.33
Density, g/cm 1.6
Major Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Tensile
Density,strength,
g/cm3 MPa 59.51.6
Epoxy topcoat (CLR67)
Epoxy topcoat (CLR67) Elastic modulus, GP
Tensile strength, MPa 3.7
59.5
Elastic modulus, GP 3.7
Tensile strength, MPa 56.8
Epoxy primer (CLR67) Tensile strength, MPa 56.8
Epoxy primer (CLR67)
Elastic modulus,GP
Elastic modulus, GP 3.73.7

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Stiffness recovery curve
Stiffness recovery curve of
of concrete
concrete under
under tension
tension and
and compression.
compression.

The element
elementdevelops
developscracks
cracksandandeventually
eventually damages
damages thethe
material when
material it experiences
when it experi-
aences
tension that surpasses
a tension its TS.itsThis
that surpasses TS. behavior
This behaviorcan becanexpressed by a by
be expressed variable called
a variable the
called
damage
the damageparameter (dt). (dt).
parameter Furthermore,
Furthermore,the behavior of theofelement
the behavior underunder
the element CS is CSrepresented
is repre-
by the variable
sented damagedamage
by the variable parameters (dc). Generally,
parameters the developed
(dc). Generally, cracks docracks
the developed not affect the
do not
stiffness
affect theinstiffness
compression unless theunless
in compression degradation and compression
the degradation stiffness reach
and compression the reach
stiffness same
level as thelevel
the same stiffness
as thein stiffness
tension, in in which
tension,theindcwhich
becomesthe zero. Following
dc becomes theFollowing
zero. experimental the
results of Trung [58], this study used (in ABAQUS for the concrete
experimental results of Trung [58], this study used (in ABAQUS for the concrete material) a CSmaterial)
value of
33.8
a CSMPa,
valueaofYoung’s
33.8 MPa,modulus of 27,324
a Young’s modulusMPa, of and a Poisson’s
27,324 MPa, andratio of 0.2. Five
a Poisson’s ratioparameters
of 0.2. Five
were considered
parameters to describe to
were considered thedescribe
Drucker–Prager flow potential
the Drucker–Prager flow yield surface
potential yieldthat was
surface
first
that developed by Lubliner
was first developed by et al. [62] and
Lubliner et al.then
[62] upgraded by Lee et al.
and then upgraded by[63].
Lee To accurately
et al. [63]. To
accurately determine the values of the selected parameters, several tests were conducted
in the model wherein the default parameters of ABAQUS were used. These parameters
included (1) the dilation angle 14 equal to 31 that denoted the volume change to shear strain
ratio, (2) the eccentricity equal to 0 when the flow potential approaches a straight line or
Eng 2024, 5

determine the values of the selected parameters, several tests were conducted in the model
wherein the default parameters of ABAQUS were used. These parameters included (1) the
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 8
dilation angle equal to 31 that denoted the volume change to shear strain ratio, (2) the
eccentricity equal to 0 when the flow potential approaches a straight line or 0.1, (3) the
initial uniaxial to biaxial CS ratio of 1.16 (Figure 6), (4) the viscosity that represented the
0.1, (3) the initial uniaxial to biaxial CS ratio of 1.16 (Figure 6), (4) the viscosity that repre-
relaxation time of the visco-plastic system that was assumed to be zero because the BCJ
sented the relaxation time of the visco-plastic system that was assumed to be zero because
model caused a severe convergence difficulty, enabling us to improve the convergence of
the BCJ model caused a severe convergence difficulty, enabling us to improve the conver-
the model
gence in theinsoftening
of the model region,
the softening andand
region, (5)(5)
the yield
the yieldsurface
surface on thedeviatoric
on the deviatoric plane defined
plane
by the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile to the compressive
defined by the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile to the compressive merid- meridian was
equal to 2/3.
ian was equal to 2/3.

Figure 6. Model
Figure representing
6. Model the failure
representing surfacesurface
the failure of concrete [64].
of concrete [64].

TheThe linear
linear isotropic
isotropic and and bilinear
bilinear kinematic
kinematic model model was applied
was applied to the
to simulate simulate
elastic the elastic
andinelastic
and inelastic behavior
behavior of steel
of the the steel components
components in the in the reinforcement
reinforcement bar. The bar. The material
material
model
model in ABAQUS
in ABAQUS usedused
the Young’s modulus
the Young’s value of value
modulus 200,000ofMPa and Poisson’s
200,000 MPa and ratio of
Poisson’s ratio
0.3 to accurately represent the behavior of steel. Following the tensile test conducted by
of 0.3 to accurately represent the behavior of steel. Following the tensile test conducted
Trung [58], the steel material parameters utilized in the finite element models were de-
by Trung [58], the steel material parameters utilized in the finite element models were
rived. These properties were then incorporated into the model (Table 2 and Figure 7). An
derived. These properties were then incorporated into the model (Table 2 and Figure 7).
orthotropic elastic material was used to represent CFRPCs. Following the report of Nara-
yananorthotropic
An elastic
[65], the material material
properties was
were used to represent
determined. CFRPCs.
The required materialFollowing the report of
properties for
the 3D analysis of CFRP are displayed in Table 1. The model assumed full bonding be- properties
Narayanan [65], the material properties were determined. The required material
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW for the
tween CFRP 3Dand
analysis of CFRP are displayed in Table 1. The model assumed full9 bonding
concrete.
between CFRP and concrete.
Table 2. Model properties of reinforcement material.

Model Number Materials Material Properties

Young’s modulus, MPa 200,000
Linear isotropic
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
1 Deformed steel bar (10 mm) 0—0
Bilinear kinematic Strain–stress, MPa 0.00162—324
0.12—420
Young’s modulus, MPa 200000
Linear isotropic
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
2 Deformed steel bar (4 mm) 0—0
Bilinear kinematic Strain–stress, MPa 0.0022—459
0.008—620

Figure Stress–strain
Figure 7.7.Stress–strain curve
curve of steel.
of steel.

3.3. Geometry
As mentioned previously, to
15accurately represent the geometrical configuration and
dimensions of the test specimens’, 3D numerical models were developed. The mesh for
the beam and columns was chosen so that the solid elements’ node points could line up
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Eng 2024, 5

Table 2. Model properties of reinforcement material.

Model Number Materials Material Properties

Young’s modulus, MPa 200,000
Linear isotropic
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
1 Deformed steel bar (10 mm) 0—0
Bilinear kinematic Strain–stress, MPa 0.00162—324
0.12—420
Young’s modulus, MPa 200000
Linear isotropic
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
2 Deformed steel bar (4 mm) 0—0
Bilinear kinematic Strain–stress, MPa 0.0022—459
Figure 7. Stress–strain curve of steel. 0.008—620

3.3.
3.3. Geometry
Geometry
As
As mentioned
mentioned previously,
previously, to to accurately
accurately represent
represent thethe geometrical
geometrical configuration
configuration and and
dimensions
dimensions of the test specimens’, 3D numerical models were developed. The
of the test specimens’, 3D numerical models were developed. The mesh
mesh forfor
the
the beam
beam andand columns
columns was was chosen
chosen so so that
that the
the solid
solid elements’
elements’ nodenode points
points could
could line
line upup
with
with the real positions
the real positions of of the
the reinforcement.
reinforcement. The The mesh
mesh waswas subdivided
subdivided to to obtain
obtain more
more
node
node points,
points, resulting
resulting in in aa reasonable
reasonable meshmesh density
density in in the
the joint
joint areas
areas with
with thethe acceptable
acceptable
aspect
aspect ratio of the elements. The two materials shared the same nodes because the
ratio of the elements. The two materials shared the same nodes because the steel
steel
reinforcing
reinforcing truss element was attached between the nodes of each concrete element toto
truss element was attached between the nodes of each concrete element cre-
create
ate a perfect bond. It is worth noting that the perfect bond assumption
a perfect bond. It is worth noting that the perfect bond assumption used in the structural used in the struc-
tural
modelmodel
did notdidcause
not cause a significant
a significant error
error in thein the predicted
predicted load-displacement
load-displacement response.response.
In the
In the CFRPC,
CFRPC, the fullthecontact
full contact was simulated
was simulated at theatinterface
the interface between
between the CFRPC
the CFRPC shellshell
andandthe
concrete
the elements.
concrete elements.ValuesValuesfor the cross-sectional
for the cross-sectional areaarea
and and
initial strain
initial of reinforcement
strain of reinforce-
as well
ment asas theasCFRP
well were were
the CFRP entered. A value
entered. of zero
A value was entered
of zero was entered for the
forinitial strain
the initial due
strain
to the absence of initial stress on the reinforcement. Figure 8 illustrates the finite element
due to the absence of initial stress on the reinforcement. Figure 8 illustrates the finite ele-
mesh mesh
ment and geometry
and geometry of the of joints. Four joints
the joints. Four were
jointsmodeled including
were modeled non-seismic
including detail,
non-seismic
seismicseismic
detail, detail, CFRPC to strengthen
detail, CFRPC the NSCBCJs,
to strengthen and twoand
the NSCBCJs, layers
twooflayers
CFRPC specimens
of CFRPC for
speci-
strengthening
mens the NSCBCJs.
for strengthening the NSCBCJs.

Figure 8.
Figure 3Dfinite
8. 3D finiteelement
elementmodel
modelforfor
thethe analysis
analysis of of NSCBCJ-
NSCBCJ- andand CFRPC-integrated
CFRPC-integrated NSCBCJs.
NSCBCJs. (a)
(a) NSCBCJ
NSCBCJ specimen,
specimen, (b) seismic
(b) seismic specimen,
specimen, (c) one(c)
andone
twoand twooflayers
layers of thespecimen,
the CFRPC CFRPC specimen,
(d) longi-
(d) longitudinal
tudinal and transverse
and transverse reinforcement
reinforcement of the NSCBCJ
of the NSCBCJ specimen, specimen, (e) longitudinal
(e) longitudinal and trans-
and transverse re-
inforcement of the seismic
verse reinforcement specimen,
of the seismic and (f) mesh
specimen, and (f)ofmesh
all models.
of all models.

16
Eng 2024, 5, FOR
Eng 2024, 5 PEER REVIEW 10

3.4. Boundary
3.4. Boundary Condition
Condition
The loads
The loads and limitations
and limitations appliedapplied
in theinfinite
the finite element
element modelsmodels
werewere identical
identical to theto the
conducted test. In addition, the lateral cyclic loading was carried out at each drift ratio
conducted test. In addition, the lateral cyclic loading was carried out at each drift ratio in in
the finite
the finite element
element models.
models. Herein,
Herein, UX, UU Y, X , UYU, Zand
and areU Z are
the the displacement
displacement in the direction
in the direction of
of xaxis),
x (beam (beam axis), y (column
y (column axis), andaxis), and z (displacement
z (displacement perpendicular
perpendicular to the x andto the x and
y axis) y axis)
axis,
axis, respectively.
respectively. The z-direction
The z-direction displacements displacements were completely
were completely restrainedrestrained
at the topatofthethetop of
the column
column (Uz = 0)(Uz and= the
0) and the lateral
lateral displacements
displacements were applied
were applied in theinx-axis
the x-axis direction.
direction. To To
simulate
simulate the hinge
the hinge support,
support, thethe displacements
displacements ininthe
thecolumn
columnbottom
bottom at at each
each direction
directionwere
wererestrained
restrained(Ux (Ux==UyUy== UzUz == 0). Additionally, the
0). Additionally, the displacements
displacements in in the
the yy and
and zz direc-
directions
tionswere
wererestricted
restricted (Uy
(Uy == Uz
Uz ==0)0)atatthe
theend
endofofthe thebeam
beamtoto indicate
indicate roller
roller support.
support. Figure 9
Figure
shows
9 shows thethe boundary
boundary condition
condition usedused in finite
in finite element
element analysis.
analysis.

Figure
Figure The boundary
9. The9.boundary conditions
conditions used used
in theinmodel
the model simulation.
simulation.

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Verification of the Finite Element Models with Experiments
4.1. Verification of the Finite Element Models with Experiments
4.1.1. Force versus Displacement Curves
4.1.1. Force versus Displacement Curves
To confirm the viability of the simulated finite element models, the force–displacement
curves
To confirm of four thespecimens
viability of obtained in the current
the simulated finite study
element were compared
models, with the experimen-
the force–displace-
menttal findings
curves of Trung
of four [58] as shown
specimens obtained in Figure
in the 10. The finite
current study element results were
were compared observed
with the to
be consistent
experimental withof
findings the experimental
Trung [58] as shown ones (Table
in Figure 3). It
10.was
Theasserted that theresults
finite element simulatedwerefinite
element
observed to be model is able with
consistent to predict the inelastic response
the experimental ones (Table of the
3). test specimens.
It was assertedThe thatobserved
the
slight difference between the finite element model simulations and experimental results
simulated finite element model is able to predict the inelastic response of the test speci-
mens. mayThebeobserved
due to (1) unexpected
slight difference occurrences
between the in finite
the experimental
element model work, (2) variables,
simulations and like
the concrete’s
experimental results tensile
may be and compressive
due properties
to (1) unexpected selection,in(3)
occurrences thethe refinement work,
experimental of meshes,
(4) the uselike
(2) variables, of idealized boundary
the concrete’s tensileconditions in the finite
and compressive element models,
properties selection, and(3)(5)the
nonlinear-
re-
ity inof
finement themeshes,
materials’(4) behavior
the use of (materials’
idealizedproperties
boundarymodeled conditions in ABAQUS).
in the finite element
models, and Instead of comparing
(5) nonlinearity the materials’
in the results of every
behavior load(materials’
cycle, the properties
backbone curve modeled should
in be
developed
ABAQUS). from the experimental and numerical data for each direction of loading with
unique
Instead behavior.
of comparing The curve should
the results of be plotted
every loadincycle,
a single
the quadrant
backbone (positive
curve shouldforce beversus
positive
developed displacement
from or negative
the experimental force versus
and numerical datanegative
for eachdisplacement; consequently,
direction of loading with the
uniquebackbone
behavior. curve
Thecreated by connecting
curve should be plotted the in
first cycle peak
a single points(positive
quadrant with theforce
related displace-
versus
mentdisplacement
positive is shown in Figure 11. The
or negative results
force indicated
versus negativethatdisplacement;
the backbone curve (envelope
consequently, thecurve)
obtained from the finite element analysis was in good agreement
backbone curve created by connecting the first cycle peak points with the related displace- with the experimental
mentresults,
is shown indicating
in Figurea11. considerable
The resultscorrelation
indicated that at all
thestages of thecurve
backbone lateral cycling loading.
(envelope curve)
The results of the finite element studies showed that
obtained from the finite element analysis was in good agreement with the experimental a total of 30 cycles at 12 different
drift
results, levels varied
indicating from 0 to 10%
a considerable appliedat
correlation toall
thestages
specimens. The compression
of the lateral axial load on
cycling loading.

17
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 11

Eng 2024, 5 The results of the finite element studies showed that a total of 30 cycles at 12 different
drift levels varied from 0 to 10% applied to the specimens. The compression axial load on
the column was not considered based on the experimental work. The total deformations
that occurredwas
the column near
nottheconsidered
top end ofbased the columns were measured
on the experimental withThe
work. a Linear Variable Dif-
total deformations
ferential Transformer as mentioned by Trung [58]. The
that occurred near the top end of the columns were measured with a Linear hysteretic curves were initially lin-
Variable
ear and elastic. With the increase in displacement, the specimens
Differential Transformer as mentioned by Trung [58]. The hysteretic curves were initially were converted into an
inelastic response due to the occurrence of pinch effects. The experimental
linear and elastic. With the increase in displacement, the specimens were converted into and finite ele-
ment results response
an inelastic proved that duethe NSCBJ
to the specimens
occurrence were strengthened
of pinch due to the integration
effects. The experimental and finite
of CFRPCs,
element displaying
results proved athat goodthe seismic behavior with
NSCBJ specimens wereendurance
strengthened strength
due toatthetheintegration
test end.
of CFRPCs, displaying a good seismic behavior with endurance strength at the test
In short, the specimens showed maximum lateral strength and no crushing of the end. In
concrete
short, the specimens showed maximum lateral strength and no crushing of the concrete
occurred. In addition, the observed difference in the main reinforcement bar that caused
occurred.
the In addition, the
force–displacement observed
curves differenceininthe
was different thepositive
main reinforcement
and negativebar that caused
direction the
of load-
force–displacement
ing therefore it differed curvesin thewas different
lateral in the of
resistance positive and negative direction of loading
the peaks.
therefore it differed
The ideal in the
bilinear lateraldemonstrated
drawing resistance of the by peaks.
Paulay and Priestley and described in
SectionThe3.4ideal
was bilinear drawing
used to obtain thedemonstrated
first yield andby Paulaystrengths,
ultimate and Priestley and described
respectively, from the in
Section 3.4 was
experimental (𝑄used
𝑦𝑒 ) to
and obtain
finite the first
element yield
models and( 𝑄 ultimate
𝑦𝐹𝐸𝑀 ). strengths,
The ultimaterespectively,
strengths from
from the
the
experimental
finite element (and Qye )experimental
and finite element modelmodels
are 𝑄𝑢𝑒 ( Qand
yFEM𝑄 ). The ultimate strengths from the
𝑢𝐹𝐸𝑀 , respectively. The experi-
finite element
mental and experimental
and numerical results showedmodelthat are Q and QuFEM
ue capacity
the of ,the
respectively. The experimental
seismic design specimen is
and numerical results showed that the capacity of the seismic
improved by 32% compared to the non-seismic specimen. Also, the strengthened design specimen is improved
speci-
by 32% compared to the non-seismic specimen. Also, the
men with one layer of CFRPC showed a maximum ultimate strength of specimen greater strengthened specimen with
one layer of CFRPC showed a maximum ultimate strength of
than the non-seismic one because of the rise in the strength capacity of the BCJ by 28%.specimen greater than the
non-seismic one because of the rise in the strength capacity
Finally, the specimen strengthened with two layers of CFRPC revealed better performanceof the BCJ by 28%. Finally,
the specimen
when strengthened
the ultimate load reached withto two11.2layers of CFRPC
kN, with revealed
an increase better performance
in ultimate load capacity when
by
the ultimate load reached
41% compared to the NS specimen. to 11.2 kN, with an increase in ultimate load capacity by 41%
compared to the NS specimen.

10
8
5
3
0
Lateral Load (kN)

-70 -53 -35 -18-3 0 18 35 53 70

-5
-8
-10
-13 Experimental
-15 FE- Model
-18
-20
Displacement (mm)

(a) (b)

12
10
7
5
2
Lateral Load (kN)

-1
-70 -53 -35 -18-3 0 18 35 53 70
-6
-8
-11 Experimental
-13 FE- Model
-16
-18
Displacement (mm)

(c) (d)

Figure 10. Cont.

18
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 12
Eng 2024, 5

12
9
Experimental
FE- Model6
3
0

Lateral Load (kN)

-70 -53 -35 -18-3 0 18 35 53 70
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
Displacement (mm)

(e) (f)

13
10
7
4
1
Lateral Load (kN)

-70 -53 -35 -18-2 0 18 35 53 70

-5
-8
-11 Experimental
-14 FE- Model
-17
-20
Displacement (mm)

(g) (h)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison force–displacement curves
Comparison force–displacement curves for
for the
the non-seismic
non-seismic specimen
specimen (NS),
(NS), seismic
seismic speci-
spec-
imen (SD), strengthened one-layer CFRPC specimen, and strengthened two-layer CFRPC
men (SD), strengthened one-layer CFRPC specimen, and strengthened two-layer CFRPC specimen. specimen.
(a) Experimental results of Trung [58] on NSCBCJ; (b) comparison of the proposed model results
(a) Experimental results of Trung [58] on NSCBCJ; (b) comparison of the proposed model results
with experiments with NSCBCJ; (c) experimental results of Trung [58] with SD; (d) comparison of
with experiments with NSCBCJ; (c) experimental results of Trung [58] with SD; (d) comparison of
the proposed model results with experiments with SD; (e) experimental results of Trung [58] with
the proposed
one-layer model
CFRPC; (f)results with experiments
comparison withmodel
of the proposed SD; (e)results
experimental results of Trung
with experiments [58] with
with one-layer
one-layer CFRPC; (f) comparison of the proposed model results with experiments with
CFRPC; (g) experimental results of Trung [58] on two-layer CFRPC; (h) comparison of the proposedone-layer
CFRPC; (g) experimental
model results results of
with experiments of two-layer
Trung [58]CFRPC.
on two-layer CFRPC; (h) comparison of the proposed
model results with experiments of two-layer CFRPC.
Table 3. Comparison between experimental and finite element results.
Table 3. Comparison between experimental and finite element results.
Loading Di- Yield Lateral Resistance (kN) Ultimate Lateral Resistance (kN)
Specimen
rection 𝑸
Yield Lateral Resistance (kN)𝒚𝒆 𝑸 𝒚𝑭𝑬𝑴 𝑸 /𝑸
Ultimate Lateral
𝒚𝑭𝑬𝑴 𝒚𝒆 𝑸𝒖𝒆 Resistance
𝑸𝒖𝑭𝑬𝑴(kN)𝑸𝒖𝑭𝑬𝑴 /𝑸𝒖𝒆
Loading
Specimen Positive 5.40 5.925 1.09 7.3 7.9 1.08
Direction Qye(NS) Negative
Non-seismic QyFEM 11.70 QyFEM /Q Q QuFEM17.2 QuFEM /Que
12.9 ye 1.10ue 15.76 1.09
Positive 5.40 5.925
Positive 7.30 1.097.82 7.3
1.07 9.7 7.9 10.75 1.08
1.10
Non-seismic (NS) Seismic design (SD)
Negative 13.15 13.85 1.05 16.15 18.23 1.13
Negative 11.70 12.9 1.10 15.76 17.2 1.09
Strengthened by Positive 6.75 7.42 1.09 9.10 10.15 1.12
PositiveCFRP (one7.30
layer) Negative7.82 12.95 1.0714.25 9.7
1.10 17.23 10.75 19.07 1.10
1.11
Seismic design (SD)
Negative 13.15
Strengthened by 13.85 7.95
Positive 1.058.4 16.15
1.05 10.6 18.23 11.20 1.13
1.06
CFRP (two layers) Negative 13.80 14.35 1.04 16.80 17.80 1.06
Strengthened by Positive 6.75 7.42 1.09 9.10 10.15 1.12
CFRP (one layer) Negative 12.95 14.25 1.10 17.23 19.07 1.11

Strengthened by Positive 7.95 8.4 1.05 10.6 11.20 1.06

CFRP (two layers) Negative 13.80 14.35 1.04 16.80 17.80 1.06

19
Eng 2024,
Eng 2024, 55, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 11. Comparison

Figure 11. Comparison ofof backbone
backbone curves. (a) NSCBCJ,
curves. (a) NSCBCJ, (b)
(b) SD,
SD, (c)
(c) strengthened
strengthened one-layer
one-layer CFRPC
CFRPC
specimen,
specimen, and
and (d)
(d) strengthened
strengthened two-layer
two-layer CFRPC
CFRPC specimen.
specimen.

4.1.2. Failure Modes

4.1.2. Failure Modes
To
To further verify
further verify the
the finite
finite element
element models,
models, the
the failure
failure modes
modes ofof four
four joint
joint specimens
specimens
simulated
simulated by ABAQUS were validated by the experimental work (Figures 12–15). The
by ABAQUS were validated by the experimental work (Figures 12–15). The
model simulation results of the failure modes were in good agreement with the experimen-
model simulation results of the failure modes were in good agreement with the experi-
tal findings, indicating the precision of the established model calculation. According to
mental findings, indicating the precision of the established model calculation. According
the experimental results of Trung [58], the failure mode of the NS specimen was the joint
to the experimental results of Trung [58], the failure mode of the NS specimen was the
shear failure with the beam and column bending cracks. Shear failure of the joint happened
joint shear failure with the beam and column bending cracks. Shear failure of the joint
because of the transverse reinforcement deficiency in the joint. The specimen designed
happened because of the transverse reinforcement deficiency in the joint. The specimen
according to the seismic details showed the beam flexural cracks near the joint. Compared
designed according to the seismic details showed the beam flexural cracks near the joint.
to the non-seismic specimen, the seismic specimen developed more surface cracks in the
Compared to the non-seismic specimen, the seismic specimen developed more surface
beam generated from the bending. The shear cracks at the joint for the specimen made with
cracks in the beam generated from the bending. The shear cracks at the joint for the spec-
the seismic detail were fewer, due to sufficient joint transverse reinforcement. Thus, it can
imen made with the seismic detail were fewer, due to sufficient joint transverse reinforce-
be concluded that the transverse reinforcement restricted the joint shear failure in the beam.
ment. Thus, it can be concluded that the transverse reinforcement restricted the joint shear
Rao [66] acknowledged that the failure mode in the specimen strengthened by CFRPC is
failure in
mainly thetobeam.
due Rao [66] acknowledged
the following that the
factors: (1) concrete failure in
crushing mode in the specimen
compression before strength-
the yield
of the longitudinal steel bar, (2) the steel yield in tension with the debonding ofinthe
ened by CFRPC is mainly due to the following factors: (1) concrete crushing compres-
CFRPC
sion before
sheet, (3) thethe yield
steel of in
yield thetension
longitudinal
with thesteel bar, (2)crushing,
concrete the steelandyield
(4)inthe
tension with
spalling the
of the
debonding
concrete cover.of the CFRPC sheet, (3) the steel yield in tension with the concrete crushing,
and (4)
Thethe spalling ofCFRPC-integrated
single-layer the concrete cover.specimen showed the improved strength of the
The single-layer CFRPC-integrated
beam, column, and joint. In addition, experimental specimen showed resultsthe improved
of the strength of the
CFRPC-strengthened
beam, column, and joint. In addition, experimental results of the
specimen exhibited fewer cracks because the restraint provided by the two strips [U- CFRPC-strengthened
specimenreduced
shaped] exhibited thefewer cracks
T-shaped because
sheets’ the restraint
debonding in theprovided
column. by the two
Finally, thestrips [U-
presence
shaped] reduced the T-shaped sheets’ debonding in the column. Finally,
of CFRPC could debond at a large lateral displacement, classifying the failure mode as the presence of
CFRPC
steel could
yield debond
(Figure 14c)atina tension
large lateral
withdisplacement,
debonding of classifying
the CFRPCthe failure
sheet. Themode as steel
behavior of
yield (Figure 14c) in tension with debonding of the CFRPC sheet. The behavior of the

20
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 14
Eng 2024, 5

specimen made with two layers of CFRPC integration was same as the single-layer speci-
the
men, specimen
except that made with
there wastwoanlayers of CFRPC
improvement integration
in the performance.was sameThis as
wasthe single-layer
mainly due to
specimen, except that there was an improvement in the performance. This was mainly
the increased confinement of the joint and the reduced shear cracks of the joint, meaning
due to the increased confinement of the joint and the reduced shear cracks of the joint,
that the specimen attained larger lateral strength compared to the others. To understand
meaning that the specimen attained larger lateral strength compared to the others. To
the joint performance more precisely, the failure mechanisms of the specimens were as-
understand the joint performance more precisely, the failure mechanisms of the specimens
sessed while taking the parameters, like concrete tensile and compressive damage, Von-
were assessed while taking the parameters, like concrete tensile and compressive damage,
Mises’s stress of the reinforcement, and maximum principal plastic strain. In brief, the
Von-Mises’s stress of the reinforcement, and maximum principal plastic strain. In brief,
finite element models simulated the joint nonlinear behavior appropriately. Figure 12a
the finite element models simulated the joint nonlinear behavior appropriately. Figure 12a
clearly indicated that the NS beam–column developed joint, column, and beam tensile
clearly indicated that the NS beam–column developed joint, column, and beam tensile
damage. From the joint to the beam, the concrete exhibited tensile damage. The longitu-
damage. From the joint to the beam, the concrete exhibited tensile damage. The longitudinal
dinal bars in the beam were found to be in tension, while yielding of the transverse joint
bars in the beam were found to be in tension, while yielding of the transverse joint bars
bars occurred. Concrete damage developed in the joint. The NS specimen failed due to
occurred. Concrete damage developed in the joint. The NS specimen failed due to extensive
extensiveofcracking
cracking of theatconcrete
the concrete the joint atasthe joint as its
its ultimate ultimate
strength wasstrength
attained.was attained.
Figure Figure
12b shows
12b shows the concrete damage under compression. The concrete
the concrete damage under compression. The concrete damage that originated from the damage that originated
from the loading
repeated repeatedwas loading was cumulative,
cumulative, leading toleading to the strength
the strength and degradation.
and stiffness stiffness degrada-
The
tion. The principal plastic strain value served as an indicator
principal plastic strain value served as an indicator for the occurrence of cracks for the occurrence of cracks
in the
in the concrete
concrete damage damage
model.model. The formed
The cracks cracks formed
for the for the positive
positive value ofvalue of the principal
the principal plastic
plastic strain. Figure 12d shows that the joint failed in the concrete
strain. Figure 12d shows that the joint failed in the concrete diagonal crack region, diagonal crack region,
which
whichtorefers
refers to thecrack
the same samepattern
crack pattern
obtained obtained by theelement
by the finite finite element model (Figure
model (Figure 12e). 12e).
Figure 13a
Figure 13a revealed
revealed thatthat the
the SDSD beam–column
beam–column suffered suffered fromfrom beam
beam tensile
tensile damage
damage
wherein the
wherein the concrete’s
concrete’stensile
tensiledamage
damagemostly mostlyspread
spread ininthethe
beam.
beam. TheThe
yielding of the
yielding of lon-
the
gitudinal bars occurred without yielding of the transverse joint
longitudinal bars occurred without yielding of the transverse joint bars (Figure 13c). In bars (Figure 13c). In addi-
tion, the concrete’s
addition, damage
the concrete’s developed
damage in the in
developed joint.
theThe failure
joint. Theoffailure
this specimen occurred
of this specimen
occurred due to cracking of the concrete beam. The principal plastic strain showed the
due to cracking of the concrete beam. The principal plastic strain showed the formation of
formation
cracks in the of cracks
beam whichin the is
beam
verywhich
similaristo very
the similar to the obtained
crack pattern crack pattern obtained
by the by the
finite element
finite
modelelement
(Figuremodel
14d). (Figure 14d).
Figures
Figures 14 14 and
and 15 15 elucidate
elucidate the the finite
finite element
element output
output and and comparison
comparison between
between the the
failure
failure mode
mode at at ultimate
ultimate strength
strength for for the
the specimens
specimens strengthened
strengthened by by one
one and
and two
two layers
layers
of
of CFRPC. The Thestress
stresscontribution
contributionofof thethe CFRPC
CFRPC sheet
sheet to concrete
to the the concrete was observed,
was observed, dam-
damaging
aging the the concrete
concrete under
under tension.
tension. The The compressionvalue
compression valueofofthetheCFRPC
CFRPC specimen was was
lower
lower compared
compared to to the
the NSNS specimen.
specimen. This finding indicated that the cracks in the CFRPC-
integrated
integrated specimen
specimen were were lower
lower than
than the NS specimen,
the NS specimen, as as mentioned
mentioned aboveabove.. InIn addition,
addition,
the
the maximum
maximum plastic plastic strain
straindistribution
distributionfor forthethespecimen
specimen was was mainly
mainly concentrated
concentrated at
at the
the
beam beamendend andand joint,
joint, indicating
indicating the the appearance
appearance of same
of same crackcrack pattern
pattern as observed
as observed in
in the
the experiment.
experiment.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Cont.

21
Eng 2024,
Eng 2024, 55, FOR PEER REVIEW 15

(c) (d)

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW (e) 16

Figure
Figure 12.
12.Finite element
Finite output
element of the
output of NS
thebeam–column
NS beam–column joint. (a) Concrete
joint. tensile damage;
(a) Concrete (b) con-
tensile damage;
crete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement; (d) FE crack pattern; (e) experimental
(b) concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement; (d) FE crack pattern; (e) experimental
crack pattern [58].
crack pattern [58].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(c) 13. Cont.

Figure (d)

22
 Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 16
Eng 2024, 5

(c) (d)

(e)
(e)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Finite
Figure13. Finite element
Finite elementoutput
element output
output of the
ofof seismic
the
the seismic
seismic beam–column
beam–column
beam–column joint. (a)
(a) concrete
joint.joint. tensile
(a) concrete
concrete damage;
tensiletensile
damage; (b)
damage;
(b)
concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement; (d) FE crack pattern; (e) experimental
(b) concrete
concrete compressive
compressive damage;
damage; (c)(c) stress
stress in in
thethe reinforcement;
reinforcement; (d)(d)
FE FE crack
crack pattern;
pattern; (e) (e) experimental
experimental
crack pattern
crackpattern [58].
pattern[58].
[58].
crack

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 14. Finite element output of the single-layer CFRPC-strengthened beam–column joint.
(a) Concrete tensile damage; (b) concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement;
(d) stress in the CFRP; (e) FE crack pattern; (f) experimental crack pattern [58].

23
 Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 17

Eng 2024, 5 Figure 14. Finite element output of the single-layer CFRPC-strengthened beam–column joint. (a)
Concrete tensile damage; (b) concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement; (d) stress
in the CFRP; (e) FE crack pattern; (f) experimental crack pattern [58].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Finite element
Finite output
element of double-layer
output CFRPC-strengthened
of double-layer beam–column
CFRPC-strengthened joint. (a) Con-
beam–column joint.
crete tensile damage; (b) concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement; (d) stress in
(a) Concrete tensile damage; (b) concrete compressive damage; (c) stress in the reinforcement;
the CFRP; (e) FE crack pattern; (f) experimental crack pattern [58].
(d) stress in the CFRP; (e) FE crack pattern; (f) experimental crack pattern [58].

4.2. Requirement of ACI 374.1-05

To achieve a joint that can be used in the high seismic risk area, the test results obtained
by Trung were checked with the ACI 374.1-05. According to this standard, three criteria
including energy dissipation, strength, and stiffness must be checked.

24
 4.2. Requirement of ACI 374.1-05
To achieve a joint that can be used in the high seismic risk area, the test results ob-
tained by Trung were checked with the ACI 374.1-05. According to this standard, three
Eng 2024, 5
criteria including energy dissipation, strength, and stiffness must be checked.

4.2.1. Relative Energy Dissipation

4.2.1. Relative Energy Dissipation
To ensure that the joints have a good damping after seismic action, relative energy
To ensure that the joints have a good damping after seismic action, relative energy
dissipation at 3.5% of the drift ratio must exceed 0.125. If the beam–column joint fails to
dissipation at 3.5% of the drift ratio must exceed 0.125. If the beam–column joint fails to
meet this condition, the structure will experience excessive oscillation after a seismic
meet this condition, the structure will experience excessive oscillation after a seismic event.
event.
The The dissipation
dissipation energy in energy
the cycle inrepresents
the cycle therepresents the elastic–plastic
elastic–plastic behavior. ACIbehavior.
374.1-05 ACI
374.1-05 stipulates that the energy is calculated from the hysteric curve
stipulates that the energy is calculated from the hysteric curve area at drift ratio of 3.5% area at (area
drift ratio
of 3.5% (area parallelogram).
parallelogram). The parallelogram Thewas
parallelogram washorizontal
created by two created by twoand
lines horizontal lines and
four parallel
four with
lines, parallel
firstlines, with
positive first positive
stiffness on the stiffness on thelines
upper parallel upperandparallel lines andstiffness
initial negative initial nega-
on thestiffness
tive bottom on parallel lines. Figure
the bottom parallel16lines.
showsFigure
the calculated
16 showsrelative energy dissipation
the calculated relative energy
obtained
dissipationfromobtained
the definition
fromof thethe parallelograms.
definition Table 4 displays the
of the parallelograms. specimens’
Table relative
4 displays the speci-
energy
mens’dissipation ratios.dissipation ratios.
relative energy

Figure16.
Figure 16.Relative
Relative energy
energy dissipation
dissipation parallelograms
parallelograms at drift
at drift ratios
ratios of 3.5%
of 3.5% for (a)for (a)(b)
NS, NS, (b)(c)SD,
SD, the(c) the
one-layer CFRPC specimen, and (d) the two-layer CFRPC
one-layer CFRPC specimen, and (d) the two-layer CFRPC specimen. specimen.

Table4.4.Validation
Table Validationof of
relative energy
relative dissipation
energy ratios
dissipation of various
ratios specimens.
of various specimens.
DriftParallelograms
Ratio Parallelograms Relative Energy
EnergyCheckCheck
to Meetto Meet
SpecimenDrift Ratio AreaArea
of of Hys- Relative
Specimen Dissipation the Criteria ≥
(%) (%) Area Hysteretic
Area LoopLoop Dissipation Ratio β the Criteria ≥ 0.125
teretic
Ratio β 0.125
NS 3.5 91.75 18.30 0.20 Ok
NS SD 3.5 3.5 91.75 130.33 18.30 41.20 0.20 0.32 Ok Ok
SD CFRPC-inte-
1-layer 3.5 130.33 41.20 0.32 Ok
3.5 124.64 43.87 0.35 Ok
1-layergrated
CFRPC-CFRPC-inte-
2-layer 3.5 124.64 43.87 0.35 Ok
integrated 3.5 144.08 72.60 0.5 Ok
grated
2-layer
CFRPC- 3.5 144.08 72.60 0.5 Ok
integrated

The obtained relative energy ratio values in the table are above 0.125, which clearly
shows that the specimens could meet the requirement of the standard. This can be assigned

25
Eng 2024, 5

to the design of the specimens that follow the criteria of a weak beam/strong column.
Consequently, plastic hinges can occur at the end of beam near joint, making the energy
dissipation in plastic hinge region. In addition, transverse joint reinforcement was observed
to reduce the joint shear distortion and joint cracks, resulting in higher performance
of the specimens made using seismic details compared to the non-seismic specimens.
The better energy dissipation obtained in the specimen strengthened by two layers of
CFRPC can be ascribed to the increase in the confinement of the joint by double layers of
CFRPC integration.

4.2.2. Strength Criteria

In the standard mandates, the test specimen model must adhere to the principle
of a strong column and weak beam. The maximum lateral load of the model specimen
(Emax ) must be lower than λEn (where En represents the nominal strength of the specimen
calculated using a strength reduction factor of 1 and where λ is the percentage ratio of
column strength to beam strength). Trung’s test result revealed that the lateral load varies
in the positive and negative loading directions, thus necessitating separate checks for Emax
in each direction. Table 5 shows the evaluation of the strength criteria. The specimen
meets this requirement since the value of Emax was below λEn . The failure mode of NS
is the flexural crack of the beam followed by shear failure in the joint. For the CFTPC-
strengthened specimen, the crack was smaller in the retrofitted area. Thus, the obtained
values of λ indicated the occurrence of beam flexural failure in the specimen.

Table 5. Validation of maximum lateral load resistance for various specimens.

Specimen λ En (kN) λEn (kN) Emax (kN) Remarks

NS 1.31 8.4 11.00 8.65 Ok
SD 1.31 8.4 11.00 10.42 Ok
1-layer CFRPC-integrated 1.31 12.65 16.57 9.87 Ok
2-layer CFRPC-integrated 1.31 16.02 20.98 11.27 Ok

The joints must meet the requirement of the strengths degradation as specified by
the standard. The strength degradation of the joints is assessed at a drift level of 3.5%
(Table 6) and should exceed 0.75Emax for the same loading direction. The results in Table 6
showed that the NSCBCJs failed to satisfy the strength criteria. Conversely, in the specimens
strengthened by CFRPC and seismic details, the beam–column joint met the strength criteria.
The deficiency in transverse reinforcement in the joint led to a high loss of lateral resistance
capacity at a later stage. In the NS specimen, the value strength dropped dramatically by
about 58% at a drift ratio of 3.5% due to the cracking of the concrete joint. The reason for an
abrupt reduction in the strength value might be due to the bond failure of the longitudinal
reinforcement. On the contrary, the CFRPC-strengthened specimens achieved excellent
strength values due to the increased confinement provided by the CRFPC to the joint,
thereby leading to a reduction in the joint cracks and bond failure.

Table 6. Assessment of joint strength degradation at a drift level of 3.5%.

3.5% (Drift Ratio)

Ultimate Lateral Ratio of the
Specimen Direction Force in kN Force in
Strength
kN
> 0.75
Positive 8.56 6.30 0.73 *
NS
Negative 16.77 15.50 0.92
Positive 10.42 10.01 0.96
SD
Negative 16.20 15.67 0.96

26
Eng 2024, 5

Table 6. Cont.

3.5% (Drift Ratio)

Ultimate Lateral Ratio of the
Specimen Direction Force in kN Force in
Strength
kN
> 0.75
Positive 9.87 9.58 0.97
1-layer CFRPC-integrated
Negative 18.23 18.00 0.98
Positive 11.27 10.50 0.93
2-layer CFRPC-integrated
Negative 17.86 17.98 0.99
* Less than the ratio of the strength.

4.2.3. Stiffness Criteria

After the seismic action, damage occurred in the frame structure during a large
lateral displacement under a small lateral load. To overcome this effect, the standard
requires that the stiffness of the joints be high (0.05) compared to the initial stiffness. The
standard requires that the criterion be checked at a drift range of −0.35% to 0.35% using
the secant stiffness, and it must meet the prescribed limitation. The initial positive and
negative stiffnesses were calculated by dividing the load per associated displacement.
Table 7 shows the results for the stiffness criterion validation of the joints, wherein the
specimens were observed to satisfy this criterion. Comparing the seismic and strengthened
specimens against the specimen made with non-seismic details against the requirement of
ACI 374.1-05 for stiffness, it was found that the non-seismic joint had lower initial and
secant stiffness due to the lack of transverse reinforcement in the joint. The specimen with
seismic details demonstrated a good performance, since this specimen was designed by
providing the reinforcement according to the requirement of the ACI 318-19, wherein the
transverse reinforcement reduces the cracks in the joints area leading to an increase in the
stiffness. This improvement was attributed to the presence of CFRPC, which enabled us
to increase the strength of the beam, column, and joint. Consequently, the stiffness was
increased. In short, the CFRMC-strengthened specimens demonstrated improvements in
their initial and secant stiffness values.

Table 7. Validation of the secant stiffness of various specimens.

Secant Initial Ratio between Secant Check to Meet

Drift δ
Specimen Direction F (kN) Stiffness Stiffness Stiffness and Initial the Criteria ≥
Ratio (mm)
(kN/mm) (kN/mm) Stiffness 0.05
Positive 33.88 6.30 0.18 0.66 0.27 Ok
NS 3.5
Negative 33.88 15.50 0.45 0.76 0.59 Ok
Positive 33.88 10.01 0.29 1.53 0.19 Ok
SD 3.5
Negative 33.88 15.67 0.46 1.83 0.25 Ok

1-layer Positive 33.88 9.58 0.28 1.82 0.15 Ok

3.5
CFRPC-integrated Negative 33.88 18.00 0.53 1.84 0.28 Ok

2-layer Positive 33.88 10.50 0.31 1.70 0.18 Ok

3.5
CFRPC-integrated Negative 33.88 17.80 0.53 1.71 0.31 Ok

The main remarks obtained from the data analysis can be described as follows: (1) the
CFRPC-strengthened specimens showed an increase in lateral resisting force without any
spalling of concrete; (2) compared to the non-seismic specimens, both CFRPC-strengthened
specimens displayed a good amount of energy dissipation, which was increased from 40 to
57%; (3) at the end of loading, the secant stiffness of the CFRPC-strengthened specimens
was higher than that of the non-seismic specimen, indicating an increase in their initial

27
Eng 2024, 5

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 21

stiffness; (4) a comparative evaluation of the acceptance criteria of ACI 374-05 showed that
the specimens with seismic details achieved superior seismic performances.

4.2.4.
negative Effective Elastic
force with Stiffnessnegative
associated and Displacement
displacement) Capacity
and the backbone curve was cre-
ated The backbone the
by connecting curve
firstofcycle
all specimens
peak points wasfromdeveloped
each driftdepending
level (Figureon 17).
the data obtained
The back-
bone the
from curve provided the
experiential information
study by Trung. related to the peak
The results wereload (Py ) inusing
verified each the
loading
finitedirec-
element
tion, effective elastic stiffness (K ), yield displacement (Δ ), ultimate
model calculation for each loading direction, revealing a unique behavior. The ucurve
e y displacement (Δ ),
was plotted in a single quadrant (positive force with associated positive displacement,
and displacement ductility factor (µ ). The determination of the yield displacement was
challenging
and negativedue forceto the
withabsence
associatedof a negative
clear yield displacement and
displacement) in thetheload-displacement
backbone curve was
curve of a joint. To begin with, the nonlinear capacity
created by connecting the first cycle peak points from each drift level curve was simplified by(Figure
representing
17). The
it as a bilinear curve that included a specified yield
backbone curve provided the information related to the peak load (Py ) indisplacement. The values (Δy ) loading
ofeach for
various specimens were calculated following the recommendation of
direction, effective elastic stiffness (Ke ), yield displacement (∆y ), ultimate displacement Paulay and Priestley
[67].), Figure
(∆ 18 illustrates an idealized bilinear curve for the joints, which is then utilized
u and displacement ductility factor (µ). The determination of the yield displacement was
to derive the
challenging due ductility
to the parameters.
absence of a The clearvalues of Ke were determined
yield displacement using the tangent
in the load-displacement curve
line of the secant slope from the original point and the point when
of a joint. To begin with, the nonlinear capacity curve was simplified by representing the line had 0.75 of theit as a
yield load, where Δyi is the displacement corresponding to 0.75 Py in the ascending

bilinear curve that included a specified yield displacement. The values of ∆y forpart various
of the tangent
specimens wereline. The following
calculated relation
following themust satisfy the intersection
recommendation of Paulay of and
the horizontal
Priestley [67].
by trial and error of the line drawn in the failure part to the line drawn from the original
Figure 18 illustrates an idealized bilinear curve for the joints, which is then utilized to
by slope provided the Δy .
derive the ductility parameters. The values of Ke were determined using the tangent line
of the secant slope from the original A1 point and
+ A2 the+point
= A3 A4 when the line had 0.75 of the (3)yield
load, where ∆yi is the displacement corresponding to 0.75 Py in the ascending part of the
The specimen’s displacement ductility factor (µ ) was calculated by dividing its ulti-
tangent line. The following relation must satisfy the intersection of the horizontal by trial
mate displacement by the yield displacement via the following equation:
and error of the line drawn in the failure part to the line drawn from the original by slope
provided the ∆y . Δu
µ = A3 + A4
A1 + A2 = Δ (4)
(3)
y

Figure
Figure 17. Normalizationprocess
17. Normalization processofofthe
the backbone
backbone curve
curve for for
(a) (a)
NS,NS,
(b) (b)
SD, SD, (c) one-layer
(c) one-layer CFRPC-
CFRPC-
integrated specimen, and (d) two-layer CFRPC-strengthened specimen.
integrated specimen, and (d) two-layer CFRPC-strengthened specimen.

28
 of the non-seismic specimen, which was mainly due to the presence of CFRPC in the struc-
ture, leading to an enhancement in the strength performance of the specimen. The speci-
men containing two layers of CFRPC showed higher effective stiffness than the specimen
designed with one layer of CFRPC. The effective stiffness of the specimen designed with
Eng 2024, 5 seismic details was higher than that of the non-seismic specimen. This strength enhance-
ment can be ascribed to the seismic reinforcement details of the specimen.

Figure 18.
Figure Ideal bilinear
18. Ideal bilinear load–displacement
load–displacement behavior
behavior of
of the
the specimen.
specimen.

TableThe specimen’s
8. Effective displacement
stiffness and ductilityductility
of variousfactor (µ) was calculated by dividing its ulti-
specimens.
mate displacement by the yield displacement via the following equation:
0.75𝐏𝐲 𝚫 𝐲𝐢 𝐊𝐞 Avg. 𝐊 𝐞 𝚫𝐲 𝚫𝐮 Average
Specimen Direction ∆u (KN/m) (mm) (mm) µ
(kN) (mm) (KN/m) µ= µ (4)
Positive 5.47 8.77 623 ∆ y 11.70 45.72 3.9
NS 745.5 3.10
The bilinear diagram was used to represent the backbone19.70
Negative 11.75 13.5 870 curve.44.79 2.3 stiffness
The effective
and the Positive
( Ke )SD deformation7.30capacity7.12(∆y , ∆1025
u , and µ)973.5
9.50 45.90
in the negative 4.83 loading
and positive 3.63
directions of the specimens are enlisted in Table 7. The results clearly indicated
Negative 13.15 14.25 922 19.10 46.55 2.43 that the
ductility
1-layerfactor ranged from
Positive 6.753.10 6.375
to 6.16, which
1059 was larger than 8.50the suggested
56.03 6.59 ductility for
reinforced
CFRPC-in-concrete structures (µ ≥ 2) as obtained 1262 by Peng, Zhong, et al. [68]. It 5.95
can be
asserted that Negative
the ductility12.95
of the 8.80
specimens 1465
was higher than 11.00
the 58.59 ductility
suggested 5.32 for the
tegrated
reinforced
2-layer concrete type
Positive of structures.
7.95 6.97 Also,1140 the CFRPC-strengthened specimens
9.30 58.50 6.29 and the
specimen
CFRPC-in- with seismic details had higher ductility factors
1301 compared to the non-seismic
6.16
specimen. Table 8 shows13.80
Negative the values
9.30for the1462 effective stiffness (Ke ) and
9.52 57.53the6.04
displacement
tegrated
capacity (∆y , ∆u ) in both the negative and positive loading directions for the specimen.
The effective stiffness of the CFRPC-reinforced specimens was observed to be higher than
that of the non-seismic specimen, which was mainly due to the presence of CFRPC in
the structure, leading to an enhancement in the strength performance of the specimen.
The specimen containing two layers of CFRPC showed higher effective stiffness than
the specimen designed with one layer of CFRPC. The effective stiffness of the specimen
designed with seismic details was higher than that of the non-seismic specimen. This
strength enhancement can be ascribed to the seismic reinforcement details of the specimen.

Table 8. Effective stiffness and ductility of various specimens.

0.75Py Ke Avg. Ke ∆y ∆u Average

Specimen Direction ∆yi (mm) µ
(kN) (KN/m) (KN/m) (mm) (mm) µ
Positive 5.47 8.77 623 11.70 45.72 3.9
NS 745.5 3.10
Negative 11.75 13.5 870 19.70 44.79 2.3
Positive 7.30 7.12 1025 9.50 45.90 4.83
SD 973.5 3.63
Negative 13.15 14.25 922 19.10 46.55 2.43
Positive 6.75 6.375 1059 8.50 56.03 6.59
1-layer CFRPC-integrated 1262 5.95
Negative 12.95 8.80 1465 11.00 58.59 5.32
Positive 7.95 6.97 1140 9.30 58.50 6.29
2-layer CFRPC-integrated 1301 6.16
Negative 13.80 9.30 1462 9.52 57.53 6.04

29
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 23

Eng 2024, 5
4.2.5. Damping Ratio and Energy Dissipation
Figure 19 shows the drift ratio-dependent variation in the cumulative dissipated en-
ergy
4.2.5. of variousRatio
Damping specimens.
and Energy TheDissipation
energy dissipation capacity was determined using the en-
closed loop19
Figure area of each
shows specimen
the drift in the hysteresis
ratio-dependent variation curve.
in theThe non-seismic
cumulative specimen ex-
dissipated
perienced pinching behavior during testing. This observation
energy of various specimens. The energy dissipation capacity was determined using can be mainly attributed
the to
enclosed
the loop area
occurrence of eachin
of cracks specimen
the joint,inleading
the hysteresis curve. The
to a decrease non-seismic
in the specimen in the
energy dissipation
experiencedThe
specimen. pinching behavior
presence during significantly
of CFRPC testing. This observation
increased can the be mainly
energy attributed At the
dissipation.
to theloading,
final occurrencetheof cracksdissipation
energy in the joint, capacity
leading toofa the
decrease in theCFRPC-integrated
two-layer energy dissipation in specimen
the specimen. The presence of CFRPC significantly increased
was approximately 43% higher than the one obtained for the non-seismic the energy dissipation. At the
specimen. In
final loading, the energy dissipation capacity of the two-layer CFRPC-integrated specimen
addition, the one-layer CFRPC-strengthened specimen showed an increase in energy dis-
was approximately 43% higher than the one obtained for the non-seismic specimen. In
sipation of 25% compared to the non-seismic specimen. Generally, the specimens rein-
addition, the one-layer CFRPC-strengthened specimen showed an increase in energy
forced withofCFRPC
dissipation exhibited
25% compared to athe
greater abilityspecimen.
non-seismic to dissipate the energy
Generally, compared to the
the specimens
non-seismic
reinforced with CFRPC exhibited a greater ability to dissipate the energy compared to higher
specimen. In brief, the specimens reinforced with CFRPC displayed
the non-seismic
flexural strengthspecimen.
due to the In presence
brief, the of specimens
CFRPC reinforced
material at with
theCFRPC displayedjunction,
beam–column
higher flexural
producing strength due
an enhanced to the
energy presence ofIt CFRPC
dissipation. is worth material
noting at thethe
that beam–column
energy dissipation
junction,
was producing
directly impacted an enhanced energy dissipation.
by the presence of transverse It reinforcement
is worth notingin that
thethe energy
joint. During the
dissipation
final loadingwas directly
stage, theimpacted by the presence
seismic specimen of transverse
exhibited an energy reinforcement
dissipationincapacity
the joint.approx-
During the final loading stage, the seismic specimen exhibited an energy dissipation
imately 20% more than that of the non-seismic specimen. Essentially, the confinement ef-
capacity approximately 20% more than that of the non-seismic specimen. Essentially, the
fect on the core concrete was enhanced by the transverse reinforcement, leading to a re-
confinement effect on the core concrete was enhanced by the transverse reinforcement,
duction
leading to inajoint cracking.
reduction In cracking.
in joint contrast, In the non-seismic
contrast, specimenspecimen
the non-seismic showed showed
a smaller a energy
dissipation
smaller energy compared
dissipationto compared
the otherstountil the end
the others untilof the
theend
test.of the test.

19.Drift
Figure 19.
Figure Driftratio-dependent
ratio-dependentvariation in the
variation in cumulative dissipated
the cumulative energy.energy.
dissipated
Figure 20 shows the simplified hysteresis loop that consists of the lateral load versus
Figure 20 shows
the displacement. the simplified
The equivalent hysteresis
damping loop(hthat
coefficient consists of the lateral load versus
e ) of the studied specimens was
the displacement.
calculated The
to evaluate theequivalent damping
actual energy coefficient
dissipation ability via(ℎthe
𝑒 ) of the studied
following specimens was
equation:
calculated to evaluate the actual energy dissipation ability via the following equation:
1 SABC + SCDA
he = 1 SABC +SCDA (5)
2π Sh = + SODE
OBF (5)
e
2π SOBF +SODE
where S ABC is the area of the curve ABC (Figure 20), wherein similar definitions were used
for SCDA𝑆,𝐴𝐵𝐶
where SOBFis, and
the Sarea
ODE .
of the curve ABC (Figure 20), wherein similar definitions were
for 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝐴
usedFigure , 𝑆
21 shows , and 𝑆𝑂𝐷𝐸
𝑂𝐵𝐹 the drift ratio-dependent
. variation in the equivalent damping coeffi-
cient. The value of (he ) is about 0.1 for the normal reinforcement concrete joints and 0.3
for the joints with steel beam reinforcement concrete columns joints [68]. The obtained
results indicated that the joints’ capability for energy dissipation was within the range of
reinforcement concrete joints and that it was lower than that of steel beam reinforcement

30
 Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 24

Eng 2024, 5

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW concrete column joints. In the present case, the non-seismic specimen showed lower values 24
of (he ) compared to other specimens, while the two-layer CFRPC-strengthened sample
showed the best performance.

Figure 20. Simplified hysteresis loop.

Figure 21 shows the drift ratio-dependent variation in the equivalent damping coef-
ficient. The value of (ℎ𝑒 ) is about 0.1 for the normal reinforcement concrete joints and 0.3
for the joints with steel beam reinforcement concrete columns joints [68]. The obtained
results indicated that the joints’ capability for energy dissipation was within the range of
reinforcement concrete joints and that it was lower than that of steel beam reinforcement
concrete column joints. In the present case, the non-seismic specimen showed lower val-
ues of (ℎ𝑒 ) compared to other specimens, while the two-layer CFRPC-strengthened sam-
ple showed the best performance.
Simplified hysteresis
Figure20.
Figure 20.Simplified hysteresisloop.
loop.

Figure 21 shows the drift ratio-dependent variation in the equivalent damping coef-
ficient. The value of (ℎ𝑒 ) is about 0.1 for the normal reinforcement concrete joints and 0.3
for the joints with steel beam reinforcement concrete columns joints [68]. The obtained
results indicated that the joints’ capability for energy dissipation was within the range of
reinforcement concrete joints and that it was lower than that of steel beam reinforcement
concrete column joints. In the present case, the non-seismic specimen showed lower val-
ues of (ℎ𝑒 ) compared to other specimens, while the two-layer CFRPC-strengthened sam-
ple showed the best performance.

Figure21.
Figure Driftratio-dependent
21.Drift ratio-dependentvariation
variationin
inthe
theequivalent
equivalentdamping
dampingcoefficient.
coefficient.

4.3. Stiffness
4.3. StiffnessDegradation
Degradation
Figure 22 displays the drift ratio-dependent variation in the secant stiffnesses for all
Figure 22 displays the drift ratio-dependent variation in the secant stiffnesses for all
the studied specimens. The degradation of the secant stiffness for the beam–column joint
the studied specimens. The degradation of the secant stiffness for the beam–column joint
in each loading cycle was computed using the following equation:
in each loading cycle was computed using the following equation:
+ Fij + − Fij
Kij = (6)
+∆ij + −∆ij



where + Fij , − Fij is the positive (negative) peak load and +∆ij , −∆ij is the displacement
associated with the positive (or negative) ultimate lateral strength [34].

Figure 21. Drift ratio-dependent variation in the equivalent damping coefficient.

4.3. Stiffness Degradation

31
Figure 22 displays the drift ratio-dependent variation in the secant stiffnesses for all
 increase in the load step. The non-seismic specimen showed lower stiffness than other
specimens. Specimen strengthened by two layers of CFRPC showed higher stiffness, since
all the specimens had the same value in terms of the beam reinforcement ratio. In essence,
the confinement given by the presence of CFRPC to the beam–column joint could mitigate
the distortion of the joint panel, hence enhancing its strength and reducing crack for-
Eng 2024, 5
mation in the surrounding area. In short, CFRPC-integrated NSCBCJs showed improved
performance against seismic events.

2.5
Non-seismic (NS)
2
Seismic design (SD)

Secant stiffness (kN/m)

1.5
Strengthened by CFRP
two layers
1

0.5

0
0 2
Drift ratio (%)4 6

Figure22.
Figure 22.Drift
Driftratio-dependent
ratio-dependentvariation
variationininthe
thesecant
secantstiffnesses.
stiffnesses.

The degradation of the secant stiffness values for all specimens increased with the
5. Conclusions
increase
Basedin drift ratio
on the (lateralresults
obtained displacement) at various
,the following load steps,
conclusions cansignificantly
be drawn: impacting
the specimens’ stiffness degradation. The stiffness of the specimens was reduced with
i. The strengthening of NSCBCJs using CFRPC reinforcement enabled us to reduce
the increase in the load step. The non-seismic specimen showed lower stiffness than
crack formation in the plastic hinge location, thus leading to a reduced risk of build-
other specimens. Specimen strengthened by two layers of CFRPC showed higher stiffness,
ing collapse during seismic events. The plastic hinges for the frame of the reinforced
since all the specimens had the same value in terms of the beam reinforcement ratio. In
concrete building were placed near the column and beam joint.
essence, the confinement given by the presence of CFRPC to the beam–column joint could
ii. The strengthening of the NSCBCJs was appropriate when assessing the behavior of
mitigate the distortion of the joint panel, hence enhancing its strength and reducing crack
non-seismic details due to the overall lateral displacement increase that produces an
formation in the surrounding area. In short, CFRPC-integrated NSCBCJs showed improved
increase in ductility demand.
performance against seismic events.
iii. The NSCBCJs being non-ductile meant that they could display large lateral displace-
ment
5. Conclusionswhich can be attributed to the significant cracks and deformation of the joint
area. Consequently, the observed large lateral displacement can cause severe failure
Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
in the frame building during strong seismic vibration.
iv.i The
The strengthening
proposed NSCBCJs of NSCBCJs
showed using CFRPC joint
significant reinforcement enabled
shear failure us towith
together reduce
thecrack
beam
formation in the plastic hinge location, thus leading to a reduced risk of building
and column flexural failure. However, the seismic joint failure was beam flexural,
collapse during seismic events. The plastic hinges for the frame of the reinforced
while CFRPC-integrated joints showed beam flexural failure with the debonding of
concrete building were placed near the column and beam joint.
the CFRPC sheet. Since the studied joints had beam flexural strength, the lateral load
ii The strengthening of the NSCBCJs was appropriate when assessing the behavior of
capacity difference can be mainly ascribed to the transverse reinforcement and
non-seismic details due to the overall lateral displacement increase that produces an
strengthening of the joint.
increase in ductility demand.
v. Both seismic and CFRPC-strengthened joints revealed good strength, stiffness, duc-
iii The NSCBCJs being non-ductile meant that they could display large lateral displace-
tility, and energy-dissipation capabilities.
ment which can be attributed to the significant cracks and deformation of the joint
area. Consequently, the observed large lateral displacement can cause severe failure
in the frame building during strong seismic vibration.
iv The proposed NSCBCJs showed significant joint shear failure together with the beam
and column flexural failure. However, the seismic joint failure was beam flexural,
while CFRPC-integrated joints showed beam flexural failure with the debonding of
the CFRPC sheet. Since the studied joints had beam flexural strength, the lateral
load capacity difference can be mainly ascribed to the transverse reinforcement and
strengthening of the joint.
v Both seismic and CFRPC-strengthened joints revealed good strength, stiffness, ductil-
ity, and energy-dissipation capabilities.
vi Both seismic and CFRPC-strengthened joints achieved the required seismic code
provisions of ACI 374.1-05. Conversely, the NSCBCJs failed to satisfy the desired
requirement due to a failure in achieving the strength criteria.
vii The finite element model simulation results for the stress and strain response demon-
strated the considerable impact of CFRPC integration into NSCBCJs, leading to
a reasonable strength capacity enhancement in the joints, thereby reducing the
joint cracks.

32
Eng 2024, 5

viii It is established that the present comprehensive numerical modeling and simulation
study may contribute to the development of CFRPC-reinforced high-performance
anti-seismic CBCJs, thus contributing towards the sustainable construction sector.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.A.S.A. and A.A.K.; methodology, N.A.S.A.; software,

F.H.M.; validation, A.A.K. and F.H.M.; formal analysis, N.A.S.A.; investigation, N.A.S.A.; resources,
N.A.S.A.; data curation, N.A.S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, N.A.S.A.; writing—review and
editing, A.A.K.; visualization, F.H.M.; supervision, A.A.K.; project administration, N.A.S.A.; funding
acquisition, A.A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Basrah University for them support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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35
Article
Performance Evaluation of Self-Compacting Glass Fiber
Concrete Incorporating Silica Fume at Elevated Temperatures
Hussein Kareem Sultan 1, *, Abbas Abdulhssein Abd Noor 1 and Ghasan Fahim Huseien 2,3,4, *

1 Civil Engineering Department, Al-Muthanna University, Samawah 66001, Iraq; [email protected]

2 Department of the Built Environment, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore,
Singapore 117566, Singapore
3 Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
4 Construction Materials Centre, Civil Engineering Faculty, University Technology Malaysia,
Johor 81310, Malaysia
* Correspondence: [email protected] (H.K.S.); [email protected] (G.F.H.)

Abstract: In this work, the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) and SCC containing 0.5 and
1% glass fibers (with lengths of 6 and 13 mm) were experimentally investigated, as well as their
performance at high temperatures. With a heating rate of 5 ◦ C/min, high-temperature experiments
were conducted at 200, 400, 600, and 800 ◦ C to examine mass loss, spalling, and the remaining
mechanical properties of SCC with and without glass fibers. According to the results of the flowability
and passing ability tests, adding glass fibers does not affect how workable and self-compacting SCCs
were. These findings also demonstrated that the mechanical properties of samples with and without
glass fibers rose up to 200 ◦ C but then decreased at 400 ◦ C, whereas the mixture containing 0.5%
glass fibers of a length of 13 mm displayed better mechanical properties. Both SCC samples with
and without glass fibers remained intact at 200 ◦ C. Some SCC samples displayed some corner and
edge spalling when the temperature reached about 400 ◦ C. Above 400 ◦ C, a significant number of
microcracks started to form. SCC samples quickly spalled and were completely destroyed between
600 and 800 ◦ C. According to the results, glass fibers cannot stop SCC from spalling during a fire.
Between 200 and 400 ◦ C, there was no discernible mass loss. At 600 ◦ C, mass loss starts to accelerate
quickly, and it increased more than ten times beyond 200 ◦ C. The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of
SCC samples with glass fibers increased between room temperature and 200 ◦ C, and the mixture
Citation: Sultan, H.K.; Noor, A.A.A.; containing 0.5% glass fibers of a length of 13 mm showed a somewhat higher UPV than other SCC
Huseien, G.F. Performance mixtures until it started to decline at about 400 ◦ C.
Evaluation of Self-Compacting Glass
Fiber Concrete Incorporating Silica Keywords: self-compacting concrete (SCC); glass fibers; glass fiber-reinforced self-compacting con-
Fume at Elevated Temperatures. Eng crete (GFR-SCC); elevated temperature
2024, 5, 1043–1066. https://doi.org/
10.3390/eng5020057

Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi

1. Introduction
Received: 24 April 2024
Revised: 24 May 2024
A new generation of concrete has been produced as a result of recent developments in
Accepted: 28 May 2024 concrete technology, including self-compacting concrete (SCC), which has superior strength,
Published: 1 June 2024 durability characteristics, and rheology compared to freshly mixed concrete mixtures [1].
Self-compacting concrete is a type of concrete that can completely cover the formwork
by shifting under its own weight, maintaining homogeneity even when reinforcing is
employed, and then setting up without vibrating. Benefits of SCC include the ability to
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. cover congested and tiny areas, shorter construction timelines, lower labor costs, and less
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. noise pollution. Ordinary concrete has the same engineering qualities as hardened concrete;
This article is an open access article however, hardened concrete is denser and more homogeneous [2,3].
distributed under the terms and
Numerous studies have been conducted on the characteristics of SCC in the literature.
conditions of the Creative Commons
The majority of earlier articles tested the fresh SCC mixes using common workability tests
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
to show the concrete’s self-consolidation. Tests such as the slump cone flow, V-funnel,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
J-ring, and L-box were used to examine the deformability, flowability, and passing ability
4.0/).

Eng 2024, 5, 1043–1066. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020057 36 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2024, 5

characteristics [4,5]. Investigations were also carried out on the rheological characteristics
of SCC, including plastic viscosity and yield stress [6,7]. In addition, the mix design and
mix proportions have been examined [8,9]. The performance of SCC has also been studied
in relation to the impacts of mineral admixtures such fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin,
powdered granulated blast furnace slag, and ladle slag [10–13], as well as chemical admix-
tures like superplasticizers and viscosity-modifying admixtures [14–16]. Numerous studies
examined the microstructure and rate of hydration of the SCC [17–19].
The mechanical characteristics of SCC have been investigated by Domone [20]. He
came to the conclusion that the information gathered was sufficient to support the overall
behavior of SCC and that additional study on more specialized or corroborative evidence
for specific applications was needed. The bond strength of the reinforcing steel was exam-
ined in SCC by Foroughi et al. [21]. The SCC stability test results for cracking resistance,
shrinkage, and creep are also included in the literature [22–25]. A study [26] found that the
shrinkage, elastic modulus, and creep of SCC were comparable to the corresponding prop-
erties of normal-strength concrete. Some of the durability tests that have been examined
include those for water permeability and absorption, chloride penetration, carbonation,
gas permeability, sulfate assault, electrical resistivity, frost resistance, acid attack, and
scaling [18,27–29].
The features of SCC with the inclusion of steel, glass, and carbon nanotubes have also
been examined by researchers [30–36]. When high temperatures are applied to concrete,
the pore pressure created in thick concrete mixtures, like high-strength concrete, can be
extremely detrimental to the matrix and result in concrete failure via spalling [37]. Concrete
containing fibers lessens these adverse effects while enhancing the material’s mechanical
properties at high temperatures [38–40].
Despite the fact that SCC, high-strength concrete, and high-strength SCC are finding
increasing applications, additional research is still required to establish how well these
materials fare in fires and how long they will persist when exposed to high temperatures.
Fire resistance is a crucial criterion for building materials. One of the most important
characteristics of building materials is their capacity to prevent or postpone the spread of
excessive heat or flame. The concepts and methodology of the fire test are covered in the
publication [41]. The major reasons why a concrete element fails at high temperatures are
spalling and strength loss [42–44]. Researchers have noted the rapid spalling of SCC in
the 180–300 ◦ C range, which results in the loss of important mechanical properties and is
mostly caused by the microstructure of SCC [45,46].
Comparing SCC mixes to normal concretes, the increased cement content, superplasti-
cizers, and addition of reactive components like silica fume have an impact on their design
process [4]. SCC contains about 200 kg/m3 more filler and a greater binder concentration
than conventional concrete in addition to chemical additives such fly ash, silica fume,
and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) [47]. As a result, the permeability of
SCC is reduced, which leads to an increase in internal pressure and an increased risk of
spalling [48–53]. Pathak and Siddique’s [54] investigation into the effects of adding class F
fly ash on the mechanical properties of SCC at high temperatures (between 200 and 300 ◦ C)
revealed significant mass loss accompanied by a sharp decline in splitting tensile strength
due to the escape of bound water. According to Bakhtiyari et al. [42], who investigated the
fire performance of SCC containing limestone and quartz powder in the temperature range
of 150–1000 ◦ C, the temperature range of 480–650 ◦ C is the most crucial range for spalling
in SCC and normal concrete, and SCC is more prone to spalling than normal concrete. SCC
showed greater mechanical property retention at a high temperature than conventional
concrete.
Despite the significant uncertainty and expanding use of self-compacting concrete
in a variety of applications, the temperature behavior of self-compacting concrete has
not been thoroughly explored, and the various steps are not entirely understood. The
purpose of this research is to evaluate the qualities of SCC created from locally available
materials in both their fresh and hardened states. In this study, the effect of glass fibers

37
 Eng 2024, 5

on the same characteristics is also taken into account. Additionally, this study tested the
compressive, flexural, and tensile strengths of self-compacting concrete samples with and
without glass fibers at elevated temperatures of up to 800 ◦ C for 1 h. The practice of keeping
concrete samples in the oven for 60 min upon reaching the target temperature is essential
for achieving uniform temperature distribution, complete moisture removal, stabilization
of chemical reactions, adherence to standardized testing procedures, and ensuring thermal
stability. This methodical approach ensures the reliability and accuracy of the test results,
which are critical for evaluating the quality and performance of concrete.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Raw Materials
The mixture consisted of ordinary Portland cement, water, fine and coarse aggregate,
superplasticizer, silica fume, and glass fibers. The proportions of the SCC mix, as well as
the components and their amounts, are described in Table 1. Natural river sand passing
through a 5 mm sieve and fractured dolomite angular aggregates passing thru a 9.5 mm
sieve were used as fine and coarse aggregates. Figure 1 depicts the fine and coarse aggregate
particle size distributions. By cement weight, 25% silica fume was added. The silica fumes
had the following properties: 2.1 specific gravity and 172,000 cm2 specific area per gram.
The size distribution of silica fume particles is shown in Figure 2. In this experiment, a
modified polycarboxylate aqueous solution with a specific gravity of 1.19 was utilized as a
third-generation superplasticizer (Viscocrete 3425). It meets ASTM C-494 requirements [55].
The utilized glass fibers (Figure 3) were found have length of 6 to 13 mm, diameter of
13 µm, 0.91 g/cm3 density, 150 m2 /kg specific surface area, 1700 MPa tensile strength,
72 GPa modulus of elasticity, and very high corrosion resistance. Tap water was used for
mixing concrete and curing.

Table 1. The SCC mixes’ ingredients (kg/m3 ).

Silica Aggregate Super- Glass Fibers

Mix No. Cement Water Plasticizer
Fume Coarse Fine 6 mm 13 mm
SCC 420 105 810.5 810.5 189 4.2 0 0
SCC-L1 420 105 779.1 779.1 189 4.2 0 9
SCC-L2 420 105 793.5 793.5 189 4.2 0 4.5

Eng 2024, SCC- 420

S1PEER REVIEW
5, FOR 105 779.1 779.1 189 4.2 9 04
SCC-S2 420 105 793.5 793.5 189 4.2 4.5 0

100
Passing percentage (%)

80

60

40

20

0
0.1 1 10
(a) Sieve size (mm)

Figure 1. Cont.
100
sing percentage (%)

80

60

40 38

20
 2020

Passi
20 00
0.1
0.1 11 1010
0 (a)(a) Sieve size (mm)
Sieve size (mm)
0.1 1 10
Eng 2024, 5
(a) Sieve size (mm)
100
100

passing percentage (%)

passing percentage (%)
100 8080

passing percentage (%)

80 6060

60 4040

40 2020

20 00
11 1010 100
100
0
(b)(b) Sieve size (mm)
1 10Sieve size (mm) 100
(b) Sieve size (mm)

Figure
Figure 1.1.1.
Figure Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregateparticle
particle
particlesize
size
sizedistribution
distribution curve,
curve,
distribution (a)
(a)
curve, fine
fine
(a) aggregate,
aggregate,
fine (b)
(b)
aggregate, coarse
coarse
(b) aggregate.
aggregate.
coarse aggregate.
Figure 1. Aggregate particle size distribution curve, (a) fine aggregate, (b) coarse aggregate.
100
Passing percentage (%)

100
Passing percentage (%)

100 8080
Passing percentage (%)

80 6060

60 4040

40 2020

20 00
0.0004
0.00040.001
0.001 0.002
0.002 0.005
0.005 0.01
0.01 0.02
0.02 0.05
0.05 1 1
0
Sieve size (mm)
0.0004 0.001 0.002 0.005Sieve size
0.01 (mm)
0.02 0.05 1
Figure
Figure
Figure2.
2.2.Silica
Silica fume
fume
Silica fume particle
particle size
Sieve
size
particle distribution
size (mm) curve
distribution
size distribution curve (from
(from
curve (from supplier).
supplier).
supplier).
Figure 2. Silica fume particle size distribution curve (from supplier).

Figure
Figure
3.3.3.
Figure The
The
glass
Theglass
fiber
glass used
fiber
fiber
inin
used
used
preparation
in ofof
preparation
preparation
the
of mixtures.
the
the mixtures.
mixtures.
Figure 3. The glass fiber used in preparation of the mixtures.
Five SCC mixtures were created in this project: The first SCC mix contained no fibers
(control mix), the second mix (SCC-L1 ) contained 1% glass fibers with a 13 mm length,
the third mix (SCC-L2 ) contained 0.5% glass fibers with a 13 mm length, the fourth mix
(SCC-S1 ) contained 1% glass fibers with a 6 mm length, and the fifth mix (SCC-S2 ) contained
0.5% glass fibers with a 6 mm length. The components for each mixture were 420 kg/m3
ordinary Portland cement, 1% super-plasticizer, 45% water, and 25% silica fume with 0.5 or
1% glass fibers by volume.

2.2. Mixing, Moulding, and Curing

The dense packing principle was taken into consideration when creating the mix
design for SCC samples. In dry conditions in a rotary mixer (Figure 4), Portland cement,
silica fumes, and aggregate were mixed before super-plasticizer and water were added.
Fibers were added to dry components before water was added, and then additives were
added to the SCC mixtures. Compression, tension, and bending tests were conducted using
a 100 mm cube, a 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high cylinder, and a 100 mm × 100 mm ×
300 mm prism, respectively. To verify the self-compacting properties of mixtures, necessary

39
 2.2. Mixing, Moulding, and Curing
The dense packing principle was taken into consideration when creating the mix de-
sign for SCC samples. In dry conditions in a rotary mixer (Figure 4), Portland cement,
silica fumes, and aggregate were mixed before super-plasticizer and water were added.
Fibers were added to dry components before water was added, and then additives were
Eng 2024, 5
added to the SCC mixtures. Compression, tension, and bending tests were conducted us-
ing a 100 mm cube, a 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high cylinder, and a 100 mm × 100 mm
× 300 mm prism, respectively. To verify the self-compacting properties of mixtures, neces-
experiments were run
sary experiments wereonrun
SCConinSCC
its fresh
in itsstate.
freshThis comprised
state. L-box and
This comprised GTM
L-box andscreen
GTM
stability, as well as slump flow and flow velocity T50.
screen stability, as well as slump flow and flow velocity T50.

Figure4.4.Dry
Figure Drymixing
mixingininaarotary
rotarymixer.
mixer.

2.3.
2.3.Tests
TestsProcedure
Procedure
After
Afterthe
thesample
sampleprocessing
processingperiod
periodwaswascompleted
completedand andbefore
beforeheating
heatingin inthe
theelectric
electric
oven,
oven, the weight and speed of the ultrasonic pulse were calculated. Using an electricoven,
the weight and speed of the ultrasonic pulse were calculated. Using an electric oven,
samples ◦ ◦ C. After that, the temperature
sampleswere
wereheated
heatedatat55 C/min
°C/min to to 200,
200, 400,
400,600,
600,and
and800
800 °C. After that, the temperature
was
wasmaintained
maintainedat atthe
thesame
samelevel
levelfor
forananhour
hourto toensure
ensurethat
thatallallof
ofthe
thesamples
sampleswere werethe the
same
sametemperature.
temperature.
After
After each cycle, the
each cycle, thetemperature
temperaturewas wascooled
cooled to to room
room temperature.
temperature. The The samples
samples were
were tested for compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths, as well as
tested for compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths, as well as mass loss and ultrasonic mass loss and
ultrasonic speed after being removed from the oven. The compressive
speed after being removed from the oven. The compressive strength test was carried out strength test was
carried outto
according according to ASTM
ASTM C109-20 [56].C109-20 [56].strength
The tensile The tensile
was strength was tested
tested according according
to ASTM C496
to ASTM C496 [57]. ASTM C293 [58] was used to conduct the flexural
[57]. ASTM C293 [58] was used to conduct the flexural strength test. The ultrasonic strength test.pulse
The
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was determined using ASTM C597
velocity (UPV) was determined using ASTM C597 [59]. Figure 5 shows the compressive [59]. Figure 5 shows
the compressive
strength strengthtensile
test, splitting test, splitting
strengthtensile strength strength
test, flexural test, flexural
test,strength
electricaltest, electrical
furnace that
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW furnace that was used for heating the samples, ultrasonic pulse velocity test,6 and scanning
was used for heating the samples, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, and scanning electron
electron microscope.
microscope.

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 5. Cont.

40
 (a)

(b)
Eng 2024, 5
(c)

(d)

(e) (f)
Figure Figure
5. (a) Compressive strength test,
5. (a) Compressive (b) splitting
strength tensile
test, (b) strength
splitting test, strength
tensile (c) flexural strength
test, test, strength test,
(c) flexural
(d) the electrical furnace that was used for heating the samples, (e) ultrasonic pulse velocity test, and
(d) the electrical furnace that was used for heating the samples, (e) ultrasonic pulse velocity test, and
(f) scanning electron microscope.
(f) scanning electron microscope.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Properties of Fresh SCC and Fresh SCC with Glass Fibers
3.1. Properties of Fresh SCC and Fresh SCC with Glass Fibers
SCC behavior is described, categorized, and evaluated in its early stages. The stated
SCC behavior is described, categorized, and evaluated in its early stages. The stated
principles indicated in guidelines like EFNARC [59] are a method of identifying SCC be-
principles indicated in guidelines like EFNARC [59] are a method of identifying SCC
havior and determining whether it meets certain precise conditions for its use or not. Table
behavior and determining
2 lists the slump flow, T50, L-box, andwhether it meets
screen stability gridcertain precise
test method conditions
(GTM) for its use or not.
test findings
for the five SCC mixtures, as well as the EFNARC limits. Figures 6–8 show the slump flow (GTM) test
Table 2 lists the slump flow, T50, L-box, and screen stability grid test method
test of findings fortest
SCC, L-box theoffive SCC
SCC, andmixtures, as well
screen stability as the
(GTM) testEFNARC limits. Figures
of SCC, respectively . In 6–8 show
the slump flow test of SCC, L-box test of SCC, and screen stability (GTM) test of SCC,
respectively. In Figures 9–12, the values of (D) reflect the largest spread diameter, T50
values represent the time needed for the concrete flowing to achieve a diameter of 0.5 m,
and (H2 /H1 ) is a symbol for the blocking ratio. Figures 3 and 4 show D and (H2 /H1 ) in
ascending order, whereas Figure 4 shows T50 in ascending order.

Table 2. Fresh properties of SCC mixtures with and without glass fibers.

Slump-Flow L-Box
Mix No. T50 cm s GTM (%)
mm (H2 /H1 )
SCC 790 2.5 0.98 11
SCC-L1 750 4.3 0.9 8
SCC-L2 650 5 0.8 6
SCC-S1 760 3.4 0.93 8.7
SCC-S2 670 4 0.85 8.3
Limit of EFNARC (2005) [60] 650–800 2–5 0.8–1.0 ≤15

Table 2 contains the workability test results for SCC samples. The flow test revealed
a decline in workability with the inclusion of glass fibers. Even when calculating T50 cm
time, it is clear that extra time is needed for laying fresh concrete. As a result, fiber addition
lowers workability and stiffens concrete. The flow value in the L-box test demonstrated a
decrease in workability with the addition of fibers.

41
 by 8.2 and 18.4%, and reduces GTM by 27.3 and 45.5%, respectively. Introducing 0.5%
glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm reduces slump flow by 3.8 and 15.2%, increases
T50 by 36 and 60%, reduces L-box by 5.1 and 13.3%, and reduces GTM by 21 and 24.5%,
respectively. This reduction in workability results from the addition of glass fibers, which
act as a buffer against mixture flow. The SCC’s characteristics are listed in Table 2, and it
Eng 2024, 5
can only be classified and presented as an SCC if it satisfies all the requirements. These
findings are consistent with the findings of other investigators [62,63].

(a) (b) (c)

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 6. 6.
Figure (a)(a)
Slump
Slump cone,
cone,(b)
(b)slump
slumpflow
flowtest
test of
of SCC with glass
SCC with glass fibers,
fibers,and
and(c)
(c)slump
slumpflow
flow test
test of of
SCC8
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW SCC without glass fibers.
without glass fibers. 8
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 8

Figure7.7.L-box
Figure L-boxtest
testof
ofSCC.
SCC.
Figure 7. L-box test of SCC.
Figure 7. L-box test of SCC.

Figure 8. Screen stability (GTM) test of SCC.

Figure 8.Screen
Screenstability
stability(GTM)
(GTM) testof of SCC.
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Screen stability (GTM) test
test of SCC.
SCC.
900
900
800
900
800
700
800
(cm)

700
600
700
(cm)
(cm)

600
flow

500
600
flow

500
400
flow

500
Slump

400
300
Slump

400
Slump

300
200
300
200
100
200
100
1000
0 SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
0
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC Mix No. SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC-L1 SCC-L2
Mix No.
Mix No.
Figure 9. Diameter of slump flow (mm).
Figure9.9.Diameter
Figure Diameterofofslump
slumpflow
flow(mm).
(mm).
Figure 9. Diameter of slump flow (mm).
6
Figures
6
6 9–12 show that the SCC criteria mentioned in the EFNARC specifications are
met by5 all of the mixtures. As a result, in terms of filling and passing ability, all of the
5
second

mixtures
5
4 are considered to have great homogeneity and workability. When the flow is
second
cmsecond

running
4 or stopped, there is no segmentation or bleeding.
4
3
cm

3
T50T50

3
cm

2
T50

2
2
1
1 42
1
0
0 SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
 200
100
0
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Eng 2024, 5 Mix No.

Figure 9. Diameter of slump flow (mm).

T50 cm second
4

0
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Eng 2024,
Eng 2024, 5,
5, FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW Mix No. 99

Figure10.
Figure Circle(50
10.Circle (50cm
cmdia.).
dia.).Time
Timerequired
required(T
(T5050).).

1.2
1.2

11

0.8
0.8
L-box h2/h1

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2

00
SCC
SCC SCC-L1
SCC-L1 SCC-L2
SCC-L2 SCC-S1
SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC-S2
Mix No.
Mix No.

Figure 11.
Figure Theeffect
11. The
The effect of
effect of fiber
fiber content
content on
on the
the blocking
blocking ratio.
ratio.

12
12

10
10

88
GMT %

66

44

22

00
SCC
SCC SCC-L1
SCC-L1 SCC-L2
SCC-L2 SCC-S1
SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC-S2
Mix No.
Mix No.

Figure 12.
Figure Theeffect
12. The
The effect of
effect of fiber
fiber content
content on
on the
the segregation
segregation ratio.
ratio.

3.2. The plain SCC

3.2. Compressive
Compressive mixture is clearly a low-viscosity concrete, whereas the mixture with
Strength
Strength
glass fibers is a high-viscosity concrete. This property is due to higher friction among
The average
The average values
values of
of three
three 100
100 mm
mm cubes
cubes were
were used
used toto calculate
calculate the
the compressive
compressive
aggregate grains and fibers, as well as higher viscosity due to the addition of fiber [61].
strength. The
strength. The compressive
compressive strength
strength test
test was
was carried
carried out
out according
according to to ASTM
ASTM C109-20
C109-20 [56].
[56].
Table 2 and Figures 9–12 show that introducing 1% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and
Three cubes
Three cubes were
were used
used to
to conduct
conduct this
this test
test of
of each
each mix
mix at
at each
each step
step of
of heating.
heating. Results
Results for
for
6 mm reduces slump flow by 5.1 and 17.7%, increases T50 by 72 and 100%, reduces L-box
the 28-day
the 28-day compressive
compressive strength
strength of
of SCC
SCC with
with and
and without
without glass
glass fibers
fibers are
are shown
shown in in Table
Table
by 8.2 and 18.4%, and reduces GTM by 27.3 and 45.5%, respectively. Introducing 0.5%
33 and
and Figures
Figures 13
13 and
and 14.
14.
The compressive
The compressive strength
strength values
values for
for SCC
SCC specimens
specimens with
with and
and without
without glass
glass fibers
fibers at
at
room temperature
room temperature are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 13.
13. SCC
SCC without
without fibers
fibers at
at room
room temperature
temperature
43
achieved aa compressive
achieved compressive strength
strength value
value of
of 50.2
50.2 MPa
MPa after
after 28
28 days.
days. Samples
Samples of of SCC
SCC with
with
glass fibers
glass fibers showed
showed an
an increase
increase inin compressive
compressive strength
strength at
at room
room temperature.
temperature. In In compar-
compar-
Eng 2024, 5

glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm reduces slump flow by 3.8 and 15.2%, increases
T50 by 36 and 60%, reduces L-box by 5.1 and 13.3%, and reduces GTM by 21 and 24.5%,
respectively. This reduction in workability results from the addition of glass fibers, which
act as a buffer against mixture flow. The SCC’s characteristics are listed in Table 2, and it
can only be classified and presented as an SCC if it satisfies all the requirements. These
findings are consistent with the findings of other investigators [62,63].

3.2. Compressive Strength

The average values of three 100 mm cubes were used to calculate the compressive
strength. The compressive strength test was carried out according to ASTM C109-20 [56].
Three cubes were used to conduct this test of each mix at each step of heating. Results for
the 28-day compressive strength of SCC with and without glass fibers are shown in Table 3
and Figures 13 and 14.

Table 3. All SCC mixes’ compressive strength at 28 days of curing.

Compressive Strength at High Temp (MPa)

Mix No. SD COV
25 ◦ C 200 ◦ C 400 ◦ C 600 ◦ C 800 ◦ C
SCC 50.2 (1) 50.5 30.6 17 4.6 20.255 410.282
SCC-L1 51.8 (1) 52.3 37.3 18 6.4 20.475 419.213
SCC-L2 52.4 (1) 56.5 45 19.4 7.2 21.652 468.79
SCC-S1 50.4 (1) 51.1 36.6 19.3 6.2 19.678 387.217
SCC-S2 51.0 (1) 54 41.5 19 5.8 21.007 441.288
SD 0.932 2.425 5.437 1.024 0.953
COV 0.868 5.882 29.565 1.048 0.908
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
Note: The relative compressive strength of the various SCC mixtures is shown in brackets. SD is the standard
deviation, and COV is the coefficient of variation.

53
Compressive strength, MPa

52.5
52
51.5 SCC

51 SCC-L1
50.5 SCC-L2
50 SCC-S1
49.5
SCC-S2
49
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Mix Code

Figure 13.
Figure Compressive strength
13. Compressive strength of
of SCC
SCC mixes
mixes is
is affected
affected by
by fiber
fiber dose
dose at
at room
room temperatures.
temperatures.

The compressive strength values for SCC specimens with and without glass fibers
60
at room temperature are shown in Figure 13. SCC without SCC fibers at room temperature
Compressive strength (MPa)

achieved
50 a compressive strength value of 50.2 MPa afterSCC-L1 Samples of SCC with glass
28 days.
fibers showed an increase in compressive strength at room temperature. In comparison to
SCC-L2
control
40 mixes, the compressive strength of SCC containing 1% glass fibers with lengths of
SCC-S1
13 and 6 mm increased by about 3.2 and 4.4%, respectively, while that of SCC containing
0.5% 30
glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm increasedSCC-S2
by about 0.4 and 1.6%, respectively.
The bridging of a pre-existing crack in the interfacial transition zone
SD for each (ITZ) and the addition
temps
20
of fiber, which improves the interface between the hardened paste and the aggregate,
could10both be responsible for this increase in strength [30]. The findings of this study are

0
25 °C 200 °C
44 400 °C 600 °C 800 °C
Temperatures (°C)
 52.551 SCC-L1

Compressive
Compressive strength,
52
50.5 SCC-L2
51.5 SCC
50
51 SCC-L1 SCC-S1
49.5
50.5 SCC-L2 SCC-S2
Eng 2024, 5
5049 SCC-S1
49.5 SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC-S2
49 Mix Code
consistent with
SCC
thoseSCC-L1
of previous studiesSCC-S1
SCC-L2
[30,64,65]. Progressive failure occurred in SCC
SCC-S2
samples
Figure 13. with fibers, and
Compressive the of
strength fibers
SCC linked
mixes isthe segments.
affected by fiberIndose
SCC at samples without fibers,
room temperatures.
Mix Code
failure occurs quickly, and the cube breaks apart into several pieces. The failure pattern is
shown
Figure 60 in
13. Figure 15.strength of SCC mixes is affected by fiber dose at room temperatures.
Compressive
SCC

Compressive strength (MPa)

6050 SCC-L1
Compressive strength (MPa) SCC
SCC-L2
5040 SCC-L1
SCC-S1
SCC-L2
4030
SCC-S1SCC-S2
3020 SCC-S2SD for each temps
SD for each temps
20
10
10
0
0 25 °C 200 °C 400 °C 600 °C 800 °C
25 °C 200 °C 400 °C 600 °C 800 °C
Temperatures (°C)
Temperatures (°C)

(a)
(a)
60 25 °C
60
Compressive strength (MPa)

25 °C
Compressive strength (MPa)

5050 200 °C 200 °C

4040
400 °C 400 °C
3030
600 °C 600 °C
2020
800 °C 800 °C
1010
SD for
SD for
0 each mix
0 each mix
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Mix Code
Mix Code
(b)
(b)
Figure 14.14.
Figure SCC mixtures’
SCC compressive
mixtures’ strength
compressive at highattemperature
strength and SD (a)
high temperature andforSD
each
(a)temperature
for each temperature
and (b) for
Figure 14.each
SCCmix.
mixtures’ compressive strength at high temperature and SD (a) for each temperature
and (b) for each mix.
and (b) for each mix.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

Figure 15. Failure patterns of SCC samples. (a) Specimens without fibers. (b) Specimens with fibers.

The compressive strength of all the SCC samples increased when they were heated up
to 200 ◦ C, reaching about 0.6% for samples without glass fibers, 1 and 7.8% for samples
containing 1% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm, and 1.4 and 5.9% for samples
containing 0.5% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm, respectively. Significant changes
in the compressive strength of SCC specimens were prevented at up to 200 ◦ C by the
subsequent hydration of unhydrated cement particles as a result of an internal autoclaving
effect brought on by high temperature and water evaporation [66,67]. All SCC samples
showed an initial rise in compressive strength at about 200 ◦ C followed by a fall at 400 ◦ C. A
diminishing trend was seen after increasing the temperature from 200 to 600 ◦ C, especially
for the control SCC sample. The physical and mechanical properties of the SCC samples

45
Eng 2024, 5

with and without fibers significantly degraded at 300 ◦ C. In samples heated to 600 ◦ C,
mechanical characteristics were linked to physical characteristics (appearance of cracking).
Comparing samples that were left at room temperature to those that were heated to 400 and
600 ◦ C, the compressive strength values of plain SCC, SCC-L1 , SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 , and SCC-S2
decreased by approximately 39 and 66%, 28 and 65%, 27.4 and 61.7%, 14 and 63%, and 18
and 62.7%, respectively. When the temperature reached 800 ◦ C, the compressive strength of
each specimen rapidly decreased, falling to 4.6, 6.4, 7.2, 6.2, and 5.8 MPa for the plain SCC,
SCC-L1 , SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 , and SCC-S2 samples, respectively. This means that at 800 ◦ C, the
samples only retained 9.2, 12.4, 13.7, 12.3, and 11.4%, respectively, of their original strength.
The loss of SCC compressive strength is related to the collapse of the interface link induced
by incompatible volume changes among aggregate and cement paste throughout heating
and cooling. Calcium hydroxide dehydrates as the temperature exceeds (400 ◦ C), leading
the cement paste to expand. Most quartz-like aggregates achieve a crystalline transition at
about 600 ◦ C, generating substantial concrete expansion and fracturing [36]. Additionally,
at 600 and 800 ◦ C, the mechanical characteristics of all samples continued to deteriorate
due to the heat decomposition of cement components. Above 350 ◦ C, the compressive
strength of lime dramatically decreased due to a substantial expansion that occurred along
with the rehydration process. Additionally, the disintegration of C-S-H gel began at about
560 ◦ C, which led to a minor decline in compressive strength [67–69].
Comparing plain samples without fibers at 200, 400, 600, and 800 ◦ C, compressive
strength is lower in SCC-L1 samples by about 3.6, 22, 5.9, and 39%; in SCC-L2 samples by
about 1.2, 19.6, 13.5, and 34.8% percent; in SCC-S1 samples by about 11.9, 47, 14, and 56.5%;
and in SCC-S2 samples by about 6.9, 35.6, 11.8, 26%, respectively. This could be owing to
the elevated temp altering the structure of concrete, as mentioned in the previous statement.
The findings of this study are consistent with those of previous studies [30,70].
The fibers are effective until the concrete reaches 700 ◦ C, at which point concrete
becomes brittle and crumbly and loses its adhesion strength with the fibers. The degrada-
tion of cement-hydrating elements, as well as concrete expansion during heat and vapor
pressure from water gel and pores, all help in the creation of cracks [71].

3.3. Spalling
Spalling is the process of removing concrete from a structure’s surface [72,73]. The
samples are subjected to a complete visual evaluation after being subjected to extreme
temps to evaluate visible cracking and spalling on their surfaces. Figure 16 shows the
surface characteristics of SCC samples with and without glass fibers at high temps. With
temperatures at 200 ◦ C, there was no visible cracking or breakage for SCC samples with
and without fibers. Around 400 ◦ C, some SCC samples exhibited some spalling on the
corners and edges. Microcracks began to appear in massive amounts above 400 ◦ C. Rapid
spalling occurred in SCC samples and they were fully damaged from 600 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C (see
Figure 17); the findings of this study confirm Kanema’s findings [74]. Low permeability in
concrete is related to a dense microstructure that prevents water vapors from dispersing
owing to heat, leading to higher pore pressure.
The glass fiber-reinforced self-compacting concrete (GFR-SCC) specimens spalled
from 300 ◦ C to 400 ◦ C (Figure 17), became extensively spalled from 400 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C, and
were fully damaged from 600 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C. Glass fibers cannot prevent RPC from spalling
throughout a fire, according to the findings.
Intense spalling was seen on GFR-SCC samples, most probably due to decreased
microfractures and glass fiber permeability. Low permeability combined with a thick SCC
microstructure prevents vapor from dispersing during extreme temps, leading to pore water
pressure build-up. Because of its poor permeability and thick microstructures, the mortar’s
bond strength deteriorates faster than other moderate and high-strength mortars. As a
result, the matrix’s physicochemical bonding characteristics suffer a severe loss [75]. The
spalling effect caused by a rise in temperature resulted in a decrease in SCC’s compressive
strength [76].

46
 face characteristics
peratures at 200 °C,of SCCwas
there samples with and
no visible without
cracking glass fibers
or breakage foratSCC
highsamples
temps. With
with tem-
and
without fibers. Around 400 °C, some SCC samples exhibited some spalling on thewith
peratures at 200 °C, there was no visible cracking or breakage for SCC samples and
corners
without fibers. Around 400 °C, some SCC samples exhibited some spalling
and edges. Microcracks began to appear in massive amounts above 400 °C. Rapid spalling on the corners
and edges.
occurred in Microcracks
SCC samplesbegan to appear
and they in massive
were fully amounts
damaged from above
600 °C400 °C. °C
to 800 Rapid
(seespalling
Figure
17); the findings of this study confirm Kanema’s findings [74]. Low permeability inFigure
occurred in SCC samples and they were fully damaged from 600 °C to 800 °C (see con-
Eng 2024, 5 17); the findings
crete is related to of this study
a dense confirm Kanema’s
microstructure findings
that prevents water[74]. Lowfrom
vapors permeability
dispersing in ow-
con-
crete is related to a dense microstructure
ing to heat, leading to higher pore pressure. that prevents water vapors from dispersing ow-
ing to heat, leading to higher pore pressure.

Figure 16. Surface properties of SCC samples with and without glass fibers at 200, 400, 600, and 800
Figure 16. Surface properties of SCC samples with and without glass fibers at 200, 400, 600, and
Figure 16. Surface properties of SCC samples with and without glass fibers at 200, 400, 600, and 800
°C.
800 ◦
°C. C.

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 17. When SCC with and without glass fibers samples are heated to 450 °C, explosive spalling
Figure
Asensues.
a result,
Figure 17. When
17. When
the SCCwith
matrix’s
SCC with andwithout
withoutglass
physicochemical
and glass fiberssamples
bonding
fibers samples areheated
heatedsuffer
characteristics
are to450
to 450◦a°C,
C, explosive
severe spalling
lossspalling
explosive [75].
Theensues.
spalling
ensues. effect caused by a rise in temperature resulted in a decrease in SCC’s com-
pressive Thestrength [76].
glass fiber-reinforced self-compacting concrete (GFR-SCC) specimens spalled
from Glass
The fibers
glass
300 fibers
Glass °C to 400 can°C
can be(Figure
be used to
fiber-reinforced
used modify
to17), became
modify pore
self-compacting
pore refining
extensively
refining in in
the
concrete microstructure
(GFR-SCC)
spalled
the microstructure °Cofto
from 400specimens cement
600cement
of °C,pastes
spalled
and
at the
from initial
300 °C phases
to 400 of
°C combustion
(Figure 17), (200
became ◦ C)extensively
[77]. The microstructure
spalled from photo
400 °C in
to Figure
600 °C, 18a
and
pastes
wereat the damaged
fully initial phases from of600
combustion
°C to 800 (200 °C) [77].
°C. Glass fibersThecannot
microstructure
prevent RPC photo fromin Figure
spalling
illustrates
were fully these
damaged findings.
from Despite
600 °C tothe800fact
°C. that cracks
Glass fibersappeared
cannot at 200
prevent ◦RPC
C, the fibers
from were
spalling
18a illustratesathese
throughout findings. Despite
fire, according the fact that cracks appeared at 200 °C, the fibers
to the findings.
capable of binding towas
the ◦ C,
throughout
were capable
Intense a fire,
of binding
spalling toconcrete
according theto
seen the structure
concrete
on findings.
GFR-SCC and offering
structure and most
samples, bridging
offering effects.
bridging
probably toAround
dueeffects. Around
decreased 200mi-
the°C,edge ◦
200 the form
Intense
crofractures edgeand and
spalling
form pointed
glass was
and ends
seen
pointed
fiber of fibers
onends
GFR-SCC
permeability. could
samples,
of fibers
Low stillmost
could be seen;
still
permeability be however,
probably
seen;
combined duewith
however, atdecreased
to 400
aatthick
400C, °C,
they
mi-
SCC
vanished.
crofractures
microstructure
they When
vanished. When and glass
glass
prevents fiber
fiber
glassvaporis steadily
permeability.
fiber isfrom heated Low
dispersing
steadily from
heatedduring the
permeability
from the ambient
extreme
ambienttemperature,
combined
temps, with ait becomes
thick
leading to
temperature, SCC
pore
it be-
softer
comes
water as the
microstructure
softer temperature
as the
pressure prevents
temperature
build-up. rises.
vapor rises.
Because Glass
from
ofGlass fibers
itsdispersing
fibers
poor lose
lose their
during shape
extreme
their shape
permeability and as asthe
thick themicrostructures,
temps, temperature torises,
leading rises,
temperature pore
the
changing from a stable solid to a pliable phase, as shown in Figure 18b at 400 ◦C
water
changing pressure
mortar’sfrom build-up.
bondastrength
stable solid Because
to a pliable
deteriorates of its poor
phase,
faster permeability
thanasother
shown and
in Figure
moderate thick
and18b microstructures,
at 400 °C mortars.
high-strength the
mortar’s bond strength deteriorates faster than other moderate and high-strength mortars.

(a)
Figure 18. Cont.

47
Eng 2024, 5
(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 18.18.
SEMSEM photos
photos of of GFR-SCC
GFR-SCC specimens
specimens after
after they
they have
have been
been exposed
exposed to to a temperature
a temperature of of
(a)(a)
200 °C◦ and (b) 400 °C◦(to the right).
200 C and (b) 400 C (to the right).

3.4.
3.4. Splitting
Splitting Tensile
Tensile Strength
Strength
Table4 4displays
Table displaysthetheaverage
averageresults
results of
of the
the splitting
splitting tensile
tensile strength
strengthtests
testsperformed
performedon
onthree
three100100mmmmby by200
200 mm
mm cylinders. The tensile
cylinders. The tensilestrength
strengthwaswastested
testedaccording
accordingtoto ASTM
ASTM
C496 [57]. This test of each mixture at each stage of heating was performed
C496 [57]. This test of each mixture at each stage of heating was performed using three using three
cylinders. Since concrete is often not designed to sustain direct stress, understanding
cylinders. Since concrete is often not designed to sustain direct stress, understanding the the
tensile strength can aid in estimating the load which will induce fracture. Tensile
tensile strength can aid in estimating the load which will induce fracture. Tensile splitting splitting
strengthisisa acrucial
strength crucialcomponent
componentin in crack
crack development
development and,and,asasaaresult,
result,ininpredicting concrete
predicting con-
durability.
crete Crack-free
durability. Crack-freeconcrete is necessary
concrete is necessaryto sustain structural
to sustain integrity
structural and,and,
integrity in many
in
circumstances, avoiding corrosion
many circumstances, avoiding corrosion [78]. [78].
Table 4 and Figures 19 and 20 display the findings for the 28-day tensile strength of
Table 4. SCC mix tensile strength at 28 days of curing.
SCC with and without glass fibers. Figure 20 displays the data for the splitting tensile
strength for SCC specimens with andatwithout
Tensile Strength Elevatedglass
Tempfibers
(MPa)at room temperature. After 28
Mix at room temperature
days, SCC without fibers reached a splitting SD
tensile COVof
strength value
25 ◦ C 200 ◦ C 400 ◦ C 600 ◦ C
4.1 MPa. The splitting tensile strength of SCC samples containing glass fibers increased at
SCC 4.1 4.20 2.90 0.53 1.707 2.914
SCC-L1 4.5 4.70 3.1 0.80 1.797 3.229
SCC-L2 4.9 5.00 4.20 1.7 1.542 2.377
SCC-S1 4.60 4.70 3.7 1.2 1.630 2.657
SCC-S2 4.7 4.8 3.9 1.6 1.489 2.217
SD 0.297 0.295 0.546 0.503
COV 0.088 0.087 0.298 0.253

Table 4 and Figures 19 and 20 display the findings for the 28-day tensile strength of
SCC with and without glass fibers. Figure 20 displays the data for the splitting tensile
strength for SCC specimens with and without glass fibers at room temperature. After
28 days, SCC at room temperature without fibers reached a splitting tensile strength value
of 4.1 MPa. The splitting tensile strength of SCC samples containing glass fibers increased
at room temperature. SCC containing 1% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm increased
in splitting tensile strength by about 9.8 and 19.5%, respectively, in comparison to control
mixes, while SCC containing 0.5% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm increased by
about 12.2 and 14.6%, respectively. Increased splitting tensile strength may also be due
to improved uniformity from vibration-free manufacture. The findings of this study are
consistent with those of previous studies [65,79]. In specimens with fibers, fibers help
to hold the cylinder pieces together when they fail, preserving the integrity of the entire
component and connection. Figure 15 depicts the failure pattern.

48
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 15
Eng 2024, 5
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 15

5
5
4.8

Tensile strength (MPa)

4.8

Tensile strength (MPa)

4.6 SCC
4.6 SCC
4.4 SCC-L1
4.4 SCC-L1
4.2 4.2 SCC-L2 SCC-L2
4 4 SCC-S1
SCC-S1
3.8 3.8 SCC-S2 SCC-S2
3.6 3.6
SCC SCC SCC-L1SCC-L1
SCC-L2SCC-L2
SCC-S1 SCC-S1
SCC-S2 SCC-S2
Mix No.Mix No.

Figure 19. Fiber

Figure
Figure dosage
Fiber
19.Fiber
19. affectsaffects
dosage
dosage the tensile
affectsthe strength
thetensile of SCC mixes
tensilestrength
strength ofSCC
of at mixes
SCC room
mixestemperatures.
atatroom
roomtemperatures.
temperatures.

6 SCC
6 SCC
SCC-L1
Tensile strength (MPa)

5 SCC-L1
Tensile strength (MPa)

5 SCC-L2
4 SCC-L2
4 SCC-S1
3 SCC-S1
SCC-S2
3
2 SCC-S2
SD foe each temps
1
2 SD foe each temps
0 1
0 25 200 400 600
25 Temperature
200 (°C) 400 600
Temperature (°C)
(a)
6 25 °C
(a)
5 6 200 °C 25 °C
Tensile strength (MPa)

4 5 400 °C 200 °C
Tensile strength (MPa)

3 4 600 °C 400 °C
2 SD for
3 600 °C
each mix
1
2 SD for
0 each mix
1 SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2

0 Mix No.
SCC SCC-L1 (b) SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Figure 20. Tensile
Figure splitting
20. Tensile strengths
splitting of SCCMix
strengths No. at
ofmixes
SCC temperatures
mixes rangingranging
at temperatures from 25 from
to 80025
°Ctoand
800 ◦ C and SD
SD (a) for each temperature and (b) for each mix.
(a) for each temperature and (b) for each mix.
(b)
3.5.Figure
Flexural20.Strength
The tensilesplitting
Tensile strengthstrengths
of each ofSCCSCCsample initially
mixes at increased
temperatures at about
ranging 25 to◦ C
from 200 and
800 °C then
and
SD (a) for
decreased
Table each
attemperature
5 shows 400
the average and
test(b)
◦ C. Particularlyfor each
resultsfor mix.control
the
of three 100 mm SCC
× 100 sample,
mm × 300amm decreasing
prisms at trend was
28 days of age.after
observed ASTM C293 the
raising [58] temperature
was used to conduct
from 200 600 ◦ C.strength
thetoflexural to 200 ◦ C, the
test. In this
When heated
3.5. Flexural
experiment, Strength
flexural testing was carried out on a simple concrete prism. Three
tensile strength of each SCC sample increased, reaching 2.4% for SCC samples without prisms were
usedglass
to conduct
fibers,
Table this
4.4%
5 showstest on 2.04%
and
the each mixture
average fortest
SCCat each
results heating
samples
of threestep.
with 1%mm
100 glass fibers
× 100 mm with lengths
× 300 of 13 and
mm prisms at
The results for the 28-day flexural strength of SCC with and without glass fibers are
6 mm,
28 daysand 2.2%ASTM
of age. and 2.1%
C293for[58]
SCC samples
was used to with 0.5% glass
conduct the fibers with
flexural lengths
strength test.ofIn
13this
and
shown in Table 5 and Figures 21 and 22. The data for the flexural strength of SCC speci-
6 mm, respectively.
experiment, Increased
flexural testing washydration
carried out ofon
cement could
a simple be theprism.
concrete main source of improved
Three prisms were
mens with and without glass fibers at room temperature are shown in Figure ◦ 22. The
tensile
used to splitting strength
conduct this whenever
test on the temperature
each mixture goesstep.
at each heating up to 200 C.
Tensile
The strength
results for thevalues
28-dayofflexural
plain SCC, SCC-L1
strength of, SCC
SCC-with
L2 , SCC- , and SCC-
andS1without glass decreased
S2 fibers are
by roughly
shown 29.35and
in Table and87.1%, 31.1
Figures 21and
and82.2%,
22. The 19.6 and
data for74%,
the 14.3 and strength
flexural 65.3%, and 17 and
of SCC 66%,
speci-
respectively,
mens with and when samples
without glassheated
fibers to
at 400
room and 600 ◦ C wereare
temperature compared
shown intoFigure
samples 22.left
Theat

49
Eng 2024, 5

room temperature. All SCC specimens lost all of their original tensile strength as soon
as the temperature reached 800 ◦ C. The differential of thermal expansion between both
the aggregates and the cement paste and between the dry cement paste and aggregate
degradation could all play a role in the loss of strength [80].
The results show a larger improvement in tensile strength in SCC samples with glass
fibers than in samples without fibers. The increase is around 11.9, 6.9, and 51 % for SCC-L1
samples; 11.9, 27.6, and 126% for SCC-L2 samples; 19, 44.8, and 220% for SCC-S1 samples;
and 14.3, 34.5, and 202% for SCC-S2 samples, respectively, at 200, 400, and 600 ◦ C. This
might be as a result of the fibers’ impact on the structure of the concrete, as demonstrated
by the strength qualities [71].

3.5. Flexural Strength

Table 5 shows the average test results of three 100 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm prisms
at 28 days of age. ASTM C293 [58] was used to conduct the flexural strength test. In this
experiment, flexural testing was carried out on a simple concrete prism. Three prisms were
used to conduct this test on each mixture at each heating step.

Table 5. SCC mix flexural strength at 28 days of curing (MPa).

At Higher Temps, Relative Flexural Strength (MPa)

Mix SD COV
25 ◦ C 200 ◦ C 400 ◦ C 600 ◦ C
SCC 6.375 6.4 2.75 0.10 3.063 9.379
SCC-L1 8.60 8.8 4.5 0.40 3.979 15.829
SCC-L2 9.8 10.3 7.1 1.40 4.083 16.670
SCC-S1 8.6 9.75 6.9 0.64 4.061 16.490
SCC-S2 9.0 9.4 7.5 1.8 3.513 12.343
SD 1.272 1.516 2.048 0.709
COV 1.618 2.297 4.193 0.503

The results for the 28-day flexural strength of SCC with and without glass fibers are
shown in Table 5 and Figures 21 and 22. The data for the flexural strength of SCC specimens
with and without glass fibers at room temperature are shown in Figure 22. The flexural
strength of SCC at room temperature without fibers was 6.375 MPa after 28 days. At room
temperature, the flexural strength of SCC samples containing glass fibers increased. In
comparison to control mixes without fibers, the flexural strength of SCC containing 1%
glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm increased by about 34.9 and 53.7%, respectively,
while SCC containing 0.5% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm increased by about
34.9 and 41.2%, respectively. The higher flexural strength of SCC may result from crack
restriction by fibers. The results of this study are in agreement with those of previous
studies [64,79]. When prism components in samples with fibers collapse, the fibers aid to
keep them together, maintaining the integrity of the entire member and connection. The
failure pattern is shown in Figure 15.
At roughly 200 ◦ C, each SCC sample’s flexural strength began to rise, and at 400 ◦ C, it
began to fall. Increasing the temperature from 200 to 600 ◦ C resulted in a declining trend,
especially for the control SCC sample. The flexural strength of each SCC sample increased
when heated to 200 ◦ C, reaching 0.4% for SCC samples without glass fibers, 2.3% and 5.1%
for SCC samples with 1% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm, and 13.3 % and 4.4%
for SCC samples with 0.5% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm, respectively. The key
factor contributing to enhanced flexural strength when the temperature reaches 200 ◦ C
may be an increased hydration process. SCC samples lose their flexural strength at high
temperatures. When samples heated to 400 and 600 ◦ C were compared to samples left
at room temperature, the flexural strength values of plain SCC, SCC-L1 , SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 ,
and SCC-S2 decreased by approximately 56.9 and 98.4%, 47.7 and 95.3%, 27.6 and 85.7%,

50
 Eng 2024, 5

19.7 and 92.6%, and 16.7 and 80%, respectively. All SCC specimens lost all of their original
flexural strength as soon as the temperature reached 800 ◦ C. This can be a result of the
concrete structure being affected by the high temperature. Cement paste expands as a result
EngEng 2024,
2024, 5, 5,
FORFORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW of calcium hydroxide dehydrating at temperatures over (400 ◦ C). Numerous 17 micro- 17
and
macrocracks formed in the samples as a consequence of the heat incompatibility among
cement paste and aggregates, lowering flexural strength [80].
12
12
10
(MPa)

10
(MPa)

8 SCC
strength

8 SCC
strength

6 SCC-L1
6 SCC-L1
SCC-L2
Flexural

4
SCC-S1SCC-L2
Flexural

4
2
SCC-S2SCC-S1
2
0 SCC-S2
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
0
Mix No.
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Mix No.
Figure 21. Fiber dosage affects the flexural strength of SCC mixes at room temperature.
Figure 21. Fiber dosage affects the flexural strength of SCC mixes at room temperature.
Figure 21. Fiber dosage affects the flexural strength of SCC mixes at room temperature.
12

10
Flexural strength (MPa)

12
SCC
8
10
Flexural strength (MPa)

SCC-L1
6 SCC
8 SCC-L2
4 SCC-L1
SCC-S1
6
2 SCC-S2SCC-L2
4
0 SD SCC-S1
2 25 200 400 600 SCC-S2
Temperature (°C)
0 SD
25 200 400 600
(a)
Temperature (°C)
12 25 °C
strength (MPa)

10 (a) 200 °C

12
8 400 °C 25 °C
(MPa)

6
10 600 °C 200 °C
Flexural

48 SD for 400 °C
Flexural strength

each mix
2
6 600 °C
0
4 SD for
SCC SCC-L1 SCC-L2 SCC-S1 SCC-S2
Mix Code each mix
2
(b)
0
Figure 22. SCC
Figure mixes’
22. SCC flexural
SCCmixes’ strengths
flexural
SCC-L1 at various
strengths
SCC-L2 temperatures
at various and SD (a)
SCC-S1temperatures
SCC-S2 andforSD
each
(a)temperature
for each temperature
and (b) for each mix.
and (b) for each mix. Mix Code
3.6. The Mass Loss Ratioreveal that SCC samples
The findings (b) with glass fibers improved in flexural strength
more than ◦ C,after
Figure SCCsamples
The22.difference
mixes’ without
between the
flexural fibers.atbefore
weights
strengths At 200and
various the heating
increase
temperatures is
SDaround
was
and used 37.5%
to each
(a) for for SCC-L1
calculate
temperature
mass loss. Dehydration,
and (b) for each mix. thermal degradation of the cement’s components, and spalling
from the top layer were the main causes of mass loss at high temperatures [68,81,82]. High
3.6. The Mass Loss Ratio 51
The difference between the weights before and after heating was used to calculate
Eng 2024, 5

samples, 60.95% for SCC-L2 samples, 52.35% for SCC-S1 samples, and 46.95% for SCC-S2
samples, respectively. This might be as a result of the fibers’ impact on concrete’s structure,
as observed by its strength properties [71].

3.6. The Mass Loss Ratio

The difference between the weights before and after heating was used to calculate
mass loss. Dehydration, thermal degradation of the cement’s components, and spalling
from the top layer were the main causes of mass loss at high temperatures [68,81,82]. High
temperatures produce cracks that spread and might possibly explode. The mass loss of the
examined SCC samples at high temperatures is shown in Figure 23.

(a)

(b)
Figure 23: Temperature-to-mass-loss-ratio relationship and SD (a) for each
Figureand
temperature Temperature-to-mass-loss-ratio
23. (b) for each mix. relationship and SD (a) for each temperature and (b) for
each mix.

No substantial mass loss occurred for the investigated SCC specimens between 200
and 400 ◦ C; however, the evaporation of the bound water is the primary cause of the
documented low mass loss % in this temperature range [83]. However, for plain SCC, SCC-
◦
L1 , SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 , and SCC-S2 , there is a sharp increase in mass loss at 600 C. Compared
◦
to 200 C, their mass loss increased by more than ten times, reaching 7.8%, 6.2%, 6.6%, 6.8%,
and 7.0%, respectively. By raising the temperature to 800 ◦ C, the mass loss of plain SCC,
SCC-L1 , SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 , and SCC-S2 reached 9.0%, 7.6%, 8.0%, 8.2%, and 8.2%, respectively.

3.7. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was determined using ASTM C597 [59]. A UPV
test was used to determine how much the SCC sample degraded when exposed to high

52
Eng 2024, 5

temperatures. In the UPV test, an ultrasonic wave is transmitted through the cube speci-
mens, and the length of time it takes for the wave to pass is measured. The uniformity and
quality of the concrete improve with increasing speed, and there are less cracks and voids.
The UPV was determined by dividing the width of a structure by the pulse’s transit time.
The quality range of the concrete sample is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. A concrete velocity-based quality evaluation criterion [84].

Pulse Velocity (km/s) Concrete Quality Grading

Above 4.5 Excellent
3.5–4.5 Good
3.0–3.5 Medium
Below 3.0 Doubtful

The UPV results of all SCC samples exposed to various high temperatures are shown in
Figure 24. Every data point is provided by an average of three SCC cube sampling tests. The
SCC’s UPV at room temperature without fibers was 4.42 km/s. The UPV of SCC samples
with glass fibers increased at room temperature, and SCC-LGF2 had a slightly higher UPV
than other SCC mixtures. The UPV of SCC containing 1% glass fibers with lengths of 13
and 6 mm increased by approximately 8.4 and 15%, respectively, when compared to control
mixes without fibers, while SCC containing 0.5% glass fibers with lengths of 13 and 6 mm
increased by approximately 5.5 and 6.5%, respectively. Increased UPV readings could
potentially be a result of better homogeneity brought on by vibration-free manufacturing.

(a)

(b)

Figure 24. Relationship

Figure between UPV and
24. Relationship temperature
between UPV andand SD (a) forand
temperature each
SDtemperature
(a) for each and (b) for
each mix. temperature and (b) for each mix.

53
Eng 2024, 5

The UPV of each SCC sample started to increase at around 200 ◦ C and started to
decrease at about 400 ◦ C. A diminishing trend was seen when the temperature was raised
from 200 to 800 ◦ C, especially for the control SCC sample. When heated to 200 ◦ C, the UPV
of each SCC sample rose, reaching 8.1% for plain SCC samples, 7.7% for SCC-L1 , 8.1% for
SCC-L2 , 8.6% for SCC-S1 , and 12.8% for SCC-S2 , respectively. When the temperature hits
200 ◦ C, an accelerated hydration process may be the main factor enhancing UPV. High
temperatures cause SCC samples to lose their UPV. The UPV values of plain SCC, SCC-L1 ,
SCC-L2 , SCC-S1 , and SCC-S2 decreased by approximately 42.5 and 70.7%, 37.4 and 71.6%,
34.2 and 70.3%, 36.6 and 68.6%, and 31.4 and 69.9%, respectively, when samples heated to
400 and 600 ◦ C were compared to samples left at room temperature. The rising temperature,
which causes total physical degradation of SCC specimens, may be responsible for the low
UPV readings for samples. The rate of microcracks increased and the SCC quality decreased
at 600 ◦ C, causing a higher drop in UPV values than at 200 and 400 ◦ C. Microcracking has a
considerable impact on the way pulses are transmitted through concrete. As a result, as the
temperature rises, a crucial signal of material fracture is a decreasing pulse speed. Due to
the high temperatures, thermal expansion and drying of the concrete may result in fissures
forming. The pulse velocity of the SCC samples increases as a result of the fractures or
micro-pathways that lead to more cracks. Microcracks, consequently, result in a slowing of
the pulse and low UPV levels [84].
As compared to SCC samples without fibers, the results indicate a greater improve-
ment in UPV in SCC samples with glass fibers. At 200, 400, 600, and 800 ◦ C, the increase is
approximately 8, 15, 6, and 11.3% for SCC-L1 samples; 15.8, 26.7, 14.6, and 21.5% for SCC-L2
samples; 5.1, 16.3, 12, and 9.2% for SCC-S1 samples; and 48, 53.6, 36.7, and 27.9% for SCC-S2
samples. The strength characteristics of the concrete, which are supported by the fibers’
influence on its structural makeup [71], may be the cause of this.

4. Effects or Spin-Offs of the Study in Practice

In practical applications, according to the results of the study, self-compacting glass
fiber concrete should be used in construction projects when subjected to elevated tem-
peratures of 200 ◦ C. The addition of silica fume and glass fibers enhanced the concrete’s
performance for both SCC samples with and without glass fibers and remained intact at
200 ◦ C.

5. Conclusions
Several experiments were carried out throughout this work to analyze variations in
the mechanical properties of SCC samples exposed to high temperatures up to 800 ◦ C and
to investigate the effects of adding glass fibers on the SCC’s fresh and hardening properties.
The primary conclusions that can be drawn from the results of this study are as follows:
i. In terms of filling and passing ability, all SCC combinations are regarded as having
acceptable consistency and workability. The addition of glass fiber to SCC dimin-
ishes workability but it does so within the permissible limit of EFNARC. There is
neither bleeding nor segregation while the flow is running or stopped.
ii. When glass fibers were added to SCC samples, their mechanical strength rose. This
improvement in mechanical properties can be attributed to fiber influence, which
successfully inhibits the development of cracks by forming a strong relationship
between the fibers and matrix. The SCC’s mechanical strength was increased as a
result of the SCC’s improved energy absorption capacity. Additionally, fibers can
join micro- and macrofractures, delaying the spread of significant fractures and
switching the failure mode from brittle to flexible.
iii. Glass fibers were added to SCC samples to improve their mechanical strength,
and as a result, the improvements in SCC samples with glass fibers are greater
than in those samples without fibers. The influence of fibers, which successfully
prevent crack development by forming a strong bond between the fibers and matrix,
can be attributed to this improvement in mechanical qualities. As a result, the

54
Eng 2024, 5

SCC’s capacity to absorb energy was improved, increasing its mechanical strength.
Additionally, fibers have the ability to join micro- and macrofractures, delaying the
spread of significant fractures and changing the failure mode from brittle to flexible.
iv. The mechanical properties of specimens containing glass fibers increased at up to
200 ◦ C but then declined at 400 ◦ C, whereas the SCC-L2 mixture exhibited better
mechanical properties.
v. SCC samples with and without fibers did not break or show any signs of visual
cracking at 200 ◦ C. Some SCC samples showed some corner and edge spalling at
temperatures of about 400 ◦ C. Above 400 ◦ C, a large number of microcracks started
to develop. Between 600 and 800 ◦ C, SCC samples experienced rapid spalling and
complete destruction.
vi. The GFR-SCC specimens cracked between 300 ◦ C and 400 ◦ C, spalled significantly
between 400 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C, and were completely destroyed between 600◦ C and
800◦ C. According to the results, glass fibers cannot stop RPC from spalling over the
course of a fire.
vii. For the examined SCC specimens, there was no significant mass loss between 200
and 400 ◦ C. At 600 ◦ C, however, there is a rapid rise in mass loss, and this mass loss
increased by more than ten times when compared to 200 ◦ C.
viii. At room temperature, the UPV of SCC samples with glass fibers grew, and SCC-L2
exhibited a somewhat higher UPV than other SCC mixes. The results show that
at 200, 400, 600, and 800 ◦ C, SCC samples containing glass fibers exhibit a larger
improvement in UPV than SCC samples without fibers. At about 200 ◦ C, the UPV
of each SCC sample began to rise, then at roughly 400 ◦ C, it began to fall. When the
temperature was increased from 200 to 800 ◦ C, UPV decreased, especially for the
control SCC sample.

6. Recommendation for Future Work

Regarding the effect of elevated temperature on GFR-SCC, the following points should
be researched.
i. The effects of glass fibers on the mechanical and thermal properties of SCC exposed
to varying periods of high temperatures.
ii. The effect of adding carbon fibers to SCC that has been exposed to high temperatures
on mechanical and thermal properties.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.K.S. and A.A.A.N.; methodology, H.K.S.; software,

H.K.S.; validation, A.A.A.N., H.K.S. and G.F.H.; formal analysis, H.K.S.; investigation, A.A.A.N.;
resources, H.K.S.; data curation, H.K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, H.K.S.; writing—review
and editing, G.F.H.; visualization, A.A.A.N.; supervision, G.F.H.; project administration, A.A.A.N.;
funding acquisition, G.F.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

55
Eng 2024, 5

Abbreviations

SCC self-compacting concrete

GFR-SCC glass fiber-reinforced self-compacting concrete
SCC-L1 mixture contains 1% glass fibers of a length of 13 mm
SCC-L2 mixture contains 0.5% glass fibers of a length of 13 mm
SCC-S1 mixture contains 1% glass fibers of a length of 6 mm
SCC-S2 mixture contains 0.5% glass fibers of a length of 6 mm

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people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

59
Article
Minimum Shear Reinforcement for Reactive Powder
Concrete Beams
Hussein Kareem Sultan 1 and Ghasan Fahim Huseien 2,3, *

1 Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Al-Muthanna University, Al-Muthanna,

Samawah 66001, Iraq; [email protected]
2 Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
3 Department of the Built Environment, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore,
Singapore 117566, Singapore
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +65-8-305-7143

Abstract: The aim of this research was to determine the minimal requirements for shear reinforcement
for reactive powder concrete (RPC) rectangular cross-sectional beams with a compressive strength
of 157 MPa and a steel fiber volume content of 2.0% that remained constant for all the tested beams.
Additionally, the recommendations of KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013 for the design of RPC beams as well
as the shear design requirements of ACI 314-2014 when applied to RPC beams were studied. Utilizing
a three-dimensional finite element program, a computational model was designed for forecasting
the deformations and shear strength of the examined RPC beams. Both the shear-span-to-depth
relationship (a/d) and the minimal reinforcement web ratio, represented by the distance between
stirrups and the diameter of the stirrup bars, are the key study parameters in this regard. According
to this study’s experimental findings, increasing the given reinforcement of the web ratio has little
influence on both the ultimate shear strength as well as the diagonal cracking strength of the beams.
Additionally, the findings demonstrated that the ACI 318-2014 maximum stirrup spacing requirement
of 0.5 d can safely be extended to 0.75 d for beams that are relatively short. Compared to what
ACI 318-2014 mandates, the suggestions of AFGC-2013 and KCI-2012 are more cautious and safe.
According to the AFGC-2013 criteria, the mean proportion of Vfb to projected Vu,AFGC is roughly
58.3%, whereas the mean proportion of vs. and Vc is just 41.7%. The deformation response and
ultimate shear strength of the examined RPC beams were well predicted by the designed model
using finite elements when metal fibers were taken into account.

Citation: Sultan, H.K.; Huseien, G.F. Keywords: ACI 318-14 code; finite element model (EEM); reactive powder concrete (RPC); shear
Minimum Shear Reinforcement for
reinforcement; RPC beam
Reactive Powder Concrete Beams.
Eng 2024, 5, 801–818. https://
doi.org/10.3390/eng5020043

Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi 1. Introduction

Received: 3 April 2024
Reactive powder concrete (RPC) is a kind of concrete that was introduced as a result
Revised: 1 May 2024 of the building industry’s ongoing growth over the past few decades to serve a variety of
Accepted: 6 May 2024 structural applications, offering a considerably greater level of strength and more durabil-
Published: 8 May 2024 ity [1]. The outstanding performance of RPC is due to the microstructure improvement
processes applied to cementitious materials, including excluding coarse aggregates, us-
ing super-plasticizing agents to lower the water/cement ratio, and incorporating fibers
and cementitious components like silica fume [2–4]. RPC is being employed more and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. more in applications in civil engineering owing to its excellent structural performance to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. date, particularly for high-rise, long-span structures; bridges; highways; municipal transit;
This article is an open access article etc. [5–8]. Several studies have looked into the mechanical features [9–14], fiber dispersion
distributed under the terms and
features [15–20], bond efficiency [21–27], and shrinkage behaviors of RPC [28,29]. But there
conditions of the Creative Commons
is limited data in the literature regarding the shear properties of RPC deep and narrow
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
beams both without and with reinforcement of the web [30–36]. The design of RPC beams
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
is not addressed in any of the current international codes, including Eurocode 2 (EC-2) [37]
4.0/).

Eng 2024, 5, 801–818. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020043 60 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2024, 5

and the ACI 318-2014 Building Code [38]. As a result, there have been several inquiries into
the minimal reinforcement for shear required for RPC beams. The first recommendations
for design for RPC construction projects were introduced in 2002 by the France Association
of Civil Engineers (AFGC)-2002 [39], and they were modified in 2013 by the AFGC-2013 [40]
so as to account for the role of steel fibers in the shearing design. In 2008, the Japan Society
of Civil Engineers (JSCE) [41] and, in 2012, the Korea Concrete Institute (KCI-2012) [42]
also made suggestions for the design of RPC beams.
Based on that, this study focuses on reporting the results of shear tests of RPC beams
provided with minimum shear reinforcement. The RPC beams’ shear design was examined
following the KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013 recommendations. Additionally, anumerical model
for predicting the RPC beams’ shear strength and deformations was created utilizing a
3-dimensional finite element program.

2. Design Guidelines for the Shear of RC Beams

2.1. Shear Design of RC Beams under ACI318-2014 Code
According to the commonly used approach for the investigated codes, the total de-
sign shear strength, Vud , is calculated as the sum of the shear sustained by the shear
reinforcement, Vs , and the concrete, Vc , i.e.,

Vud = Vc + Vs (1)

The following are the specifications for concrete’s design shear strength, Vc :
p
Vc = 0.17 f 0 c bw d (2)

where bw and d are the beam’s width and depth, respectively, and f0 c is the concrete’s
cylinder compressive strength in MPa. It is possible to calculate the shear strength offered
by shear reinforcement Vs by using the following formula:
 
Av
Vs = f yv ·d (3)
sv

where Av and fyv represent the area and required yield strength, respectively, of vertical
reinforcement on the web located within a distance between stirrups (sv ). The specified
vertical web strengthening ratio (ρv = Av /bw sv ) should be greater than the minimal value
(ρv ,min ) demanded by this code, which is equal to the higher of the two values 0.35/fyv or
(0.062 f0 c/fyv ).

2.2. The ACI318-2014 Code for RC Beams Specifies the Minimal Amount of Shear Reinforcement
According to this code, beams are structural members whose clear spans cannot be
more than four times the total component depth (h), or whose concentrated loads are
located at a distance of two times the distance (2h) from the face of the support, and that
satisfy these requirements.
The following are the minimal areas for the horizontal and vertical reinforcement of
the web, (Ah,min ) and (Av ,min ), respectively:

Ah,min = 0.0025bsh (4a)

Av,min = 0.0025bsv (4b)

where b is the beam’s breadth, sh is the distance between longitudinal reinforcements that
are dispersed horizontally, and sv is the distance between vertical web reinforcements. In
order to prevent sh and sv from exceeding the minimum value of 300 mm or d/5, wherein d
is the effective depths, the reinforcement of the web needs to be designed in this way.

61
Eng 2024, 5

2.3. Limits of Spacing for Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement spacing limits are outlined in Section 9.7.6.2.2 of ACI 318-14
(2014) [38]. The highest permitted distance between stirrups (sv,max ) is equal to a minimum
of 600 or 0.5 d mm;
p however, if the shear reinforcement’s contribution to the shear strength
is above (0.33 f 0 c bw d), sv,max should be decreased by half. The spacing limitations
recommened by EC2 [33] are 0.75 d or 600 mm.
But the present design recommendations for RPC members do not specify the shear
reinforcement spacing limitations.

2.4. Design Recommendations for RPC Beams in Regard to Shear

The following equation shows how the design shear strength Vud of RPC is determined:

Vud = Vc + Vf b + Vs (5)

where Vs , Vc , and Vfb are the shear strengths contributed by the shear reinforcement, cement
matrix, and steel fiber, respectively.
The France Association of Civil Engineers presented the initial design recommenda-
tions for RPC in 2002 (AFGC-2002) [39] and updated them in 2013 (AFGC-2013) [40]. The
Korea Concrete Institute (KCI-2012) [36] has made a further design suggestion for RPC.

2.5. The France Association of Civil Engineers (AFGC-2013)

The cement matrix’s design shear strength Vc is specified as follows:
!
0.21 p
Vc = k f 0 cbw d (6)
γc f γ E

where γcf is the assumed value of 1.30 for the partial safety factor regarding fibers, k is the
factor pertaining to the situation in which pre-stressing has been applied, and γE is a safety
factor, with γcf γE being equal to 1.5. The following formula can be used to compute the
contribution of steel fibers, Vfb :
A f v σ Rd, f
Vf b = (7)
tanθ
where θ is the angle between the primary compression stress and the beam axis, which can
be taken to be at least 30◦ ; Afv is the area of the a fiber effects, which can be taken as bw z
for rectangular sections, where z = 0.9 d; and σRd,f is the remaining tensile strength, which
can be calculated as follows:
! Z w
1 1 lim
σ Rd, f = σ f (w) dw (8)
k σc f wlim 0

where σf (w) is a function of tensile stress and fracture breadth, where wlim = max (wu , wmax );
K is the orientation of the fiber factor, which can be considered to be equal to 1.25; and wmax
is the widest fracture possible.
The vertical shear reinforcement’s shear strength is calculated as follows:
 
Av
Vs = z f yv ·cotθ (9)
sv

2.6. Korea Concrete Institute (KCI-2012)

The cement matrix’s shear strength is given as follows:
p
Vc = 0.18 φb f 0 c bw d (10)

62
Eng 2024, 5

where bw is the beam’s breath, d is the beam’s effective depth, f0 c is the cylinder’s compres-
sive strength, and φb is a member reduction factor of 0.77. According to the equation below,
the steel fibers’ shear strength (Vfb ) is
 
f vd
Vf b = φb bw z (11)
tan βu

where βu is the angle between the diagonal tensile fracture plane and the axial direction of
the beam and must be greater than 30◦ , fvd is the mean splitting tensile strength design in a
location perpendicular to the diagonal tensile break, and z is the span from the location
affected by compressive stresses to the centroid of tension steel, which is typically equal to
d/1.15. This formula is used to determine fvd ’s value:
 Z w  Z w
1 v 1 v
f vd = φc σk (w) dw = σkd (w) dw (12)
wv 0 wv 0

where wv is the ultimate fracture width at the area at which outer-fiber peak stress is applied;
φc is the material’s reducing factor, considered to be 0.8; σk (w) is the tensile softening curve;
wv = max (wv , 0.3 mm); and σd (w) is equivalent to φc σk (w).
The vertical shear reinforcement’s shear strength is calculated as follows:
" #
Av f yv ( sinαs + cosαs )
Vs = φb d (13)
sv

where αs is the angle between a beam’s longitudinal direction and the shearing reinforce-
ment, Av is the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement, fyv is its design yield strength, and
sv is its spacing.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials Used
Materials utilized for this investigation include quartz sand, silica fume, cement, water,
fibers, steel reinforcing bars, and superplasticizer. In the RPC mix, Portland cement type
CEM I 52.5 N with a mean compressive strength of 53.8 MPa at 28 days, a mean specific
surface area of 3300 cm2 /g, and a medium diameter of particles of 15 µm was utilized. It
was made from natural sand that was 0.5 mm in size and had a specific density of 2.65. In
addition to silica fume powder, which has a specific gravity of 2.20, a specific surface area of
170,000 cm2 /g, and an average diameter of around 0.15 mm, crushed quartz powder with
an average diameter of 1 um to 100 um, a Blaine fineness of 3100 cm2 /gm, and a specific
gravity of 2.85 was also utilized. All mixes contained a superplasticizer of a new generation
of polycarboxlic ether. The steel fibers employed in this investigation were a form of locally
accessible hook-ended straight fiber. The steel fibers had an equivalent diameter and length
of 13.0 mm and 2.0 mm, respectively. By performing a direct tension test, the fibers’ yield
strength and tensile strength were calculated, and the results were 550 MPa and 820 MPa,
respectively. The volume fraction of steel fibers was maintained at a consistent level of 2.0%
for each tested beam. The regular tap water that was used complied with the standards for
concrete mixing water.

3.2. Concrete Mix Proportions and Specimen Casting

Table 1 provides a summary of the mixture ratios for 1.0 m3 of RPC. A high-speed mixer
was used to combine the mixture’s contents for 10 min. Then, 75% of the water was added
to the mixer after all powders and natural sand had been dry-mixed for 2 min at low speed.
The mixer was stopped for 1 min after 2 min of mixing at low speed (140 ± 5 rpm). The
mixture was then blended for three minutes while the remaining water and superplasticizer
were added. The final step involved mixing the mixture for two minutes at high speed
(285 ± 10 rpm). For the first 24 h, concrete specimens were allowed to cure at ambient

63
Eng 2024, 5

temperature (21 ± 2 ◦ C). The samples were damp-cured up until the testing day after
demolding. This RPC mix’s cube concrete compressive strength (fcu ) is 157 MPa depending
on a typical of three cube specimens, and its cylinder concrete compressive strength (f0 c)
and splitting cylinder tensile strength (fsp ) are 144.3 MPa and 11.9 MPa, respectively. Its
flexural strength (fr ) is 39.7 MPa based on 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm prisms.

Table 1. Ratio of RPC mix for a cubic meter (kg/m3 ).

C a , kg FS b , kg QP c , kg SF d , kg W e , kg SP f , kg
760 1026 228 190 144.4 30.4
a, b, c, d, e, and f represent cement, fine sand, quartz powder, silica fume, water, and superplasticizer, respectively.

The beams were put to the test in a 200-ton loading frame. Each specimen was
equipped with enough instrumentation to determine the strains in the stirrups and longi-
tudinal bars as well as the mid-span deflection. The induction and spread of cracks were
noted, and measurements of the crack widths inside the shear span zone were made.
According to ASTM C109 [43], ASTM C496 [44], and ASTM C78 [45], the compressive
strength of 100 mm cubic molds, splitting tensile strength of the cylinder (diameter of
100 mm × depth of 200 mm), and flexural strength of 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm
prisms were calculated, respectively, and the average values of the three tested specimens
were adopted.

3.3. Experimental Program for the RPC Beams

Information about the test specimens can be found in Table 2. The test specimens,
which consist of five RPC beams composed of an identical concrete mixture, were subjected
to two point loads with simple supports.

Table 2. Specifications of the RPC beams that were examined in regard to shear.

Requirements of
Main Longitudinal Provided Stirrups (Vertical Web
b×h a/d ACI 318-14 for sv,max
Beam fcu , MPa Bars Reinforcement)
(mm) Ratio and ρv,min
Lower Upper sv , (mm) dv , (mm) ρv , (%) sv,max , (mm) ρv,min (%)
B-1 157 140 × 220 3.0 6Φ18 2Φ10 100 6 0.20 90 0.235
B-2 157 140 × 220 3.0 6Φ18 2Φ10 200 6 0.10 90 0.235
B-3 157 140 × 220 3.0 6Φ18 2Φ10 100 8 0.36 90 0.25
B-4 157 140 × 220 3.0 6Φ18 2Φ10 200 8 0.18 90 0.25
B-5 157 140 × 220 3.2 6Φ18 2Φ10 200 8 0.18 90 0.25

As presented in Figure 1, the beam specimen’s cross-section had the following dimen-
sions: a width of 140, a depth of 220 mm, and a length of 2000 mm. The appropriate a/d
ratio was achieved by varying the distance (c) between the two loads while maintaining
the beams’ effective spans, which were 1750 mm each. Six distorted 18 mm diameter bars
arranged in two layers were used as the principal longitudinal tension reinforcement of the
examined beams in order to guarantee shear failure. These bars have a yield strength of
496 MPa. Two deformed bars with a yield strength (fyl ) of 410 MPa served as the compres-
sion reinforcement for the beams. Each bar was 10 mm in diameter. The yield strengths (fyv )
of stirrup bars with diameters of 6 mm and 8 mm are 330 MPa and 310 MPa, respectively.
The existing vertical reinforcement of the web was altered in the tested beams by
using different stirrup spacings (sv = 200 and 100 mm) and different bar stirrup diameters
(dv = 6 and 8 mm) so as to test the suitability of the minimal vertical reinforcement of
the web required according to ACI 318-14 when applied to RPC beams. In accordance
with ACI 318-14, sv,max is equalp to the lesser of 600 mm or 0.5d, and ρv ,min is equivalent
to the larger of 0.35/fy or (0.062 f c0 /fyv ), while sv,max must be decreased by half in cases

64
 mm × depth of 200 mm), and flexural strength of 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm prisms were
calculated, respectively, and the average values of the three tested specimens were
adopted.

3.3. Experimental Program for the RPC Beams

Eng 2024, 5
Information about the test specimens can be found in Table 2. The test specimens,
which consist of five RPC beams composed of an identical concrete mixture, were sub-
jected to two point loads with simple supports. p
where the shear strength given by shear reinforcement (Vs ) is above (0.33 f c0 bd). Table 2
As presented in Figure 1, the beam specimen’s cross-section had the following di-
compares the provided vertical web reinforcement ratio (ρv = Av /(bw ·sv )) of the examined
mensions: a width of 140, a depth of 220 mm, and a length of 2000 mm. The appropriate
RPC beams with the minimum requirements (ρv ,min ) of the code, as well as the distance
a/d ratio was achieved by varying the distance (c) between the two loads while maintain-
between stirrups (sv ) of the examined RPC beams with the highest permitted distance
ing the beams’ effective spans, which were 1750 mm each. Six distorted 18 mm diameter
between stirrups (sv,max ) required by the ACI 318-2014 code. Clearly, it can be observed that
barsprovided
the arrangedareain two layers were
of vertical web used as the principal
reinforcement longitudinal
(Av ) for tension
all the tested beams reinforcement
satisfies the
of the examined beams in order to guarantee shear failure. These bars
minimum requirements (Av ,min ) of the ACI 318-2014 code. The specified stirrup spacing have a yield
(sv )
strength
of each ofof the496 MPa. Two
examined deformed
beams, bars is
however, with a yield strength
significantly greater(fyl)
thanofthe
410highest
MPa served
stirrupas
the compression reinforcement for the beams. Each bar was 10 mm in diameter.
distance (sv,max ) allowed by the aforementioned code. It should be noted that the stated The yield
strengths
stirrup (fyv) (s
spacing of )stirrup bars with diameters of 6 mm and 8 mm are 330 MPa and 310
v of all examined beams is more than double the highest stirrup spacing
MPa,
(s respectively.
) permitted by ACI 318-2014.
v,max

Figure 1. Details of the reinforcement employed in the RPC beam samples (depending on a/d ratio 3
Figure 1. Details of the reinforcement employed in the RPC beam samples (depending on a/d ratio
or 3.23.2
3 or thethe
a: 465 or or
a: 465 496496
mm; c: 758
mm; or or
c: 758 820820
mm; d: d:
mm; 155 mm).
155 mm).
4. Analysis Software and Model Calibration
The existing vertical reinforcement of the web was altered in the tested beams by
Nonlinear finite element software was utilized to perform the analysis. This R/C-
using different stirrup spacings (sv = 200 and 100 mm) and different bar stirrup diameters
focused software features a wide variety of constitutive models for concrete, reinforcement,
(dv = 6 and 8 mm) so as to test the suitability of the minimal vertical reinforcement of the
metals, and robust nonlinear solvers. Hence, it meets the requirements of the analysis.
web required according to ACI 318-14 when applied to RPC beams. In accordance with
Several criteria were set to evaluate the numerical results. Primarily, it was determined
that the numerical and experimental failure modes for the R/C beam should be identi-
cal. Furthermore, numerical analysis was conducted to predict parameters such as the
maximum load (Pmax ) and the corresponding displacement (δmax ) but also the ultimate
load (Pu ) and the corresponding displacement (δu ). The final parameter was the energy
absorption capacity of the beam, which is equal to the area below the force–deflection
response curve [44,45].

4.1. Concrete and Reinforcement Constitutive Models

Utilizing the software program ABAQUS [46], a 3-dimensional nonlinear finite element
model (FEM) was utilized to forecast the overall response of the reinforced concrete beams,
including displacement, stress and strain distributions, ultimate shear stresses and modes
of failure, and crack patterns. SOLID C3D8R, a three-dimensional RC element that can
collapse under compression and fracture under tension, was used to mimic concrete. This
component is composed of eight nodes, each of which has three translational degrees of
freedom (x, y, and z). Utilizing a bar element (T2D3) inside the concrete solid 65 component,
the main and web reinforcement were modeled. It was presumed that the bar element was
embedded into the concrete solid element.

4.2. Finite Element Modelling and Analysis Procedure

Concrete was modelled using eight-node isoparametric solid elements, with each side
equal to 2 cm. Cables and reinforcement were modeled using 2-node truss elements, which
were embedded in concrete elements. Load was applied as prescribed displacement, which
was applied in small steps, in order to simulate the experimental procedure and avoid local
failures. To evaluate the force–deflection response curves of the specimens, two monitoring
points were utilized. The first was placed in the loading plate and monitored the applied
load, which was essentially the reaction of the beam to the applied displacement. The

65
 Eng 2024, 5

second was located on the bottom surface of the R/C beam, right below the first one,
and monitored the corresponding displacement. The Modified Newton–Raphson iterative
scheme was applied with appropriate convergence criteria and the maximum number of
iterations. Table 3 summarizes the concrete and reinforcement model calibrations.

Table 3. Summary of model calibrations [47].

Details
Finite element type 8-node isoparametric solid elements
Failure mode Fracture under tension, plasticity under compression
Concrete
Crack formulation Smeared
Numerical modification Shear factor reduction
Finite element type 2-node truss elements
Constitutive model Uniaxial multilinear law
Reinforcement
Modeling type Embedded reinforcement
Bond type Full reinforcement–concrete bond
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 8
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Damage and Crack Patterns
B-3 3.0 170 450 Figure 2 provides85 images of the examined beams that
225 0.378demonstrate0.713typically observable
B-4 3.0 120 fracture patterns and
369 60 modes of failure.
184.5 Except for the tested beam,
0.325 B-3, which failed in a
0.584
B-5 3.2 110 compression
310 region in
55 the middle of
155the spans prior to a
0.355 shear failure,
0.491all of the examined
RPC beams failed under shear.

Figure Figure 2. Images

2. Images of thebeams’
of the tested testedshear
beams’ shear cracks.
cracks.

5.2. Load–Displacement Relationships

In Figure 3, the mid-span load (P)–deflection curves for the examined RPC beams
66
with various a/d ratios and varying vertical web reinforcement ratios (ρv) are displayed.
B-3 3.0 170 450 85 225 0.378 0.713
B-4 3.0 120 369 60 184.5 0.325 0.584
B-5 3.2 110 310 55 155 0.355 0.491

Eng 2024, 5

The ultimate strength (Pu,exp ) and diagonal cracking strength (Pcr ) of the examined
beams in this study are shown in Table 4. Following the development of flexural fractures
in the middle of the span, diagonal cracks often developed in the beam’s two shear spans.
The breadth of the flexural crack narrowed significantly after the formation of diagonal
shear cracks. Typically, a diagonal shear crack began abruptly in the center of the span of
a shear crack and spread toward the supports and load points as a result of an increase
in the load being applied. The already-present diagonal shear cracks only slightly spread
further as the load applied was increased, but a few new inclined cracks were also created.
Finally, the concrete fractured abruptly across the inclined crack due to shear failure. The
images demonstrate that the shear spans of the examined beams B-1, B-2, B-4, and B-5
failed due to significant concrete degradation, whereas beam B-3 fell due to crushing of
the compression zone in the middle of the span with an a/d of 3.0. According to the test
results, flexural failure may occur before shear failure when minimal reinforcement for
shear is provided within the distance of 0.5d recommended in ACI code [34]. The yielding
of shear reinforcement, however, may be seen before the yielding of flexural reinforcement
and the compression failure of beams with a distance that is higher than the minimal levels
required by code.

Table 4. Summary of the test findings for the shear-tested RPC beams.

Vcr Vu,exp
Beam a/d 2Vcr (kN) 2Vu,exp (kN) Vcr (kN) Vu,exp (kN) Vu,exp
√’
bd fc

B-1 3.0 130 403 65 201.5 0.323 0.638

B-2 3.0 110 369 55 184.5 0.298 0.584
B-3 3.0 170 450 85 225 0.378 0.713
B-4 3.0 120 369 60 184.5 0.325 0.584
B-5 3.2 Figure
110 2. Images of the
310 tested beams’
55 shear cracks. 155 0.355 0.491

5.2. Load–Displacement Relationships

5.2. Load–Displacement Relationships
In Figure 3, the mid-span load (P)–deflection curves for the examined RPC beams
with In Figurea/d
various 3, ratios
the mid-span load (P)–deflection
and varying curves for the examined
vertical web reinforcement ratios (ρv) RPC beams with
are displayed.
various a/d ratios and varying vertical web reinforcement ratios (ρv ) are displayed.

500
450
400
350
Load,P (kN)

300
250
200 B-5
150 B-4
B-3
100
B-2
50
B-1
0
0 1 2 3 4
Deflection (mm)

Figure 3. Mid-span load–deflection relationships for the shear-tested beams.

The beams exhibited fully elastic behavior when they were initially loaded. Overall,
the upward portion of the load–deflection curves was not significantly affected when
altering the tested beams’ ρv% when the a/d ratio was kept constant. The deflection values
of the examined beams with an equal a/d ratio and various ρv % values showed only slight
variations after being subjected to the ultimate load. Figure 3 shows that beam B-2 with an
a/d ratio of 3.0 and a supplied ρv of 0.10, the latter of which is lower than the minimum

67
 The beams exhibited fully elastic behavior when they were initially loaded. Overall,
the upward portion of the load–deflection curves was not significantly affected when al-
tering the tested beams’ ρv% when the a/d ratio was kept constant. The deflection values
of the examined beams with an equal a/d ratio and various ρv% values showed only slight
Eng 2024, 5
variations after being subjected to the ultimate load. Figure 3 shows that beam B-2 with
an a/d ratio of 3.0 and a supplied ρv of 0.10, the latter of which is lower than the minimum
specified by the code, exhibits a stiffness like that of beam B-1, with the same a/d ratio
specified
but by thea code,
providing exhibits
ρv of 0.20. Thearigidity
stiffnessoflike
thethat of beambeams
examined B-1, with the same decreases
significantly a/d ratio but
as
providing
the a ρrises.
a/d ratio v of 0.20. The rigidity to
In comparison of the
beamexamined beams
B-4, which hassignificantly
an a/d ratiodecreases as theB-5,
of 3.0, beam a/d
ratio rises.
which In a/d
has an comparison
ratio of 3.2,to is
beam
less B-4,
stiff.which has an a/d ratio of 3.0, beam B-5, which has
an a/d ratio of 3.2, is less stiff.
5.3. Strain Response
5.3. Strain Response
The maximum bending moment in the middle of the span of the examined beams’
The maximum bending moment in the middle of the span of the examined beams’
longitudinal steel strain revealed that the forms of tensile strain there are nearly uniform
longitudinal steel strain revealed that the forms of tensile strain there are nearly uniform
at all load levels. All of the tested beams failed before the longitudinal bars gave way. The
at all load levels. All of the tested beams failed before the longitudinal bars gave way.
tensile steel strain rose at an approximately constant rate. The longitudinal bars’ strain
The tensile steel strain rose at an approximately constant rate. The longitudinal bars’
values were unaffected by the development of inclined diagonal shear cracks. The longi-
strain values were unaffected by the development of inclined diagonal shear cracks. The
tudinal bars of the tested RPC beams’ strain measurements are roughly identical for the
longitudinal bars of the tested RPC beams’ strain measurements are roughly identical for
same a/d ratio. Figure 4 compares the recorded strain in the stirrups’ vertical legs in the
the same a/d ratio. Figure 4 compares the recorded strain in the stirrups’ vertical legs in the
shear span of the examined beams. As can be seen, the stirrup legs’ tensile steel strain
shear span of the examined beams. As can be seen, the stirrup legs’ tensile steel strain starts
starts out very low and increases roughly at a consistent rate. Upon initiation of the diag-
out very low and increases roughly at a consistent rate. Upon initiation of the diagonal
onal shear crack, the strain rate accelerates and eventually reaches the yield level just prior
shear crack, the strain rate accelerates and eventually reaches the yield level just prior to
to
thethe imposed
imposed ultimate
ultimate load.When
load. Whenthe thestirrup
stirrupleg
legyields,
yields,the
the measured
measured strain
strain grows
grows very
very
quickly
quickly while the load being applied decreases. At the same time, the shear crack breadth
while the load being applied decreases. At the same time, the shear crack breadth
increases
increases rapidly
rapidly till
till the
the concrete
concrete inin the
the zone
zone of
of shear
shear isis crushed.
crushed. The
The measured
measured strains
strains of
of
the
the examined beams at a similar load decreased for a similar a/d ratio after enlarging the
examined beams at a similar load decreased for a similar a/d ratio after enlarging the
stirrup’s
stirrup’s diameter
diameter andand decreasing
decreasing thethe distance between stirrups.
distance between stirrups.

550
500
450
400
350
Load,P (kN)

300
250
200 B-5
B-4
150 B-3
100 B-2
B-1
50
0
0 1 2 3
Strain of stirrups,ℇv = 10 ⁻³

Relationship between
Figure 4. Relationship
Figure betweenthe
theexamined
examinedbeams’
beams’total load
total andand
load strain in the
strain in stirrups’ vertical
the stirrups’ legs.
vertical
legs.
5.4. Effect of Web Reinforcement Ratio
Tableof4Web
5.4. Effect and Reinforcement
Figure 5 showRatio the impact of the given vertical reinforcements in terms of
the web ratio (ρv %) on the examined
Table 4 and Figure 5 show the impact beams’ ultimate
of the shear strength
given vertical and the strength
reinforcements in terms ofof
diagonal cracks in terms of the distance between stirrups and the diameter
the web ratio (ρv%) on the examined beams’ ultimate shear strength and the strength of of the stirrups’
bars. It iscracks
diagonal evident
in that
terms while diagonal
of the distancecracks formed
between more
stirrups slowly
and with a smaller
the diameter distance
of the stirrups’
between stirrups (s
bars. It is evident thatv ), they formed more quickly with a smaller diameter of the
while diagonal cracks formed more slowly with a smaller distance stirrup bars
(dv ). The stirrups
between growth (sofv),diagonal cracks
they formed wasquickly
more significantly
with aslower
smallerfor beam B-1,
diameter with
of the a 100 bars
stirrup mm
stirrup spacing (s v ), than it was for the comparable B-2 beam, with a 200
(dv). The growth of diagonal cracks was significantly slower for beam B-1, with a 100 mmmm stirrup spacing
(sv ). The emergence of diagonal cracking occurred more slowly in beam B-4, with an 8 mm
stirrup bar diameter and a 200 mm stirrup spacing (sv ), than in beam B-2, with a 6 mm
stirrup bar diameter and a 200 mm stirrup spacing (sv ). As can be observed, decreasing the
distance between stirrups had a greater inhibitory effect on the growth of diagonal cracks
than increasing stirrup diameter. The given stirrup spacings (sv ) for all the examined RPC
beams are noticeably greater than the maximum stirrup spacing (sv,max ) stipulated in the
ACI code [34]. The RPC beams strengthened using the widest possible stirrup spacing,
however, exhibited good overall performance.

68
 (ρv%) for beams B-1, B-2, B-4, and B-5 is lower than the minimal web reinforcement ratio
(ρv,min). Nevertheless, excellent general performance was seen for all of the examined RPC
beams that were strengthened via reinforcement of the web ratios (ρv%) smaller than the
minimal web reinforcement ratios (ρv,min) stipulated by the ACI code. This shows that
Eng 2024, 5 when used with RPC beams with 2.0% steel fibers, the minimal vertical reinforcement of
the web ratio specified by the ACI code can be properly lowered.

500
450
B-5
400
B-4
350
B-3
300

Load (kN)
B-2
250 B-1
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Width of diagonal crack (mm)

Figure 5. Development of diagonal cracks in RPC beams with various a/d ratios.
Figure 5. Development of diagonal cracks in RPC beams with various a/d ratios.
For RPC beams with relatively low heights, the sv,max requirements of ACI 318-2014
Stirrups play a critical role in reinforced concrete (RC) beams, including those made
are not practically appropriate and can be safely adjusted to 0.75d instead of 0.50d. Table 3
using reactive powder concrete (RPC). The configuration of stirrups significantly affects
shows that for the beams with an identical a/d ratio, the ultimate shear strength improves
the performance of RPC beams in terms of shear strength, ductility, crack control, flexural
marginally as the given vertical reinforcement of the web ratio (ρv %) rises. It should be
capacity, construction considerations, and material optimization. Proper detailing and op-
noticed that, in accordance with ACI 318-2014, the given reinforcement of the web ratio
timization
(ρv %) for beamsof stirrups are B-4,
B-1, B-2, essential
and B-5 for isensuring
lower than the the
structural
minimal integrity and longevity
web reinforcement of
ratio
RPC beams in various applications.
(ρv ,min ). Nevertheless, excellent general performance was seen for all of the examined RPC
beams that were strengthened via reinforcement of the web ratios (ρv %) smaller than the
5.5.
minimalAnalyzing
web the RPC Beam Test
reinforcement Results
ratios in )Relation
(ρv ,min stipulatedto the
byACI
the318-2014
ACI code. Code’s
This shows that
Shear Requirements
when used with RPC beams with 2.0% steel fibers, the minimal vertical reinforcement of
the web Theratio
ACI specified
318-14 code’sby the ACIdesign
shear code can be properly
formulas werelowered.
employed to determine the ulti-
mateStirrups play a critical
shear strength role in reinforced
of the examined RPC beams. concrete (RC)
It must bebeams,
mentionedincluding those2 made
that Table com-
using the
pares reactive
suppliedpowder
webconcrete (RPC). The
reinforcements configuration
(ρv) of the examined of beams
stirrups significantly
with the minimal affects
de-
the performance
mands of the ACIof318-14
RPC beams in terms
code, while Tableof shear
4 gives strength, ductility,the
a ratio between crack control,ultimate
estimated flexural
capacity,
shear construction
strength considerations,
(Vu,cal) utilizing the ACI and 318-14 material
code and optimization.
the estimated Proper detailing ulti-
experimental and
optimization
mate of stirrups
shear strength (Vu,expare essential
). As for ensuring
can be observed, thethe structural
average valueintegrity and longevity
for the evaluated beams’of
RPC
V beams
u,cal to in various
Vu,exp ratio applications.
according to the ACI 318-14 code is 0.403. This shows that despite every
one of the examined beams having stirrups with a spacing (sv) significantly greater than
5.5. maximum
the Analyzing the RPC Beam
stirrup spacingTest Results
(sv,max) in Relation by
required to the
ACIACI318-14,
318-2014
theCode’s Shear Requirements
measured readings of
The ACI 318-14 code’s shear design formulas were employed to determine the ultimate
shear strength of the examined RPC beams. It must be mentioned that Table 2 compares
the supplied web reinforcements (ρv ) of the examined beams with the minimal demands
of the ACI 318-14 code, while Table 4 gives a ratio between the estimated ultimate shear
strength (Vu ,cal ) utilizing the ACI 318-14 code and the estimated experimental ultimate
shear strength (Vu,exp ). As can be observed, the average value for the evaluated beams’
Vu ,cal to Vu,exp ratio according to the ACI 318-14 code is 0.403. This shows that despite every
one of the examined beams having stirrups with a spacing (sv ) significantly greater than the
maximum stirrup spacing (sv,max ) required by ACI 318-14, the measured readings of Vu,exp
for all of the examined beams were significantly higher than those specified by the code.
This demonstrates that the shear strength estimation formulae established by ACI 318-14
are not suitable for RPC beams as they do not account for the significant role that steel
fibers play in providing resistance to shear stresses. It should be noted that, in accordance
with ACI 318-14, steel fibers may be utilized as the beam’s reinforcement for shear if their
normalized shear strength is more than 0.29 (for f0 c ≤ MPa, d ≤ 600 mm). For all of the
examined RPC beams with a fiber percent of 2.0%, the normalized shear strength values in
Table 3 are significantly higher than 0.29, having an average value of 0.60.

69
Eng 2024, 5

5.6. Comparison of Test Results for RPC Beams with AFGC-2013 and KCI-2012
Design Recommendations
Two design suggestions have been put forth, with the first stemming from AFGC-2013
and the second from KCI-2012, to account for the role that steel fibers play in the construc-
tion of RPC structures. The ultimate shear strength of this study’s examined RPC beams
was estimated using the shearing design techniques specified in KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013,
and the results were contrasted with the experimental ultimate shearing strength shown in
Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5. Comparison of the experimental findings with the maximum shear strength specified by the
ACI 318-14 code.

ACI 318-14 Code

Beam Vu,exp (kN) Vu,cal
Vc (kN) Vs (kN) Vu ,cal (kN) Vu,exp

B-1 201.5 45.6 32.3 77.9 0.387

B-2 184.5 45.6 16.2 61.8 0.335
B-3 225 45.6 52.7 98.3 0.437
B-4 184.5 45.6 26.4 72 0.390
B-5 155 45.6 26.4 72 0.465

Table 6. Comparison of testing results and maximum shear strength computed using the RPC
design guidelines.

KCI-2012 AFGC-2013
Vu,exp
Beam Vfb Vu,KCI Vfb Vu,AFGC
(kN) Vc (kN) Vs (kN) Vu,exp
Vc (kN) Vs (kN) Vu,exp
(kN) (kN) Vu,KCI (kN) (kN) Vu,AFGC

B-1 201.5 37.2 87.4 24.9 149.5 1.348 37.6 90.4 29.1 157.1 1.283
B-2 184.5 37.2 87.4 12.5 137.1 1.346 37.6 90.4 14.5 142.5 1.295
B-3 225 37.2 87.4 40.6 165.2 1.362 37.6 90.4 47.4 175.4 1.283
B-4 184.5 37.2 87.4 20.3 144.9 1.273 37.6 90.4 23.7 151.7 1.216
B-5 155 37.2 87.4 20.3 144.9 1.07 37.6 90.4 23.7 151.7 1.022

As can be observed, the average value for the examined beams’ Vu,exp and Vu,AFGC
ratios is 1.280, while the average value for their Vu,exp and Vu,KCI ratios is 1.220. This shows
that, when used for RPC beams equipped with shear reinforcement below the minimum
requirement allowed by ACI 318-14, the KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013 forecasts for the ultimate
shear strength are secure and cautious. When AFGC-2013 and KCI-2012 recommendations
were compared for all of the examined beams, it was found that there were only very
slight variations among the projections of the ultimate shear strength. In actuality, the tiny
variation in the safety parameters taken into account by each methodology is what caused
the small variance in the forecasts of the two recommendations. In accordance with the
KCI-2012 recommendations, Table 5 demonstrates that the mean percent of the forecast
contributions of the fibers of steel (Vfb ) in comparison to the forecast ultimate shear strength
of the examined beams (Vu,KCI ) is roughly 59.2%, while the mean percent of the forecast
contributions of the shear reinforcement (Vs ) and concrete (Vc ) is only 40.8%. According to
the AFGC-2013 criteria, the mean proportion of Vfb to projected Vu,AFGC is roughly 58.3%,
whereas the mean proportion of Vs to Vc is just 41.7%.

5.7. RPC Beam Analytical Modeling Utilizing Finite Element Software

The RPC was represented using a mesh of eight-node linear 3D-brick solid elements
with reduced integration (C3D8R) based on their capability to simulate the physical behav-

70
 Eng 2024, 5

ior of RPC beams [48,49] with possible nonlinearities emanating from the plastic behavior
of RPC under shear loading. Longitudinal and shear reinforcement bars were schematized
with two-node linear 3D truss elements (T3D2). To avoid stress concentrations and simulate
the experimental setup of shear tests, supports and loading points were provided with
50 mm × 100 mm × 150 mm steel plates, which were also schematized with C3D8R
element types.
To simulate the four-point bending experimental setup [50], the model was constrained
4, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW by roller and pin boundary conditions at the left and right supports, respectively
13 (see
Figure 6). Displacement boundary conditions were applied at the loading plates with
respect to the required a/d ratio.

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. (a) A wire-frame model
Figure 6. (a) reinforcement
A wire-frame modelcage profile showing
reinforcement longitudinal
cage profile andlongitudinal
showing transverse and transverse
reinforcements and (b) a shaded model showing the loading and boundary condition profile with profile with the
reinforcements and (b) a shaded model showing the loading and boundary condition
the load applied taken to be P/2.
load applied taken to be P/2.

Table 7. Comparison of
Thethetie
experimental
constraintdata
waswith
usedthetonumerical model
define the using
contact a finite element
interaction of the RPC beam with
model. the four steel plates, while the embedded region interaction property was used for the
Cracking Load and Ultimate Load steel reinforcing bar–RPC
Cracking interaction, for both
Displacement transverse
and Maximum and longitudinal reinforcements
Displacement
𝑽𝒄𝒓,𝑵𝑼𝑴 𝑽𝒄𝒓,𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝑽𝒄𝒓,𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝑽𝒖,𝒆𝒙𝒑 (see Figure 6). After a careful mesh convergence
𝑽𝒖,𝑵𝑼𝑴 𝑽𝒖,𝒆𝒙𝒑 ∆𝒄𝒓,𝑵𝑼𝑴 ∆𝒄𝒓,𝒆𝒙𝒑 ∆𝒄𝒓,𝒆𝒙𝒑 ∆𝒖,𝒆𝒙𝒑 study ∆𝒖,𝑵𝑼𝑴taking
and into account node
∆𝒖,𝒆𝒙𝒑
(kN) 𝑽𝒄𝒓,𝑵𝑼𝑴 (kN) compatibility,
(kN) a mesh
𝑽𝒖,𝑵𝑼𝑴 (mm) size of 25 mm was found to
∆𝒄𝒓,𝑵𝑼𝑴 mm) be adequate
(mm) for the
∆𝒖,𝑵𝑼𝑴RPC matrix, steel
(kN) (mm)
plates, and longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcement bars.
72 76.5 1.06 201.5 185 1.089 0.5 0.34 0.68 1.75 1.95 0.897
Each example was created in accordance with the size and reinforcement details. The
51 57 1.12 184.5 178
ABAQUS1.037 program’s0.48 0.4
documentation 0.83 comprehensive
contains 1.85 2.1 information
0.881 on FEM for steel
88 83.5 0.95 225 255 0.882 0.31 0.33 1.07 2.2 1.98 1.11
reinforcement and concrete. As seen in Figure 7 for B-1, the tested beams’ FEM is visible
58 65 1.12 184.5 in the corresponding
174 1.06 0.24figure. Nonlinear
0.26 RPC and1.78
1.08 reinforcement
1.88 constitutive
0.947 models were
60 55 0.92 155 introduced
160.5 in this model.
0.966 0.47 Poisson’s
0.44 ratio was set 2.1
0.94 to 0.30, and
1.98the steel’s
1.06 elastic modulus (Es )

71
Eng 2024, 5

Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 14

was assumed to be 200 GPa. It was believed that the concrete and reinforcement would
always stick together perfectly.

Figure 7.
Figure RPC beam
7. RPC beamB-1B-1meshing
meshingand
andstress
stressdistribution
distributiondetermined
determinedusing
usinga afinite
finiteelement
elementmodel
model
(a) designed
(a) designed been
been (b)
(b) loaded
loaded beam.
beam.

According
500 to the results of this study’s experimental tests, the following proposed
simple equation was used to determine the elasticity modulus (Ec ) of RPC:
400 p
Ec = 3737 f 0 c (14)

For the300
tested beams with a compressive strength (fcu ) equal to 157 MPa, the normative
Load,P (kN)

value of Ec is equal to 48,929.5 MPa. The Poisson’s ratio is assumed to be equal to 0.20, and
the tensile strength
200
of RPC is considered to be 11 MPa.
The acquired results were contrasted with the outcomes for the RPC beams examined
in the current study in order to assess the Expprecision ofNum
the nonlinear finite element model.
100
Table 7 compares the ultimate load, the experimental crack load, and the projected results
for the examined beams derived from the FEM. For RPC beams, the average proportion of
Vcr,exp to Vcr,NUM
0 is equivalent to 1.034, whereas the average proportion of Vu,exp to Vu,NUM
is equivalent to 1.007.
0 Additionally,
1 the proportion
2 of ∆3cr,exp to ∆cr,NUM
4 has a mean value of
0.92, while the (a)proportion of ∆ u,exp
Deflection to ∆
(mm) u,NUM has a mean value of 0.979. This demonstrates
that for the examined RPC beams, the FEM model can accurately predict the ultimate shear
load and the diagonal cracking load. Figure 8 displays a comparison of the empirical and
400
numerical load–displacement curves for the examined beams. It can be observed that the
load–displacement response of the examined RPC beams can be well predicted by the
suggested nonlinear FEM.
300
Table 7. Comparison of the experimental data with the numerical model using a finite element model.
Load,P (kN)

Cracking Load and Ultimate Load Cracking Displacement and Maximum Displacement
Beam 200
Vcr,NUM Vcr,exp Vcr,exp Vu,exp Vu,NUM Vu,exp ∆cr,NUM ∆cr,exp ∆cr,exp ∆u,exp ∆u,NUM ∆u,exp
(kN) (kN) Vcr,NUM (kN) (kN) Vu,NUM (mm) (mm) ∆cr,NUM (mm) (mm) ∆u,NUM

B-1 72 76.5 1.06 201.5 185 1.089 0.5 0.34 0.68 1.75 1.95 0.897
100
B-2 51 57 1.12 184.5 178 1.037 0.48 Exp 0.4 0.83
Num 1.85 2.1 0.881
B-3 88 83.5 0.95 225 255 0.882 0.31 0.33 1.07 2.2 1.98 1.11
B-4 58 65 1.12 184.5 174 1.06 0.24 0.26 1.08 1.78 1.88 0.947
0
B-5 60 55 0.92 155 0 160.5 0.966
1 0.47 2 0.44 0.94
3 2.1 4 1.98 1.06

(b) Deflection (mm)

72
Eng 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 15

Eng 2024, 5

500

400

300
Load,P (kN)

200

Exp Num
100

0
0 1 2 3 4

(a) Deflection (mm)

400

300
Load,P (kN)

200

100 Exp Num

0
0 1 2 3 4

(b) Deflection (mm)

600

500

400
Load,P (kN)

300

200
Exp Num

100

0
0 1 2 3 4

(c) Deflection (mm)

Figure 8. Cont.

73
Eng 2024,
2024, 55, FOR PEER REVIEW 16

400

300

Load,P (kN)
200

100
Exp Num

0
0 1 2 3 4

(d) Deflection (mm)

400

300
Load,P (kN)

200

Exp Num
100

0
0 1 2 3 4
(e) Deflection (mm)

Figure 8. Comparison of the load–displacement curves for the examined beams using experimental
Figure 8. Comparison of the load–displacement curves for the examined beams using experimental
and numerical
and numerical data
data for
for (a)
(a) B-1,
B-1, (b)
(b) B-2,
B-2, (c)
(c) B-3,
B-3, (d)
(d) B-4,
B-4, and
and (e)
(e) B-5.
B-5.
6. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study’s findings regarding RPC
slender beams under shear:
i The offered shear reinforcement barely affects the maximum shear strength of the
tested RPC beams with a volume content of 2.0% steel fibers. These steel fibers are
crucial in helping RPC beams endure shear loads. Despite the fact that the examined
RPC shallow beams’ vertical web reinforcement ratio was far below the smallest
proportion specified by ACI 318-14, all of the examined RPC shallow beams displayed
excellent performance in general.
ii ACI 318-14’s shear strength calculation formulas significantly understate the shear
strength of the examined RPC beams that have a minimal vertical web reinforcement
ratio. As a result, these formulas are not suitable for RPC beams as they do not account
for the significant role that steel fibers play in resisting shear stresses. For RPC beams
with relatively low heights, the highest distance between stirrups (sv,max ) specified
according to the ACI 318-14 guidelines can safely be extended from 0.50 d to 0.75 d.
iii In light of the predicted ultimate shear strengths of the examined beams, the de-
sign suggestions for RPC specified by KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013 are secure and re-
strained. The ultimate shearing strength forecasts made by KCI-2012 and AFGC-2013
are roughly equivalent (the mean proportion of the experimental ultimate shear-

74
Eng 2024, 5

ing strength and the predicted ultimate shearing strength utilizing KCI-2012 and
AFGC-2013 are approximately 1.462 and 1.446, respectively).
iv According to the AFGC-2013 criteria, the mean proportion of Vfb to projected Vu,AFGC
is roughly 58.3%, whereas the mean proportion of Vs to Vc is just 41.7%.
v The deformation response and the ultimate shear strength of the examined RPC beams
with vertical reinforcement of the web ratio much below the lowest value permitted
by the code were reliably predicted by the suggested FEM when steel fibers were
taken into account.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.K.S. and G.F.H.; methodology, H.K.S.; software, H.K.S.;
validation, H.K.S. and G.F.H.; formal analysis, H.K.S.; investigation, G.F.H.; resources, H.K.S.; data
curation, H.K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, H.K.S.; writing—review and editing, G.F.H.;
visualization, H.K.S.; supervision, G.F.H.; project administration, H.K.S.; funding acquisition, G.F.H.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this research by
Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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77
Article
Numerical Investigation of the Seismic Performance of an
Innovative Type of Buckling-Restrained Brace (BRB)
Ali Naghshineh 1, *, Oliver Fischer 1 , Nasreen B. Pathan 2 , Logan Couch 2 and Fariborz M. Tehrani 2

1 School of Engineering and Design, Concrete and Masonry Structures, Technical University of Munich (TUM),
80290 Munich, Germany
2 Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Previous studies have demonstrated that the inclusion of tire-derived aggregate (TDA)
enhances the damping, ductility, and toughness of concrete mixtures. The effectiveness of tire-derived
aggregate as a ductile material with a higher damping ratio and lower density in buckling-restrained
braces has been examined at California State University’s Structures Laboratory (CSU). Through
experimental and theoretical investigations, this study compares the structural application of buckling-
restrained braces with TDA and with conventional concrete infill subjected to various ground motions
as well as artificial excitations. The evaluations include modeling a full-scale experimental setup
equipped with a single-leg BRB utilizing ETABS 2016 and OpenSees 2000 software. The effectiveness
of the application is demonstrated through a comparison of accelerations, displacements, stiffness,
and damping ratios between TDA and concrete filling. Additionally, a design guideline for TDA-filled
buckling-restrained braced frames is provided.

Keywords: tire-derived aggregate; seismic performance; experimental; steel frame; buckling-restrained

braced frame; ductility; toughness; passive control; dynamic response

1. Introduction
Citation: Naghshineh, A.; Fischer, O.;
Pathan, N.B.; Couch, L.; Tehrani, F.M. Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBFs) offer an alternative to conventional braced
Numerical Investigation of the frames, which have displayed poor performance during past earthquakes, including buck-
Seismic Performance of an ling failure, limited ductility, fraction in connections, and asymmetric hysteresis behavior.
Innovative Type of Buckling- A typical BRBF consists of a ductile steel core embedded in concrete and encased concrete
Restrained Brace (BRB). Eng 2023, 4, in a steel tube to prevent brittle failure modes.
2978–2990. https://doi.org/ This study explores the potential of modified concrete using waste tire chips that
10.3390/eng4040167 has a lower strength and stiffness yet a high toughness. However, when its strength falls
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi
too low, it becomes unsuitable for construction. The potential for increased strength and
stiffness at a reduced cost by substituting waste tires in the form of fibers instead of chips
Received: 14 September 2023 was investigated [1]. A total of 42 cylinders underwent testing for compressive strength,
Revised: 25 October 2023 split tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity. Twelve cylinders were prepared with
Accepted: 22 November 2023 waste tire chips, while thirty specimens were constructed using waste tire fibers, varying in
Published: 1 December 2023
terms of length and stiffness. The results indicated that using waste tire fibers in modified
concrete as opposed to waste tire chips leads to increased stiffness and strength. Moreover,
analytical studies confirmed that waste tire fibers could also reduce stress concentrations.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Further studies, such as beam fatigue tests, are necessary to evaluate the practical use
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of rubberized concrete in constructions. Rubberized concrete showed an improved heat
This article is an open access article transfer, but reduced sound absorption compared to standard concrete [2]. Testing involved
distributed under the terms and 64 specimens with varying levels of crumb rubber as a fine aggregate replacement. The
conditions of the Creative Commons results showed a decreased compressive and tensile strength, improved sound absorption,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and higher electrical resistivity in crumb rubber-modified blocks.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Aslani [3] investigated the effects of rubber types and content on various properties
4.0/). including compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity,

Eng 2023, 4, 2978–2990. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4040167 78 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

strain, and stress–strain curves. The investigation of large-size TDA material showed that
the unit weight of TDA depends on placement and compaction [4]. A whole yield and
the secant friction angles of 24 and 60 were set as the upper bound and lower bound, re-
spectively. The low unit weight of these materials makes them suitable for landslide repair
and weak foundation soils. The shear behavior tests of TDA with large-size particles were
performed, and the related properties and interface shear strength against concrete were
measured [5]. The internal failure was nonlinear, with a decreasing peak secant friction an-
gle from 39.6 to 30.2. In contrast, the TDA–concrete interface failure exhibited linear failure,
with a higher initial shear stiffness than the TDA’s internal shear test. Rubberized concrete
exhibits a superior impact resistance and enhanced damping properties for cost-effective
and flexible concrete barriers, in contrast to conventional concrete. However, increased tire
chips decrease the compressive strength while improving energy absorption [6–11]. The
impact of crumb rubber concrete on the ductility of profiled steel sheeting in composite
slabs was also examined to achieve the desired performance [12].
The ductility and energy absorption capacity of RC columns by incorporating concrete
waste tire rubber with varying compressive strengths, tire rubber size, and content were
investigated [13]. Twelve column specimens were tested using two types of concrete with
a compressive strength of 24 and 28 MPa and two different crumb rubber particle sizes
(0.6 and 1 mm). The results indicated a reduction in the modulus of elasticity, compressive
strength, and compressive load capacity when using waste tire rubber in concrete. More-
over, the lateral deformations and the energy dissipation capacity of column specimens
utilizing waste tire rubber concrete were double those of the conventional concrete speci-
mens. In addition, the curvature ductility increased to 45–90% with the inclusion of 0.5–1%
waste tire particles in concrete mixtures. Other published research on rubberized concrete
reported similar characteristics when incorporating rubber content in concrete mixtures.
Increasing the rubber content resulted in decreased flexural and compression strengths
but increased ductility, damping, toughness, sound isolation, and reduced density [14,15].
Therefore, the application of ductile materials with improved damping properties, such as
tire-derived lightweight aggregate concrete, can further enhance the overall performance
of the system.
In contrast to concrete, rubber is significantly softer and can tolerate far more defor-
mation before failing. Crumb rubber consists of smaller particles, while tire chips are larger
rubber particles used to replace fine and coarse aggregate in concrete [16]. The stress–strain
curve of rubber is nonlinear, initially exhibiting a lower stiffness before increasing, while
cement paste/mortals demonstrate brittle behavior with a higher compressive strength
compared to tensile/flexural strength, following a linear stress–strain curve. Addition-
ally, the inclusion of rubber-based aggregates results in decreased mechanical parameters,
like compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity.
Consequently, concrete containing a substantial proportion of rubber aggregate exhibited
enhanced ductility compared to conventional concrete [17–22].
In the present study, the application of an innovative single-leg BRB with TDA and
concrete infill is verified against the experimental tests conducted at the Structures Labo-
ratory of California State University (CSU), Fresno. Based on the experimental tests, four
models for a BRB with TDA and concrete filling are developed using ETABS and OpenSees
software [23,24]. The models are subjected to various artificial loadings, including har-
monic, periodic, and impulse loadings, as well as different ground motion loadings. The
results allow for a comparison between the experimental and analytical studies, cover-
ing the acceleration, displacement, stiffness, and damping ratios of BRBs with TDA and
concrete infill.

2. Tire-Derived Aggregate (TDA)

Tire-derived aggregate is derived from scrap tires accessible in a standard range
of practical sizes. TDA is classified into two types, Type A (75–100 mm) and Type B

79
Eng 2023, 4

(150–300 mm) [25]. The mechanical properties from two experimental investigations are
employed in the numerical simulations.
In the experimental study on tire-derived lightweight aggregate (TDLWA), the me-
chanical properties, including the compressive, splitting tensile, flexural strength, and
flexural toughness, and an impact flexure test of rubberized lightweight aggregate, were
investigated using 38 cylindrical and 36 beam specimens [26]. A target strength of 21 MPa
was specified, and the cylinder and beam specimens were composed of shale lightweight
coarse aggregate, natural sand fine aggregate, cement, and water. The TDA was then
incorporated into the cylinder and beam specimens via a replacement with replacement
ratios ranging from 0% to 100%. It was concluded that as the rubber content increased, the
static mechanical strength decreased, while the ductility and toughness increased. Hence,
these materials were found to be functional, particularly when energy absorption was a
critical aspect. Nevertheless, dynamic testing was limited, and further comprehensive
testing, both full-scale and small-scale, is warranted to gather more practical data.
The mechanical properties for TDA and concrete were conducted using six cylindrical
specimens (0.1 m × 0.2 m) in accordance with ASTM C39 and C78, and ASTM C496
standards [27]. The test included compression and split tensile tests, with loads applied at
rates of 0.24 MPa per second for compression and 48.9 kN per second for tensile testing.
The test results for the concrete and TDA cylinders are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Cylinder test results for concrete and TDA [27].

Cylinder Testing Compression Strength Cylinder Testing

Conventional concrete 34.6 11.2
TDA concrete 10.6 0.36

3. Buckling-Restrained Braces
Conventional steel-braced frames are used for lateral load resistance but have shown
poor performance in past earthquakes due to factors like limited ductility and connection
fractures. An alternative, buckling-restrained braces (BRBs), consist of a ductile steel core
encased in concrete, providing the necessary yielding mechanism and the potential for
enhanced seismic resistance. Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBFs) can be categorized
as one of the new types of seismic force-resisting systems, with the two primary bracing
configurations being single-leg and concentratedly braced frames. While a BRBF shares
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW some geometric similarities with a conventional CBF, it exhibits noticeable distinctions in4
terms of connections, members, hysteresis behavior, and ductility. Figure 1 presents the
BRBF details [28–30].

Figure 1. Single-leg buckling-restrained bracing and details [28–31].

Figure 1. Single-leg buckling-restrained bracing and details [28–31].

The primary aim of this study is to demonstrate TDA’s effectiveness as a filling ma-
80
terial in comparison to conventional concrete filling. Figure 2 provides the specifics of the
experimental buckling-restrained brace, with an effective length of 2.31 m (7’–7.0”) and a
 Figure 1. Single-leg buckling-restrained bracing and details [28–31].
Eng 2023, 4

The primary aim of this study is to demonstrate TDA’s effectiveness as a filling ma-
terial in comparison to conventional concrete filling. Figure 2 provides the specifics of the
The primary aim of this study is to demonstrate TDA’s effectiveness as a filling
experimental buckling-restrained brace, with an effective length of 2.31 m (7’–7.0”) and a
material in comparison to conventional concrete filling. Figure 2 provides the specifics of
totalthe
length of 2.51buckling-restrained
experimental m (8’–3.0”). Thebrace,
steelwith
coreancross-section, consisting
effective length of of 00an
2.31 m (70 –7.0 A36 plate
) and
measuring 6.23 cm
a total length in ×m0.32
of 2.51 0 cm ).(2.45
(8 –3.0 00 The in × 0.125
steel in), is designed
core cross-section, to withstand
consisting of an A36aplatelateral load
measuring
of 27.7 kN. 6.23 cm in × 0.32 cm (2.45 in × 0.125 in), is designed to withstand a lateral load
of 27.7 kN.

Figure 2. The experimental model of buckling-restrained brace [30].

Figure 2. The experimental model of buckling-restrained brace [30].
The initial stiffness (Kin ) of the buckling-restrained brace for both the TDA and concrete
fillings is determined
The initial stiffness using
(KinEquation
) of the (1), utilizing the experimental
buckling-restrained braceresults.
for both In this
theequation,
TDA and con-
A sc represents the steel core, E stands for the modulus of elasticity,
crete fillings is determined using Equation (1), utilizing the experimental results.and L wp is the work point In this
length, which can be predicated assuming minor angle changes. The axial deformation,
equation, Asc represents the steel core, E stands for the modulus of elasticity, and Lwp is
∆bx , is calculated as the product of the drift angle, qx , and the work point length, Lwp ,
the work pointbylength,
multiplied sin(2α),which
where can be predicated
α represents the BRBassuming minor angle
angle. Subsequently, the changes. The axial
yield length
deformation, Δbx, is by
ratio is computed calculated
dividing as
the the product
length of the drift
of the yielding angle,
region, qx,the
Ly , by and thepoint
work work point
length, Lwp . The initial stiffness is established based on the modulus of elasticity of the
length, L wp, multiplied by sin(2α), where α represents the BRB angle. Subsequently, the
yieldsteel core (A36)
length ratio [32], resulting inby
is computed a value of 71.255
dividing thekip/in
lengthforofboth
thethe BRB with
yielding TDA and
region, Ly, by the
concrete fillings.
work point length, Lwp. The initial stiffness is established based on the modulus of elastic-
Asc E
ity of the steel core (A36) [32], resulting kin in
= a value of 71.255 kip/in for both the (1) BRB with
Lwp
TDA and concrete fillings.
4. Experimental Setup
The setup consists of one bay in the X direction with a 2.02 m span length and two bays
in the Y direction, each spanning 0.762 m. The frame has a height of 2.44 m and utilizes
W6 × 9 and W6 × 15 (A992) for the columns and beams. Two concrete blocks, each
weighing 1035 Kg, are placed atop the frame. Lateral translation is controlled by two
wires with a 4.4 kN capacity, and the shake table measures 2.44 m × 2.06 m in the X and Y
directions. Three accelerometers were employed to measure the frame vibrations, located
at the northeast, southwest, and base of the frame (Figure 3).

81
 The setup consists of one bay in the X direction with a 2.02 m span length and two
bays in the Y direction, each spanning 0.762 m. The frame has a height of 2.44 m and
utilizes W6 × 9 and W6 × 15 (A992) for the columns and beams. Two concrete blocks, each
weighing 1035 Kg, are placed atop the frame. Lateral translation is controlled by two wires
with a 4.4 kN capacity, and the shake table measures 2.44 m × 2.06 m in the X and Y direc-
Eng 2023, 4
tions. Three accelerometers were employed to measure the frame vibrations, located at
the northeast, southwest, and base of the frame (Figure 3).

Figure3.3.AA
Figure 3-D
3-D and
and elevation
elevation view
view ofof the
the frame
frame [30].
[30].

5.5.Loadings
Loadings
Theselected
The selectedexcitations
excitationswere
wereacquired
acquiredfrom
fromthe
thePacific
PacificEarthquake
Earthquake Engineering
Engineering Re-
Re-
search (PEER) database
search (PEER) database [33]. The [33]. The scaling of ground motions was restricted to the base
scaling of ground motions was restricted to the base dis-
displacement of 12.17 cm (500 ) due to the limitations of the shake table. The frame was
placement of 12.17 cm (5”) due to the limitations of the shake table. The frame was sub-
subjected to increasing amplitude FEMA loadings [34] with varying time steps (0.00625 s,
jected
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEERtoREVIEW
increasing amplitude FEMA loadings [34] with varying time steps (0.00625 s,
0.003125 s, 0.0125 s) and with maximum displacements of 20.32 mm (0.8000 ) and 40.46 mm
0.003125 s, 0.0125 s) and with maximum displacements of 20.32 mm (0.80”) and 40.46 mm
(1.6000 ) in FEMA-2D. The analysis also included a 5 mm (0.200 ) frequency-increasing sweep
(1.60”) in FEMA-2D. The analysis also included a 5 mm (0.2”) frequency-increasing sweep
loading and impulse loading, as presented in Figures 4 and 5 [30].
loading and impulse loading, as presented in Figures 4 and 5 [30].

Figure 4. Ground motion

Figure loadings
4. Groundhistory
motion[33].
loadings history [33].

82
Eng 2023, 4

Figure 4. Ground motion loadings history [33].

Figure5.5.Artificial
Figure Artificialloadings
loadingshistory
history[30].
[30].

The
Thetime
timesteps forfor
steps each loading
each are calculated
loading according
are calculated to ASCE
according 41-17 [35]
to ASCE and[35]
41-17 FEMA
and
P-2208
FEMArevisions [36]; these
P-2208 revisions values
[36]; theseare tabulated
values in Table in
are tabulated 2. Table 2.

Table2.2.Selected
Table Selectedtime
timesteps
stepsfor
foracceleration
accelerationand
anddisplacement.
displacement.

Selected TS -Acceleration (s) Selected TSS-

Selected
TTSS T/100T/100 T90 T90Selected TS-Acceleration (s)
Loadings
Loadings (Min: 1 TS , T/100, T90 , and Displacement
Displacement
(s)(s) (s) (s) (s) (s)
(Min: 1 TS, T/100, T900.01
, and
s)
0.01 s) (s)
(s)
DUZCE
DUZCE 0.0050
0.0050 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145 0.0023 0.0023 0.0050
0.0050
ELCENTRO 0.0050
ELCENTRO 0.0050 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145
0.0023 0.0023 0.0050
0.0050
GAZLI 0.0066 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0066
GAZLI
LOMA 0.0066
0.0050 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145 0.0023 0.0023 0.0066
0.0050
TABAS
LOMA1 0.0169
0.0050 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145 0.0023 0.0023 0.0169
0.0050
TABAS 21
TABAS 0.004225
0.0169 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145 0.0023 0.0023 0.0042
0.0169
TABAS 32
TABAS 0.00845
0.004225 0.00230.0023 0.145 0.145 0.0023 0.0023 0.0084
0.0042
FEMA 1 0.00625 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0062
FEMA 2 0.003125 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0031
FEMA 3 0.0125 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0125
FEMA-2D-4 0.0125 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0125
Sweep 0.0125 0.0023 0.145 0.0023 0.0125
1T is the fundamental period of the structure, and T90 is the highest mode when T reaches 90% of modal mass
participation.

6. Simulation of Experimental Model

Four numerical models were developed based on the experimental tests using ETABS
and OpenSees software [23,24]. The weight of the existing blocks is applied as two-point
loads, each with a magnitude of 2.3 kip (10.21 kN) on the middle beam (2-L1&L2) and four-
point loads, each with a magnitude of 1.15 kip (5.1 kN) on the outer beams (1&3-L1&L2).
OpenSees is open-source, object-oriented software designed for earthquake engineer-
ing. It can be used to simulate structural responses through finite element computer
applications [37–40]. The simulated experimental BRB frame with both TDA and concrete
is depicted in Figure 6.

83
 four-point loads, each with a magnitude of 1.15 kip (5.1 kN) on the outer beams (1&
L1&L2).
OpenSees is open-source, object-oriented software designed for earthquake enginee
ing. It can be used to simulate structural responses through finite element computer a
Eng 2023, 4 plications [37–40]. The simulated experimental BRB frame with both TDA and concrete
depicted in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Simulation of experimental BRB frame using OpenSees software.

Figure 6. Simulation of experimental BRB frame using OpenSees software.
7. Results and Discussions
7. Results androof
Selected Discussions
acceleration–time diagrams for the BRB with concrete and TDA fillings,
based on the roof
Selected experimental findings in diagrams
acceleration–time the tension,forcompression,
the BRB with andconcrete
an average andof TDA
the filling
tension and compression along with the analytical results from ETABS and OpenSees soft-
based on the experimental findings in the tension, compression, and an average of t
ware [23,24], are presented in Figure 7 (concrete filling) and Figure 8 (TDA). All diagrams
tension and compression
demonstrate alongbetween
a strong agreement with the theanalytical
experimentalresults from ETABS
and analytical and
results. OpenSees
Figure 9 so
ware [23,24], are presented in Figure 7 (concrete filling) and
displays the maximum roof acceleration outcomes for the BRB with TDA and concreteFigure 8 (TDA). All diagram
fillings. The highest
demonstrate a strongroofagreement
accelerationbetween
for the BRBthewith concrete infilland
experimental wasanalytical
observed during
results. Figu
the Loma Prieta ground motion, with a maximum of 0.49
9 displays the maximum roof acceleration outcomes for the BRB with TDA andg in the tension, 0.44 g in the concre
compression, and an average acceleration of 0.46 g (experimental) and 0.42
fillings. The highest roof acceleration for the BRB with concrete infill was observed duri g (simulation).
For the frame subjected to the El Centro ground motion for the BRB with concrete infill, the
the Loma Prieta ground motion, with a maximum of 0.49 g in the tension, 0.44 g in t
minimum acceleration recorded was 0.24 g in the tension and 0.25 g in the compression,
compression,
with an average andacceleration
an average ofacceleration
0.245 g in the of 0.46 g (experimental)
experimental and 0.42
study and a similar g (simulatio
value of
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW For the frame subjected to the El Centro ground motion for the BRB
0.23 g for the analytical work. In the case of the BRB with TDA filling, Tabas (TS-0.004225) with concrete 8 infi
theexhibited
minimum the highest acceleration,
acceleration with 0.83
recorded wasg 0.24
in thegtension
in theand 0.64 gand
tension in the0.25
compression,
g in the compre
and an average of 0.735 g in the experimental study, compared to 0.89 g
sion, with an average acceleration of 0.245 g in the experimental study and a similar val in the analytical
work. Duzce displayed the lowest acceleration for the BRB with TDA filling, with an
ofwith
0.23angaverage
for the analytical work. In the
and case of the BRBin thewith TDA filling, Tabas (T
average of 0.075 of 0.075
g in g in the
the tension tension
and compression compression
in the experimental experimental
study and 0.08 study
g inand
0.004225)
0.08 exhibited
g in the analytical
the analytical the
study. study.highest acceleration, with 0.83 g in the tension and 0.64 g in t
compression, and an average of 0.735 g in the experimental study, compared to 0.89 g
the analytical work. Duzce displayed the lowest acceleration for the BRB with TDA fillin

Figure
Figure7.7.Comparison
Comparison of
of roof accelerationfor
roof acceleration forBRB
BRBwith
withconcrete
concrete filling
filling subjected
subjected to different
to different ground
ground
motions.
motions.

84
Eng 2023, 4
Figure 7. Comparison of roof acceleration for BRB with concrete filling subjected to different ground
Figure 7. Comparison of roof acceleration for BRB with concrete filling subjected to different ground
motions.
motions.

Figure 8. Comparison of roof acceleration for BRB with TDA filling subjected to different ground
Figure 8. Comparison
Figure 8. Comparison of roof
roof acceleration
acceleration for
for BRB
BRB with
with TDA
TDA filling
filling subjected
subjected to
to different
different ground
ground
motions.
motions.
motions.

Figure 9. Selected maximum roof acceleration for BRB with concrete (left) and TDA filling (right).
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Selected
Selected maximum
maximum roof
roof acceleration
acceleration for
for BRB
BRB with
with concrete
concrete (left)
(left)and
andTDA
TDAfilling
filling(right).
(right).

Hysteresis loops
loops of
Hysteresis loops of the
the BRB
BRB with
with TDA
TDA andand concrete
concrete infills are presented in Figure 10.
Hysteresis of the BRB with TDA and concrete infills
infills are
are presented
presented inin Figure
Figure 10.
10.
It is evident that the BRB with TDA infill dissipates less energy compared to the BRB with
It evident that
It is evident thatthetheBRB
BRBwithwith
TDATDA infill
infill dissipates
dissipates lessless energy
energy compared
compared to thetoBRB
the BRB
with
concrete infill. This observation aligns with the
the existing literature, indicating that the
the ad-
with concrete
concrete infill.infill.
This This observation
observation aligns
aligns withwith the existing
existing literature,
literature, indicating
indicating thatthat the
ad-
dition of rubber content in concrete mixtures leads to reduced flexural and compressive
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW addition
dition ofof rubbercontent
rubber contentininconcrete
concretemixtures
mixturesleads
leadstoto reduced
reduced flexural
flexural and compressive
compressive 9
properties.
properties. A similar conclusion is drawn from the experimental work, which can be
be at-
properties. Asimilar
A similarconclusion
conclusionisisdrawn
drawnfrom fromthethe experimental
experimental work,
work, which
which cancan be
at-
tributed
tributed to the unbinding of the rubber content within concrete mixtures.
attributed toto theunbinding
the unbindingofofthe therubber
rubbercontent
contentwithin
withinconcrete
concretemixtures.
mixtures.

Figure 10. Results of hysteresis curves for BRB with TDA and concrete infills subjected to Tabas
Figure 10. Results of hysteresis curves for BRB with TDA and concrete infills subjected to Tabas
motion: TS-0.004225 (left), TS-0.00845 (right).
motion: TS-0.004225 (left), TS-0.00845 (right).

Figure
Figure 11 compares the
11 compares thebackbone
backbonecurves
curvesofofthe
theanalytical
analytical and
and thethe experimental
experimental testtest
for
for both BRB models with TDA and concrete fillings under FEMA 4 loading.
both BRB models with TDA and concrete fillings under FEMA 4 loading. The analytical The analyti-
cal
andand experimental
experimental results
results exhibit
exhibit a consistent
a consistent trend,trend, revealing
revealing thatBRB
that the thewith
BRBTDA
with filling
TDA
filling
is less is less ductile
ductile compared
compared to the conventional
to the conventional concrete.
concrete.

85
 Figure 10. Results of hysteresis curves for BRB with TDA and concrete infills subjected to Tabas
motion: TS-0.004225 (left), TS-0.00845 (right).

Figure 11 compares the backbone curves of the analytical and the experimental test
for both BRB models with TDA and concrete fillings under FEMA 4 loading. The analyti-
Eng 2023, 4
cal and experimental results exhibit a consistent trend, revealing that the BRB with TDA
filling is less ductile compared to the conventional concrete.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Comparison
Comparison of
of hysteresis
hysteresis curves
curves of
of analytical
analytical and
and experimental
experimental works
works for
for BRB
BRB with
with TDA
TDA
(left) and with concrete filling (right).
(left) and with concrete filling (right).

The
The maximum roof roofdisplacements
displacementsfor forthe
theBRBBRB with
with TDA TDA andand concrete
concrete infills
infills are
are pre-
presented in Figure
sented in Figure 12. 12.
TheTheBRBBRB frameframe
withwith concrete
concrete infillinfill
showedshowed the maximum
the maximum roofroof
dis-
displacements
placements of of 3.08
3.08 (in)
(in) ininthe
thetension
tensionand and2.97
2.97(in)
(in)in
inthe
the compression
compression during the Gazli Gazli
ground
ground motion,
motion, with
with minimum
minimum roof roof displacements
displacements of 0.38 0.38 (in)
(in) and
and 0.28
0.28 (in)
(in) subjected
subjected to to
sweep
sweep loading.
loading. Analytically, the highest highest andand lowest
lowest displacements
displacements were 2.75 (in) (in) for
for the
the
Gazali
Gazali loading
loading and
and 0.49
0.49 (in)
(in) for
for sweep
sweep loading.
loading. The The BRB
BRB frame
frame with
with TDA
TDA under
under the the Tabas
Tabas
(TS-0.00845)
(TS-0.00845)ground
groundmotion
motionhad had the maximum
the maximum displacement
displacement of 2.67 (in) (in)
of 2.67 in thein tension and
the tension
2.3
and(in)
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 2.3in theincompression
(in) the compression for the
forexperimental
the experimental study, and 2.7
study, andin2.7theinanalytical work.work.
the analytical The 10
minimum
The minimum roof displacement
roof displacement was 0.63
was(in)
0.63 in(in)
the intension and 0.43
the tension and(in) in the
0.43 (in)compression
in the compres- for
the
sionexperimental frame, and
for the experimental 0.7 (in)
frame, andfor
0.7the simulated
(in) work under
for the simulated workFEMA-0.0125 loading.
under FEMA-0.0125
loading.

Figure 12. Maximum displacements for BRB with TDA and concrete fillings.
Figure 12. Maximum displacements for BRB with TDA and concrete fillings.

The effective stiffness is determined using a 1-inch impulse load, while system damp-
ing is derived from FEMA86 4 loading based on the deformation response data. In both the
experimental and analytical setting, the average effective stiffness of the BRB with concrete
Eng 2023, 4

The effective stiffness is determined using a 1-inch impulse load, while system damp-
ing is derived from FEMA 4 loading based on the deformation response data. In both the
experimental and analytical setting, the average effective stiffness of the BRB with concrete
filling is 26.5 Kip/inch and 28 Kip/inch, respectively. For the BRB with TDA filling, the
effective stiffness decreases to 20 Kip/inch in the experimental work and 21 Kip/inch in the
analytical work. The damping ratios for the BRB with TDA filling exhibited a significant
increase compared to the BRB with concrete infill, as shown in Table 3. The BRB with TDA
demonstrated a notable 51% increase in damping compared to the conventional system.

Table 3. Buckling-restrained braced frame (BRBF)—damping ratio and stiffness (comparison of

experimental and analytical results).

Damping Ratio (%)

Description Experimental Analytical
Tension Compression Tension Compression
BRBF with TDA filling 16% 26% 25% 25%
BRBF with concrete filling 13% 17% 14% 14%
Stiffness (Kip/in)
Experimental Analytical
Tension Compression Tension Compression
BRBF with TDA filling 19 21 21 21
BRBF with concrete filling 26 27 28 28

8. Design Guideline
ASCE 7 [41] establishes essential system design parameters, system-independent
criteria, seismic hazard levels, redundancy, limitations, and conditions related to structural
irregularities. AISC 341 [29] offers comprehensive design and detailing guidelines for
individual structural elements, connections, and requirements to ensure the desired ductile
behavior. In the context of a buckling-restrained braced frame (BRBF) system, the structure
is expected to withstand significant inelastic deformation demands. Therefore, ASCE 7 [41]
assigns the most prominent response modification coefficient (R = 8). The following steps
and design procedures are recommended for a BRBF system with TDA infill:
The application of ductile tire-derived lightweight aggregate concrete significantly
enhances the overall system performance. To achieve this, it is crucial to assess the me-
chanical properties of both the TDA and concrete including the compressive, flexural, and
splitting tensile strength, toughness, and modulus of elasticity, among other important
criteria, prior to the design process. This study relies on the experimental tests to determine
these mechanical properties [15,16].
The reduction factors for buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBFs) depend on the
building height and bracing configurations. To obtain more realistic results, it is recom-
mended to calculate the response modification factor using pushover response curves [35].
However, in accordance with the current American code, ASCE 7 [41], BRBFs shall be
designed based on the prescribed reduced reduction factor R. Then, select the appropriate
load combinations.
The strength of the steel core can be defined as either the actual yield stress obtained
from a coupon test or the specified minimum yield stress of the steel core. The design of
the steel core must ensure its ability to resist axial forces within the brace [27].
The analysis and design of the BRB and control inelastic design level of the BRB
strain and drift should adhere to the provisions outlined in AISC 341, ASCE 7, and ASCE
41 [29,35,41]. For the expected deformation, the greater value of either 0.02 times the story
height (hsx ) or 2 times the story drift (∆x ) should be considered.
Subsequently, the forces on the BRB are transferred to the connections, columns, and
beams. Therefore, the design of the beams, columns, and connections should accommodate

87
Eng 2023, 4

the adjusted brace strength while remaining within the elastic zone. Additionally, all beam
to column joints must guarantee sufficient shear strength to handle the extra forces from
adjoining braces.

9. Conclusions
• This study compares experimental and analytical outcomes for a single-story steel
frame utilizing buckling-restrained braces filled with TDA and concrete. It demon-
strates the effectiveness of using tire-derived aggregates (TDAs) as an alternative
material. It examines the innovative buckling-restrained brace with TDA infill, con-
sidering its potential for sustainability through reduced CO2 emissions. A BRB with
TDA contributes to sustainability and improves the damping properties compared to a
conventional BRB with concrete infill. It provides numerical and experimental insights
into structural responses, enhancing the existing knowledge. This study yields the
following key conclusions:
• Analytical and experimental investigations on buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) with
TDA infill have demonstrated a 25% increase in frame damping compared to a con-
ventional BRB with a damping rate of approximately 14%. When higher damping is
required, both the experimental and analytical findings suggest the use of a BRB with
TDA infill. However, it is worth noting that a BRB with TDA filling offers a superior
damping but reduced ductility compared to regular concrete, owing to the lower
strength of TDA concrete, which cannot sufficiently delay steel core plate buckling as
conventional concrete does [30].
• In general, a BRB with TDA filling reduced acceleration by approximately 20% com-
pared to conventional concrete filling. The experimental study showed average accel-
eration values of 1.15 g with concrete and 0.91g with TDA fillings, while the analytical
study results were 1.16 g with concrete and 0.89g with TDA fillings.
• The displacement value for the frame with the BRB and concrete infill was 2.44 (in)
in the experimental and 2.26 (in) in the analytical study. Consequently, the BRB
with TDA filling exhibits a lower ductility compared to the BRB with conventional
concrete filling.
• A comparison of the hysteresis curves in both the analytical and experimental works
revealed a similar trend in the backbone curves for the BRB with TDA and concrete
infills subjected to FFEMA 4 loading. Furthermore, it was determined that the BRB
with TDA infill absorbs less energy than the BRB with concrete infill, implying a lower
ductility in the BRB with TDA infill compared to conventional concrete.
Additional experimental tests and numerical analyses in the future are necessary to
fully understand the impact of a BRB with TDAFRC infill on the system performance.
These studies may explore the potential for enhancing the ductility by incorporating fibers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.N., N.B.P. and L.C.; Methodology, A.N. and N.B.P.;
Software, A.N.; Validation, A.N. and N.B.P.; Formal analysis, A.N.; Supervision, O.F. and F.M.T. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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90
Article
Assessment of Groundwater Contamination in the Southeastern
Coast of Brazil: A Potential Threat to Human Health in
Marica Municipality
Maria Cristina M. Publio 1,2 , Jessica F. Delgado 1,2 , Bruno S. Pierri 1 , Leonardo da S. Lima 1,2 ,
Christine C. Gaylarde 2,3 , José Antônio Baptista Neto 1,2,4 , Charles V. Neves 2 and Estefan M. Fonseca 1,2, *

1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Dinâmica dos Oceanos e da Terra, Universidade Federal Fluminense,

Niterói 24210-346, RJ, Brazil; [email protected] (M.C.M.P.); [email protected] (J.F.D.);
[email protected] (B.S.P.); [email protected] (L.d.S.L.); [email protected] (J.A.B.N.)
2 Aequor-Laboratório de Inteligência Ambiental, R. Joaquim Eugênio dos Santos, 408-Eldorado,
Maricá 24901-040, RJ, Brazil; [email protected] (C.C.G.); [email protected] (C.V.N.)
3 Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, Oklahoma University, 770 Van Vleet Oval,
Norman, OK 73019, USA
4 LAGEMAR—Laboratório de Geologia Marinha, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Instituto de
Geociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Avenida Litorânea s/n, Niterói 24210-340, RJ, Brazil
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Groundwater pollution is a current issue that may result in considerable negative effects on
human health and the ecological balance. In the present study, the authors evaluated pollutants in
groundwater in Maricá Municipality, located on the east side of Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil. The
evaluated parameters were temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, Eh, dissolved oxygen, chlorides,
nitrates, dissolved organic carbon, total inorganic carbon, phosphates, and total and thermotolerant
coliforms. Due to the large number of evaluated points, they were divided into zones according to
the respective hydrographic basin. The local accelerated urbanization accompanying income from
oil production has led to uncontrolled population growth and associated groundwater pollution.
Citation: Publio, M.C.M.; Delgado,
The results of the present study suggest that sewage pollution of Maricá groundwater is already
J.F.; Pierri, B.S.; Lima, L.d.S.;
a significant issue. The lack of investment in basic sanitation has led to an imbalance in the local
Gaylarde, C.C.; Baptista Neto, J.A.;
groundwater reservoir. In certain locations of the municipality, dissolved organic carbon (DOC),
Neves, C.V.; Fonseca, E.M.
Assessment of Groundwater
nutrient, and bacteria concentrations increase and spread in the aquifers because of domestic waste
Contamination in the Southeastern disposal. As aquifers are the main source of freshwater for the residents, contamination of them
Coast of Brazil: A Potential Threat to represents a potential threat to local public health.
Human Health in Marica
Municipality. Eng 2023, 4, 2640–2655. Keywords: organic matter; pollution indicators; sewage; domestic pollution
https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4040151

Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi

Received: 4 September 2023 1. Introduction

Revised: 10 October 2023 Groundwater is the largest global source of freshwater, representing a fundamental
Accepted: 13 October 2023
reservoir for humanity that is exploited for domestic, agricultural, and industrial pur-
Published: 17 October 2023
poses [1]. About 30% of the Earth’s population uses groundwater as drinking water [2]. It
is especially essential in arid and semi-arid areas, where rain is scarce and there are few
surface water reserves [3]. Preserving an unpolluted and renewable source of groundwater
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. for human demands represents one of the biggest challenges of sustainable development
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. for every country [4]. This is even more important in the present scenario of global warm-
This article is an open access article ing and the consequent rise in sea levels, which may result in the salinization of several
distributed under the terms and subterranean water reservoirs located in coastal regions [5]. Additionally, uncontrolled
conditions of the Creative Commons human occupation and agglomeration, excessive urbanization, agricultural and industrial
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// activities, and uncontrolled water exploitation all negatively impact groundwater quality
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and availability [6].
4.0/).

Eng 2023, 4, 2640–2655. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4040151 91 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

Groundwater contamination due to organic pollutants such as hydrocarbons and pes-

ticides and inorganic substances like heavy metals, microplastics, and endocrine disruptors
poses a substantial threat to human health [7,8]. During the last three decades, several
authors have considered the chemical pollution of groundwater [6,9–13]. Although the
major pollutants are of geologic origin, resulting from dissolution of the aquifer rock within
the Earth’s crust [14–16], the recent increase in the world’s population has led to increases
in anthropogenic contaminants. The most impacted areas are those that are experiencing
rapid economic development [17–19]. Several researchers have focused on the impact of
megacities on groundwater [20,21], but few scientists have evaluated small coastal cities,
where urbanization has recently intensified.
The Brazilian coastal area currently comprises 40% of the country’s total population.
Although some coastal cities in Brazil have moderate groundwater demand, the constant
population increase tends to intensify groundwater exploitation [22]. Because of the recent
discovery of the huge petroleum reservoir in the oceanic pre-salt layer and oil production
expansion, certain Brazilian municipalities located on the southeast coastal zones have
benefited from fees charged by the oil extraction industry and are now facing new social
and environmental impacts [23]. One of the main results is exponential migration and the
resulting increase in population accompanying new job opportunities. This has occurred in
the coastal city of Maricá.
The present study provides a diagnosis and spatial groundwater chemical and micro-
biological characterization of wells from sedimentary and fissured aquifers in this recently
urbanized coastal area. It discusses contamination and salinization of aquifers, identifying
patterns that may be occurring in many recently urbanized coastal regions in Brazil. One of
the main objectives of the present study is, through the assessment of groundwater quality
in the coastal municipality of Maricá, to inquire about whether the royalty payments from
the oil industry to these municipalities have helped mitigate secondary socio-environmental
impacts arising from oil production or whether these same payments have generated new
problems, particularly in water quality, due to the local population increase resulting from
the pursuit of new income opportunities.

2. Study Site
Maricá is a municipality of the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, located on the
Atlantic coast. Its geology is marked by the presence of metamorphic, igneous, and
sedimentary rocks, with great geodiversity. It includes the Jaconé beachrocks, whose
sedimentary formations were described by Darwin and are considered natural heritage of
high geological, environmental, landscape, and cultural relevance.
The coastal geomorphology of Maricá presents an ecologically important lagoonal
system, composed of four main lagoons and two sandy barriers that isolate the coastal
system from the adjacent sea. Its sedimentary history, architecture, and evolution took
place in the Quaternary. It is composed of six lithological units forming three sedimentary
sequences compartmented by erosive surfaces [24]. As for the geological aspects, the
coast located to the west of the Cabo Frio point undergoes a sudden inflection, having an
east–west alignment, and is called the Coastal Cords coast [21]. In structural terms, it is
part of a geological complex composed predominantly of granite and gneiss, represented
in the landscape by coastal massifs.
The aquifers found in the area are of the granular type, comprising heterogeneous
alluvial deposits and portions of soil and weathered rock. Alluvial sediments are composed
predominantly of quartz sands and, subordinately, silty and clayey soils, which occur in
the vicinity of the lagoons. These are due to the formation of the coastal lowland during the
last transgression and regression movements in the Holocene, between 5000 and 7000 years
ago. The coastal lowland is formed by lateral variations parallel to the coastline, with
sandy highs and low vegetation typical of restinga and sandy-clay wetlands. These make
up the marshes and mangroves in the region. The underground water horizon level is
generally near the soil surface, at depths from a few centimeters to a few meters. In the

92
 water is generally less brackish than in the swampy lowlands [25]. The municipality h
groundwater as its main source of freshwater. With the growing demand for water r
sources underground, supply and contamination problems are expected, in addition
the phenomenon of seawater intrusion in these aquifers. The groundwater resource in th
Eng 2023, 4
target area has been suffering degradation in its quality in response to the advance of th
marine saline wedge, brought about by excessive uncontrolled pumping and organic po
lutionarea
[25].of the sands, which corresponds to the shallowest places, the water is generally less
brackish than in the swampy lowlands [25]. The municipality has groundwater as its main
source of freshwater. With the growing demand for water resources underground, supply
3. Methodology
and contamination problems are expected, in addition to the phenomenon of seawater
Aintrusion
total ofin 124 groundwater samples were collected through pre-installed wells a
these aquifers. The groundwater resource in the target area has been suffering
readydegradation
in use by the in itspopulation in the to
quality in response plain area ofofthe
the advance theMaricá Basinwedge,
marine saline (Figure 1) during th
brought
winterabout by excessive
season. The pointsuncontrolled pumpinginto
were divided and organic pollution
nine zones with[25].
different urban occupatio
degrees and with different hydrographic basins. All of the groundwater samples we
3. Methodology
kept in a portable refrigerator and transported back to the lab at 4 °C to be analyzed with
A total of 124 groundwater samples were collected through pre-installed wells already
one week.
in useChemical examination
by the population of the
in the plain area groundwater
of the Maricá Basin included
(Figure determination of the tem
1) during the winter
perature, pH,
season. Theelectrical
points were conductivity, Eh,zones
divided into nine turbidity, dissolved
with different urbanoxygen,
occupationdissolved
degrees solid
and with different hydrographic basins. All of the groundwater samples
chlorides, nitrates, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon, phosphates, were kept in a an
portable refrigerator and transported back to the lab at 4 ◦ C to be analyzed within one week.
total and thermotolerant coliforms. Proper sampling techniques and handling were use
Chemical examination of the groundwater included determination of the temperature,
to produce high-quality data. Brown glass sampling bottles, which had been previous
pH, electrical conductivity, Eh, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, chlorides,
cleaned with deionized
nitrates, dissolved water,
organic underwent
carbon, a triple rinse
dissolved inorganic carbon,with water and
phosphates, collected
total andfrom eac
thermotolerant
sampling coliforms.
location before Proper
being sampling
used techniques Each
for sampling. and handling
rinsingwere used
cycle to produce
utilized a volume
high-quality data. Brown glass sampling bottles, which had been previously
2.5 L. Subsequently, these bottles were transported to the laboratory within 24 h for pr cleaned with
deionized water, underwent a triple rinse with water collected from each sampling location
liminary processing. The water samples were analyzed in accordance with the testing pr
before being used for sampling. Each rinsing cycle utilized a volume of 2.5 L. Subsequently,
cedures outlined
these in the
bottles were Groundwater
transported Quality Standard
to the laboratory within 24 h(GB/T 14848-2017
for preliminary [26]).
processing.
The water samples were analyzed in accordance with the testing procedures outlined in
the Groundwater Quality Standard (GB/T 14848-2017 [26]).

Figure 1. Study site and sampling stations in the 9 pre-determined zones.

Figure 1. Study site and sampling stations in the 9 pre-determined zones.

93
Eng 2023, 4

The first five parameters (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, Eh, dissolved
oxygen) were measured in situ using a multiparameter Horiba U10 probe. The chloride
analysis used back titration with potassium thiocyanate. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
was determined via the method defined by Van Hall et al. [27]. Interferences from particu-
late carbon and inorganic carbon were removed before analysis via filtration through glass
fiber filters and sparging with CO2 -free gas after acidification of the sample [28]. Phosphate
and nitrate were analyzed via colorimetric methods.
To determine bacterial levels, water samples were plated on mFC (membrane fecal
coliform agar) and typical colonies identified as E. coli with EC-MUG (Escherichia coli-
methylumbelliferyl-β-D-glucuronide) medium. The 124 samples obtained during the
present study were also evaluated directly for E. coli through modified mTEC (membrane
thermotolerant Escherichia coli) agar [29].
Data for all parameters were tested for homoscedasticity and normality before being
submitted to one-way ANOVA (variance analyses) to test whether there was a statistical
difference between the zones. The Tukey test was used to compare average values when
necessary. Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed between the total coliform data
and the other parameters. All statistical analyses were performed using the GraphPrism
8.0 software (GraphPad Software—v.10.0.3), accepting 5% variation as significant.

4. Results and Discussion

The chemical constitution of groundwater is directly influenced by the composition
of the water percolating the soil, as well as the resulting by-products and kinetically
controlled reactions within the aquifer basin and overlying subsoil coverage [30]. As a
universal solvent, water mobilizes minerals from the soil and bedrock with which it comes
into contact. The physicochemical characteristics of drinking water, on the other hand
(temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen levels, conductivity, turbidity, organic matter and NH3,
potential contaminants and other chemical constituents), eventually impact its portability,
in some cases influencing consumers’ health, possibly as a result of the survival of harmful
microorganisms [31].
Surface water temperature controls the metabolism of the aquatic ecosystem. For in-
stance, relatively high water temperatures may reduce its ability to hold essential dissolved
gasses like oxygen, potentially killing fish and other water organisms [32]. Variations
in groundwater temperature may trigger changes in biogeochemical mechanisms in the
subsurface environment, impacting water quality [33,34]. Laboratory assays allow for the
identification of processes like carbonate precipitation, silicate dissolution, mobilization of
cations, trace elements, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) [35–39]. In the present study,
the temperature values varied between 21.5 and 29.61 ◦ C, with one anomalous record
of 35.1 ◦ C (average of 24.83 ◦ C). Opportunistic pathogens, including Legionella spp., can
grow in the water systems in buildings, representing a critical public health issue [40,41].
According to World Health Organization, water temperature is important for the control of
Legionella spp., and water temperatures should be maintained above 50 ◦ C to prevent the
growth of this organism [42].
PH represents one of the main physicochemical parameters influencing the behavior
of water-quality parameters as well as pollutant concentrations in aquatic ecosystems [43].
This parameter also influences the communities of bacteria and other microorganisms. In
general, relatively high or low pH conditions can make water improper for certain purposes.
At higher pH levels, metals tend to precipitate, whereas other compounds like ammonia
become toxic to aquatic life, releasing bad odors and tastes [44]. At lower pH levels, heavy
metals tend to dissolve, becoming bioavailable, and chemicals like cyanide and sulfide
become more toxic. The pH values determined in the present study are presented in Table 1.
Of the 124 sampling stations, 47 showed pH values in disagreement with Brazilian
legislation, which represents almost 38% of the monitored points. Every zone had at least
two sampling stations presenting values above the minimum allowed by the Brazilian law
CONAMA 357/05. It is important to emphasize that the minimum pH value in zone 02

94
Eng 2023, 4

(3.11) is alarming. This value is close to the pH for solutions such as vinegar and orange
juice. Additionally, five other sampling stations in zone 02 recorded pH values below 5.00.
There was no statistically significant difference in pH values among the zones (p > 0.05).

Table 1. Summary of the pH values of all areas sampled.

N◦ of Points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 5.92 5.01 6.88 06 66.66
02 5.83 3.11 6.97 10 34.48
03 6.52 4.92 7.54 02 11.76
04 6.18 4.95 7.91 07 43.75
05 6.17 5.23 7.20 6.00 to 9.00 03 50.00
06 6.23 5.43 7.09 06 50.00
07 6.25 5.69 6.97 03 30.00
08 5.95 3.45 7.25 07 38.88
09 6,04 4,88 6,79 03 42,85

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the equivalent Arabian legislation
suggest that the pH of water sources should be maintained at between 6.5 and 8.5. Ac-
cording to Nasseem et al. (2022), it is better to have greater alkalinity, below 7.0, in human
drinking water, since it keeps the water safe for drinking. According to the same authors,
acidic water with a pH of less than 6.5 suggests potential contamination with pollutants,
making it unsafe for drinking purposes. Additionally, water with a pH < 6.5 could be
corrosive, leaching metal ions such as Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Zi from the aquifer rocks
or transporting piping nets [6]. Throughout the present study, water pH values were more
acidic than those acceptable by the legislation, varying at around 6.04, and several times
being below 6. In fact, 81 sampling stations (approximately 65%) showed unacceptable
pH values.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels have a direct impact on groundwater quality by regu-
lating the valence state of heavy metals and the microbial catabolism of dissolved organic
compounds [45]. A decrease in dissolved oxygen levels can result in anaerobic patterns,
which negatively impacts aquatic organisms. The organic matter potentially released from
surface sources through a groundwater reserve, on the other hand, can rapidly decrease the
dissolved oxygen in the groundwater, turning it into a reducing underground environment
more susceptible to the dissolution of the Fe and Mn that compose the aquifer rocks [46].
The Brazilian law CONAMA 357/05 suggests a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration
of drinking water of 6.00 mg·L−1 . In the present study, the recorded oxygen levels (Figure 2)
suggest a high oxygen demand in some zones. Zones 05 and 07 showed DO concentrations
of 4.21 and 4.93 mg·L−1 , respectively. On the other hand, the other seven zones did not
suggest a high oxygen demand, with DO concentrations varying at around 6 mg/L. When
we compared the DO concentration of zones 05 and 07 with that in zone 08, we found a
statistically significant difference between them.
The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sometimes showed high concentrations, espe-
cially in the most urbanized zones. The DOC averages varied. All zones had at least
two collection points whose values exceeded the CONAMA 357/05 limit of 10 mg·L−1 .
Only one zone (zone 03) had an average value above the maximum allowed by law. Ap-
proximately 35% of all sampled stations (43 points of all zones) had values above the
limits allowed by CONAMA 357/05. Zones 05, 06, 07, and 03 were those with the highest
proportion of points above this limit. The summary of the DOC values is shown in Table 2.
The potability of groundwater is directly linked to DOC concentrations, which influ-
ence water chemistry and microbial levels [47–51]. As a result, there have been several
studies on the concentrations, sources, and diffusion of natural DOC in aquifers [52–54];
however, to date, few have focused on human health. DOC consists of the carbon part

95
 Eng 2023, 4

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 6

of dissolved organic matter (DOM), typically representing more than 90% of the whole
organic carbon content in natural groundwater reserves [55]. Nevertheless, levels above
background concentrations may indicate organic pollution [48,54,56].

Figure 2. Dissolved oxygen (mg·L−1 ) of all nine zones. The values are shown as mean ± SD. Different
letters2.show
Figure statistically
Dissolved oxygensignificant
(mg·L−1) differences between
of all nine zones.the
Thezones (p <are
values 0.05).
shown as mean ± SD. Different
letters show statistically significant differences between the zones (p < 0.05).
Table 2. Summary of the DOC values of all areas sampled.
The dissolved organic carbon (DOC)◦ sometimes showed high concentrations, espe-
N of Points in Proportion of Points in
Minimum
cially inMaximum Brazilian
the most urbanized zones. TheDisagreement
DOC averages
Zone Mean with varied.Disagreement
All zones had withat least two
Value Value Legislation Limits
collection points whose values exceeded the CONAMA
Brazilian Legislation 357/05 limitLegislation,
Brazilian of 10 mg·L−1.
% Only
01 8.01 1.90 one zone 35.30
(zone 03) had an average value above 02 the maximum allowed 22.22by law. Approxi-
02 5.40 0.50 mately 35%29.20of all sampled stations (43 points 03of all zones) had values44.82 above the limits
03 11.56 1.20 allowed by49.10
CONAMA 357/05. Zones 05, 06, 07, 08 and 03 were those with 47.05 the highest pro-
04 7.97 0.00 28.00 05 31.25
05 7.77 0.90 portion of18.40
points above10this
mg·Llimit.
−1 The summary 04 of the DOC values is shown in Table 2.
66.66
06 9.91 0.60 35.00 06 50.00
07 6.41 0.50 Table 2. Summary
15.10 05
of the DOC values of all areas sampled. 50.00
08 9.36 0.50 37.00 07 38.88
09 6.37 0.50 12.00 03 42.85
Proportion
of Points
Brazilian N°of Points in
Minimum Maximum in Disagreement
Zone Mean Legislation Disagreement with
Value Comparing Value
the results of the present study with the Canadian legislationwith Brazilian
for untreated
− 1 Limits Brazilian Legislation
drinking water (4 mg·L of DOC), we observed that the percentage of Legislation, points above %
01 8.01 1.90the allowed value
35.30increased to 53.22%, which corresponds02to 66 sampling stations. This
22.22
means that more than half of the water wells would be in unfit condition for consumption
02 5.40 0.50 29.20 03 44.82
according to Canadian legislation.
03 11.56 1.20 49.10
High concentrations 08
of DOC in water may result in aesthetic 47.05 in
and odor problems,
04 7.97 0.00addition to the28.00
potential stimulation of pathogenic bacteria05 31.25
[57–59]. High DOC levels also
05 7.77 0.90result in a significant
18.40 impact on10the geochemical
mg· L−1 dynamic04of other pollutants, 66.66
such as
06 9.91 0.60pesticides, pathogens,
35.00 and pharmaceuticals; lower oxygen06conditions may decrease 50.00the
07 6.41 0.50degradation of carbon-based
15.10 compounds [60]. High levels
05of COD in groundwater may
50.00
also suggest the development of trihalomethanes in water disinfected with active chlorine.
08 9.36 0.50 37.00 07 38.88
When compared to other environments, the values obtained in the present study were
09 6.37 0.50significantly high
12.00
(Table 3). 03 42.85

The potability of groundwater is directly linked to DOC concentrations, which influ-

ence water chemistry and microbial levels [47–51]. As a result, there have been several
studies on the concentrations, sources, and diffusion of natural DOC in aquifers [52–54];
however, to date, few have focused on human health. DOC consists of the carbon part of
dissolved organic matter (DOM),
96
typically representing more than 90% of the whole or-
ganic carbon content in natural groundwater reserves [55]. Nevertheless, levels above
Eng 2023, 4

Table 3. Groundwater dissolved organic carbon obtained in different studies.

Max DOC Min DOC Average DOC

Site Reference
(mg·L−1 ) (mg·L−1 ) (mg·L−1 )
Maricá, Brazil Present study 49.10 <0.5 8.06
Puducherry, India [61] 29 0.5 3.6
Petit Hermitage, France [62] - - 4.4
Sri Lanka [63] 2.08 1.35 1.69
Bangladesh [64] 20.39 1.29 4.90
Anna Bay, Australia [65] 15.1 1.0 8.0
Bangladesh [66] 5.9 0.20 2.79
Macquarie River, Australia [67] - - 8.26
Bell River, Australia [67] - - 1.87
Elfin Crossing, Australia [67] - - 1.34
Silurian S, Scotland [68] 3.05 0.45 -

In a way similar to that of other substances, chloride in groundwater originates from

both geogenic and anthropogenic sources. In the second case, agricultural, industrial,
and/or domestic wastes are considered potential causes [69,70]. Chloride concentrations
in uncontaminated waters often stay below 10 mg·L−1 and sometimes below 1 mg·L−1 .
On the other hand, high levels of chlorides are suggestive of pollution [71]. Although they
may be present in most freshwater ecosystems, large concentrations are potentially toxic to
freshwater organisms. The results are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Summary of the chloride values of all areas sampled.

N◦ of Points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 170.4 32.0 853.6 01 11.11
02 157.9 12.2 1259.6 04 13.79
03 185.8 32.5 483.2 05 29.41
04 93.0 21.0 317.0 01 6.25
05 327.5 16.4 1472.4 250 mg·L−1 02 33.30
06 58.8 11.5 178.3 00 0.00
07 14.0 77.1 1.04 00 0.00
08 148.9 739.8 27.54 01 5.55
09 382.8 29.5 1466.2 03 42.85

The by-products of chlorine disinfection potentially affect consumers’ health. Their

magnitude is influenced by a number of variables, such as period of action, levels, and
frequency of exposure. Compared to other locations, the studied area revealed extremely
high values. The results found in this study ranged between 11.5 and 1466.2 mg·L−1 . The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Brazilian legislation recommend a
maximum value of 250 mg·L−1 for drinking water. In the present study, several sampling
stations recorded values significantly higher than that. Chloride compounds have two main
natural sources: soil chloride dissolved during water runoff and seawater intrusion during
high tides. An addition of 1% seawater can increase the chloride content to 190 mg·L−1 [72].
Anthropogenic chloride sources are mainly industrial wastewater discharge in densely
occupied areas; industrial wastewater and domestic sewage represent significant sources
of chloride in water bodies. In the present study, chloride values varied between 1472.4
and 11.5 mg·L−1 (average 154 mg·L−1 ). Aside from the potential health threats related to
high blood pressure, these chloride concentration limits have been established to protect
water from tasting salty and to prevent a corrosive effect on plumbing.
Nitrogen and phosphorus levels may indicate wastewater contamination and can be a
threat to human health. Excessive levels of nitrate may cause disease. High levels of nitrate

97
Eng 2023, 4

in drinking water may decrease blood oxygen transport, resulting in health issues such
as blue baby syndrome [73,74]. According to the China Bureau of Quality and Technical
Supervision, the acceptable limits of nitrate for drinking groundwater is 20.0 mg·L−1 [3].
In the present study, all values of nitrate remained below these values. Brazilian CONAMA
357 legislation limits the nitrate concentration in drinking water to 10 mg·L−1 .
The nitrate concentration found in the present study ranged from 0.00 to 27.98 mg·L−1 .
Zones 04, 05, and 07 showed 100% of their collection stations, in accordance with CONAMA
357. All zones yielded mean and median values below the maximum allowed by Brazilian
law. However, zones 08 and 09 had the highest proportion of points in disagreement, with
approximately 15% being above the Brazilian law limits. A summary of the nitrate values
can be found in Table 5.

Table 5. Summary of the nitrate values of all areas sampled.

N◦ of points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 4.15 0.00 16.89 01 11.11
02 3.37 0.05 15.04 02 6.89
03 1.89 0.05 15.84 01 5.88
04 2.66 0.00 7.00 00 0.00
05 0.16 0.05 0.41 10 mg·L−1 00 0.00
06 2.23 0.05 11.47 01 8.33
07 0.28 0.05 1.04 00 0.00
08 4.86 0.05 27.54 03 16.66
09 4.51 0.08 27.98 01 14.28

Although the findings for nitrate concentrations were relatively positive, the total
organic nitrogen concentration (TON) presented a slightly more worrying scenario. As
for nitrate, zone 05 presented 100% of its collection points with TON concentrations in
accordance with CONAMA 357. However, zone 09 had the highest average TON, as
well as the point with the highest overall concentration (36.23 mg·L−1 ). Zones 01 and 08
also showed average values above the legal maximum. A total of 50% of the points in
Zone 08 had TON concentrations above the legal limit. The ANOVA showed a statistical
difference between zone 03 and zones 08 and 09, with zones 08 and 09 presenting TON
means significantly higher than that of zone 03 (p < 0.05). The same results were observed
for zones 05, 08, and 09, with zones 08 and 09 presenting TON means significantly higher
than that of zone 05 (p < 0.05). There was no difference between the other studied areas.
Figure 3 presents the statistical analysis across all zones, and Table 6 shows the summary
of the TON information for all areas studied.

Table 6. Summary of the TON values of all areas.

N◦ of Points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 3.61 0.30 13.90 03 33.33
02 3.20 0.10 17.00 10 34.48
03 1.16 0.10 5.50 02 11.76
04 3.28 0.00 8.70 07 43.75
05 0.67 0.30 0.90 3.7 mg·L−1 00 00.00
06 2.85 0.30 14.30 02 16.66
07 1.24 0.10 4.20 01 10.00
08 7.87 1.40 30.60 09 50.00
09 10.70 0.10 36.23 01 14.28

98
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 9

presents the statistical analysis across all zones, and Table 6 shows the summary of the
Eng 2023, 4 TON information for all areas studied.

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 10

Table 7. Summary of the phosphorus concentrations of all areas sampled.

Maximum Proportion of
N°of Points in
Points in Disa-
Minimum Brazilian Legis- Disagreement
Zone Mean greement with
Total organic nitrogen
Figure 3. Value (mg·L−1 ) of all
Value nine zones.
lation Limits The values are shown as mean ± SD.
with Brazilian
Figure 3. Total Brazilian Legis-
Different lettersorganic nitrogen (mg·L
indicate significant −1) of all nine zones. The values are shown as mean
statistical zones (p < 0.05). The horizontal ± SD.
differences between the Legislation
Different letters
dotted line indicate
shows significant
the maximum limitstatistical differences
per Brazilian between the zones (p < 0.05).lation,
legislation. %
The horizon-
01 0.05 tal dotted line shows the maximum
0.01 0.19 limit per Brazilian legislation. 04 44.44
Phosphorus is a fundamental element for all living beings. However, excessively
02 0.11 0.01 0.61 16 55.17
elevated
Table phosphorus
6. Summary of thelevels can result
TON values inareas.
of all eutrophication of surface water. Groundwater,
03 0.15 on the other0.01hand, can be an0.44 important diffuse source of phosphorus 13 to surface aquatic
76.47
04 0.16 environments.
0.00 It is generally accepted that phosphate groundwater
0.89 14 concentrations
Proportion areof
87.5
N° of Points in
05 0.16 negligible due
0.02 to high rates of adsorption
0.46 Brazilian to the soil
0.02 mg· and
L −1 sediment matrix.
05 In the present
Points in
83.33
Minimum Maximum
study, recorded values of phosphate varied between Disagreement
2.32 mg · L −1 and the detection limit
Zone06 Mean 0.17Value 0.01 Legislation
0.49 11 Disagreement
91.66
(<0.01 mg·L−1Value ). The phosphorus concentrations indicated with Brazilian
excess phosphorus, with at
07 0.35 Limits with Brazilian
least 40% 0.01 1.23 of all zones being inLegislation
of the collection points disagreement 07with CONAMA 70.00
357
08 0.26 (Table 7). Approximately
0.01 69%2.32
of all zones had values above the CONAMA 12 Legislation,
66.66 %
357 maximum
01 3.61 0.30of 0.02 mg·L−113.90 showed a statistical difference03between 33.33
09 0.06 0.01 . The ANOVA0.26 03zones 01 and 0242.85and
02 3.20 0.10zone 07 (Figure 4), with zone 07 presenting a mean phosphorus
17.00 10 concentration that34.48was
03 1.16 0.10significantly higher
5.50 than those of zones 01 and 02 (p < 0.05).02 11.76
04 3.28 0.00 8.70 07 43.75
05 0.67 0.30 0.90 3.7 mg·L−1 00 00.00
06 2.85 0.30 14.30 02 16.66
07 1.24 0.10 4.20 01 10.00
08 7.87 1.40 30.60 09 50.00
09 10.70 0.10 36.23 01 14.28

Phosphorus is a fundamental element for all living beings. However, excessively el-
evated phosphorus levels can result in eutrophication of surface water. Groundwater, on
the other hand, can be an important diffuse source of phosphorus to surface aquatic envi-
ronments. It is generally accepted that phosphate groundwater concentrations are negli-
gible due to high rates of adsorption to the soil and sediment matrix. In the present study,
recorded values of phosphate varied between 2.32 mg·L−1 and the detection limit (<0.01
mg·L−1). The phosphorus concentrations indicated excess phosphorus, with at least 40%
of the collection points of all zones being in disagreement with CONAMA 357 (Table 7).
Approximately 69% of all zones had−1values above the CONAMA 357 maximum of 0.02
Figure 4. Phosphorus concentration (mg·L ) of all nine zones. The values are shown as mean ± SD.
mg·L
Figure
−1. The ANOVA showed a statistical difference between zones 01 and 02 and zone 07
4. Phosphorus
Different concentration
letters indicate (mg·L−1)
significant statistical of all nine
differences zones.
between theThe values
zones are shown
(p < 0.05). as mean ± SD.
The horizontal
(Figure
Different 4), with
letters zone
indicate 07 presenting
significant a mean
statistical phosphorus
differences
dotted line shows the maximum limit per Brazilian legislation. between concentration
the zones (p < that
0.05). was signifi-
The horizon-
cantly
tal higher
dotted than those
line shows of zoneslimit
the maximum 01 and 02 (p < 0.05).
per Brazilian legislation.

Most pathogenic microorganisms found in water are of fecal origin and are spread
99
via fecal–oral exposure. These pathogenic agents can produce relatively mild gastrointes-
Eng 2023, 4

Table 7. Summary of the phosphorus concentrations of all areas sampled.

N◦ of Points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 0.05 0.01 0.19 04 44.44
02 0.11 0.01 0.61 16 55.17
03 0.15 0.01 0.44 13 76.47
04 0.16 0.00 0.89 14 87.5
05 0.16 0.02 0.46 0.02 mg·L−1 05 83.33
06 0.17 0.01 0.49 11 91.66
07 0.35 0.01 1.23 07 70.00
08 0.26 0.01 2.32 12 66.66
09 0.06 0.01 0.26 03 42.85

Most pathogenic microorganisms found in water are of fecal origin and are spread via
fecal–oral exposure. These pathogenic agents can produce relatively mild gastrointestinal
disorders or serious disease such as infectious hepatitis, encephalitis, and myocarditis.
Thus, the negative impacts resulting from the consumption of contaminated water on
human health can range from low-level infections (mild diarrhea) lasting a few days to
critical illnesses that require medical care or even hospitalization, potentially culminating
in death [75]. Fecal coliforms constitute a group of relatively harmless microorganisms
present in the intestinal tract of warm- and cold-blooded animals that are also involved in
the digestive process [76]. Of these, Esterichia coli is the most common representative and
indicates that the water is polluted with fecal material from humans or other animals [77].
On the other hand, the mere presence of these organisms, although harmless, may
indicate that the water may have been contaminated by pathogenic organisms or disease-
causing bacteria or viruses, which may also exist in fecal material. Runoff is the main carrier
mechanism of pathogen transport to surface water bodies. During a rainfall event, the
water distribution between surface runoff and soil percolation results from many factors:
storm water flux and extension, soil physical features (e.g., porosity and permeability), land
height gradients, and soil vegetal or urban cover [78]. If rainfall load exceeds the capacity
of the soil to absorb water, overland flux occurs, and microorganisms can be transported in
surface runoff [79,80].
The results found in the present study suggest significant important contamination
of the groundwater with some source of industrial or, mainly, domestic sewage. Brazilian
legislation allows the presence of up to 200 MPN (most probable number) of fecal coliforms
in water. In the present study only zone 05 did not showed no collection points with
values above the legal limit. However, even at concentrations within the permitted limit, all
points in zone 05 showed the presence of fecal coliform cells, which suggests contamination
with domestic sewage of the groundwater in that zone, even if small. At least 13% of
the collected points of the other zones had coliform concentrations above 200 MPN; for
example, 4 of the 29 monitoring stations in zone 02 had values above the Brazilian limit.
Although in a relatively low proportion (compared to the other zones), the most worrying
factor in zone 02 is the presence of highly contaminated samples, with concentrations up to
12 times higher (2400 MPN) than allowed by Brazilian legislation.
The other zones presented a critical scenario, with the proportion of contaminated
points ranging from 35.29 to 83.33%. The minimum average value in these zones (01, 03,
04, 06, 07, 08, and 09) was 218 MPN, which is already above the maximum allowed by
Brazilian legislation. The worrying maximum average value was 1455 MPN, found in
zone 06. In addition to this worrying average, it is important to note that 83.33% of the
sampled sites in zone 06 had contamination above the permitted level, further aggravating
the magnitude of the problem in that area. Another important fact is that, of all 124 points
analyzed, only 7 showed no presence of coliforms. With the exception of zone 05, all other

100
 Eng 2023, 4

zones had at least 1one point with at least four times more total coliforms than allowed by
law. Table 8 presents the summary of the results found for total coliforms in all zones.

Table 8. Summary of the total coliform concentrations of all areas sampled.

N◦ of Points in Proportion of Points in

Minimum Maximum Brazilian
Zone Mean Disagreement with Disagreement with
Value Value Legislation Limits
Brazilian Legislation Brazilian Legislation, %
01 370 0 2400 04 44.44
02 218 2 2400 04 13.79
03 286 2 1600 06 35.29
04 433 0 1600 06 37.5
05 18 2 49 200 MPN 00 0.00
06 1455 2 1600 10 83.33
07 934 0 920 04 40.00
08 962 2 1600 09 50.00
09 291 0 1400 03 42.85

Pathogens are released from sewage in the soil; however, most of them remain as-
sociated with the fecal deposit. The amount depends on a number of factors, such as
the source, age, type, and pathogen level in the fecal matter itself, as well as the survival
characteristics of the pathogens. Pathogen survival in water depends on many factors,
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 12
including water quality (e.g., turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, organic matter content) and
environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, predation by zooplankton). Exposure to UV
light is a key factor in bacterial, viral, and protozoan die-off in surface waters [78,81,82].
An aquifer
sampling environment
sites. The resultsalso
of protects pathogens
the present studyagainst
show aUV exposure
strong andand facilitates
positive their
correlation (p
survival in groundwater. E. coli and fecal enterococci (FE) counts were suggested
< 0.05) between total coliforms and the concentration of DOC, TON, and phosphorus in in some
sampling sites. The results of the present study show a strong and positive correlation
groundwater, corroborating possible contamination with domestic sewage. Figure 5
(p < 0.05) between total coliforms and the concentration of DOC, TON, and phosphorus in
shows the three correlations.
groundwater, corroborating possible contamination with domestic sewage. Figure 5 shows
the three correlations.

Figure 5. Cont.

101
 Eng 2023, 4

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between total coliforms and DOC (A), TON (B), and
phosphorus
Figure (C) for
5. Pearson all nine zones.
correlation The vertical
coefficients dotted
between linecoliforms
total shows theandmaximum
DOC (A),limitTON
per Brazilian
(B), and phos-
legislation
phorus forall
(C) for total coliforms
nine (200 MPN).
zones. The verticalThe horizontal
dotted dottedthe
line shows linemaximum
shows the maximum limit per legis-
limit per Brazilian
Brazilian
lation legislation
for total for DOC,
coliforms TON, and
(200 MPN). TheP. horizontal dotted line shows the maximum limit per Bra-
zilian legislation for DOC, TON, and P.
5. Conclusions
Availability of groundwater of good quality is essential for the maintenance of human
5. Conclusions
and animal health, especially in areas with scarce freshwater reservoir availability. This
Availability
necessary ofcan
quality groundwater of regular
be ensured by good quality is essential
monitoring for theofmaintenance
and protection water sourcesof hu-
man
against potential contamination. In the present study, quality evaluation based availability.
and animal health, especially in areas with scarce freshwater reservoir on the
chemical
This composition
necessary qualityofcan
groundwater
be ensuredrevealed that themonitoring
by regular required leveland
of some parameters
protection of water
sources against potential contamination. In the present study, quality evaluation based on
the chemical composition of groundwater revealed that the required level of some param-
eters for human health required
102
by the legislation used around the world is not being met.
None of the monitored points had the minimum quality required by Brazilian legislation;
Eng 2023, 4

for human health required by the legislation used around the world is not being met. None
of the monitored points had the minimum quality required by Brazilian legislation; all
points had at least one parameter in excess. The results of organic matter and fecal coliform
evaluations suggest that one of the main sources of pollutants is domestic sewage resulting
from a lack of basic sanitation. Additionally, with the exponential population growth
observed in the municipality of Maricá and its plans for agro-industrial development,
it is expected that the already established conditions will deteriorate significantly, with
pollutants of a more recalcitrant and, therefore, more toxic nature being disseminated in the
environment. Urgent measures of basic sanitation must be implemented, even before the
implementation of an industrial park, as planned by the municipal government, to prevent
even more severe impacts from being detected in the near future.
Although only one collection campaign was carried out, it was performed in the
winter, when an improvement in groundwater quality is expected. The quality of the local
water would be even worse in the summer, when the most intense rains promote greater
transport of pollutants to the subterranean compartment.
Groundwater pollution represents a real danger to human communities. There is a
great opportunity for the global scientific community to improve existing aquifer manage-
ment, highlighting its importance to decision-makers and allowing them to understand
how we can defend or rescue both the quality and the quantity of these essential resources.

Author Contributions: M.C.M.P.: experiment execution, analysis, and literature review. J.F.D.:
experiment execution, analysis, literature review, and writing. B.S.P.: analysis, literature review,
and writing. L.d.S.L.: analysis, literature review, and writing. C.C.G.: literature review, English
review, and writing. J.A.B.N.: literature review and writing. C.V.N.: analysis and literature review.
E.M.F.: supervisor researcher, literature review, and writing. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico (CNPq) and Companhia de Desenvolvimento de Maricá (CODEMAR).
Institutional Review Board Statement: The Institutional Review Board Statement is not applicable
to this study, as it does not involve human or animal testing.
Informed Consent Statement: The Informed Consent Statement is not applicable to this study, as it
does not involve human or animal testing.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current
study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

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Article
A Parametric Study on the LDB Strength of Steel-Concrete
Composite Beams
Alexandre Rossi 1 , Adriano Silva de Carvalho 2, *, Vinicius Moura de Oliveira 3 ,
Alex Sander Clemente de Souza 3 and Carlos Humberto Martins 2

1 School of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia 38408-100, Minas Gerais, Brazil
2 Department of Civil Engineering, State University of Maringá, Maringá 87020-200, Paraná, Brazil
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos 13565-905, São Paulo, Brazil
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-(44)-999195027

Abstract: Lateral distortional buckling (LDB) is an instability phenomenon characteristic of steel-

concrete composite beams (SCCB) that occurs in the presence of hogging moments in regions close
to internal supports. The LDB behavior in SCCB is not yet fully understood. The procedures for
determining the LDB strength are based on the classic lateral torsional buckling theory or on the
inverted U-frame model. In addition, the standard procedures make use of the classic design curves of
the SSRC (Structural Stability Research Council) and ECCS (European Convention for Constructional
Steelwork) developed to analyze the stability behavior of steel elements. However, studies indicate
that the use of the same empirical curves obtained for the analysis of steel elements leads to the
conservative results of the LDB strength in SCCB. Therefore, this article aims to assess the LDB
strength in SCCB through the development of post-buckling numerical analysis using the ABAQUS
software. In the parametric study, four types of steel with different mechanical properties were
analyzed. In addition, the I-section, the unrestrained length, and the reinforcement rate in the
concrete slab were varied. The results showed the influence of the steel type on the LDB strength
and deviations from the standard procedures. A small influence of the longitudinal reinforcement
area variation was verified in the LDB strength in the FE analyses; however, this factor is significantly
important in the standard procedures, causing considerable divergences. These results can provide a
Citation: Rossi, A.; de Carvalho, A.S.; reference for future research and specification reviews.
de Oliveira, V.M.; de Souza, A.S.C.;
Martins, C.H. A Parametric Study on Keywords: steel-concrete composite beams; lateral distortional buckling; hogging moment;
the LDB Strength of Steel-Concrete
post-buckling analyses
Composite Beams. Eng 2023, 4,
2226–2253. https://doi.org/
10.3390/eng4030128

Academic Editor: Alessio 1. Introduction

Cascardi
Lateral distortional buckling (LDB) is an instability failure mode of steel-concrete
Received: 1 August 2023 composite beams (SCCB) under hogging moments [1–6]. As shown in Figure 1, LDB is
Revised: 23 August 2023 characterized by a lateral displacement (δ) accompanied by a rotation (θ) of the compressed
Accepted: 25 August 2023 bottom flange that occurs due to the web distortion, if it is not rigid enough to withstand
Published: 27 August 2023 the lateral bending [7–9].
This instability phenomenon is responsible for reducing the strength of continuous
and semi-continuous SCCB [10,11]. However, in addition to the occurrence of LDB, SCCB
under the action of hogging moment may be subject to local stability modes, such as the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. flange local buckling (FLB), and even a combination of LDB and local modes [1]. The LDB
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
phenomenon in SCCB is generally conservatively assessed in the standard codes as being a
This article is an open access article
type of LTB. However, Bradford and Johnson [12] showed that LDB strength in SCCB can
distributed under the terms and
be more than doubled in many cases when compared to LTB strength. The LDB in SCCB
conditions of the Creative Commons
can also be analyzed through the inverted U-frame method. In this method, the bottom
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
compression flange of the I-section is considered as a strut compressed uniformly along its
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
length by the maximum bending stress that is induced in it, and which is restrained by a

Eng 2023, 4, 2226–2253. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030128 107 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

Eng 2023, 4 2227

continuous Winkler spring whose stiffness is that of the web in the plane of its cross-section
acting as a cantilever (Figure 2) [1–3].

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Lateral distortional buckling in SCCB. (a) LDB on the member, (b) Cross-section

This instability phenomenon is responsible for reducing the strength of continuous

and semi-continuous SCCB [10,11]. However, in addition to the occurrence of LDB, SCCB
under the action of hogging moment may be subject to local stability modes, such as the
flange local buckling (FLB), and even a combination of LDB and local modes [1]. The LDB
phenomenon in SCCB is generally conservatively assessed in the standard codes as being
a type of LTB. However, Bradford and Johnson [12] showed that LDB strength in SCCB
can be more than doubled in many cases when compared to LTB strength. The LDB in
SCCB can also be analyzed through the inverted U-frame method. In this method, the
bottom compression flange of the I-section is considered as a strut compressed uniformly
along (a)
its length by the maximum bending stress that is induced (b) in it, and which is
restrained
Figure 1.by a continuous
Lateral Winkler
distortional spring
buckling whose
in SCCB. stiffness
(a) LDB on theismember,
that of the web in the plane
(b) Cross-section
Figure
of 1. Lateral distortional
its cross-section acting as abuckling in SCCB.
cantilever (Figure(a)2)LDB on the member, (b) Cross-section.
[1–3].
This instability phenomenon is responsible for reducing the strength of continuous
and semi-continuous SCCB [10,11]. However, in addition to the occurrence of LDB, SCCB
under the action of hogging moment may be subject to local stability modes, such as the
flange local buckling (FLB), and even a combination of LDB and local modes [1]. The LDB
phenomenon in SCCB is generally conservatively assessed in the standard codes as being
a type of LTB. However, Bradford and Johnson [12] showed that LDB strength in SCCB
can be more than doubled in many cases when compared to LTB strength. The LDB in
SCCB can also be analyzed through the inverted U-frame method. In this method, the
bottom compression flange of the I-section is considered as a strut compressed uniformly
along its length by the maximum bending stress that is induced in it, and which is
restrained by a continuous Winkler spring whose stiffness is that of the web in the plane
of its cross-section acting as a cantilever (Figure 2) [1–3].

Inverted
Figure2.2.Inverted
Figure U-frame
U-frame model.
model.

Ingeneral,
In general,totodetermine
determine thethe
LDB LDB strength
strength of SCCB,
of SCCB, current
current standard
standard procedures
procedures
requirethe
require thedetermination
determinationof ofthethe elastic
elastic distortional
distortional critical
critical moment.
moment. In theInprevious
the previous
versionofofEC4
version EC4 [13]
[13] (EN
(EN 1994-1-1:1992),
1994-1-1:1992), the methodology
the methodology proposed
proposed by Roikbyet Roik
al. [14]et to
al. [14]
to determine the elastic distortional critical moment was adopted. This methodology
determine the elastic distortional critical moment was adopted. This methodology is still is
still used
used in theinBrazilian
the Brazilian
code code [15] (ABNT
[15] (ABNT NBRNBR 8800:2008).
8800:2008). After After determining
determining the elastic
the elastic
distortional
distortionalcritical
criticalmoment
momentthe thestandard
standardcodecodesuch
suchasasEurocode
Eurocode44[13],
[13],NBR
NBR8800:2008
8800:2008 [15],
AISC [16], and Australian codes [17] make use of the same design curves proposed for steel
elements to determine the LDB strength of SCCB. However, studies [18–20] have shown
divergences between the results of elastic distortional critical moments, obtained through
numerical analysis, when compared with the methodologies proposed by Roik et al. [14],
Svensson
Figure 2.[21], William
Inverted and
U-frame Jemah [22], and Hanswille et al. [23]. Therefore, the use of
model.
these methodologies for the estimation of the elastic distortional critical moment can result
In general,
in the mistaken to determine
obtaining of thethe LDB strength
strength of SCCB ofunder
SCCB,hogging
current standard
momentsprocedures
by standard
procedures. In addition, Zhou and Yan [4], Liu et al. [9], and Rossi et al.In[3]
require the determination of the elastic distortional critical moment. the previous
showed very
version of EC4 [13] (EN 1994-1-1:1992), the methodology proposed by Roik et al. [14] to
conservative situations in the standard codes when compared with FEA results obtained
determine the elastic distortional critical moment was adopted. This methodology is still
for SCCB subjected to uniform hogging moment.
used in the Brazilian code [15] (ABNT NBR 8800:2008). After determining the elastic
In a recent publication, Rossi et al. [3] present a critical review of LDB in SCCB. The
distortional critical moment the standard code such as Eurocode 4 [13], NBR 8800:2008
authors showed that the LDB investigations emphasized analyzing the LDB elastic be-

108
Eng 2023, 4

havior [1,2,24–35], in an attempt to obtain a method for determining the elastic critical
moment, or sought to analyze the LDB strength of SCCB [1,4,8–11,26,27,29–31,36–38]. The
authors showed that there are considerable divergences between the existing methodolo-
gies for determining the elastic critical moment. In addition, Rossi et al. [3] presented
disagreements between experimental results and post-buckling numerical analysis when
compared with standard procedures. Finally, the researchers present the need for further
investigations on SCCB under the action of the hogging moment. Previous investigations by
Rossi et al. [1,32,33] showed that LDB in steel-concrete composite beams is not fully resolved
and there is a need for further investigations on the subject. One of the parameters to be
investigated is the influence of the steel mechanical characteristics of the I-beams on the LDB
behavior. The need to analyze the influence of the yield strength of different types of steel
on the LDB phenomenon can be seen in Zhao, Li and Sun [34], and Sun et al. [35]. In these
works, the authors verified that important standard procedures underestimate the resistance
to global instability of singly symmetric I-sections with high-strength steels (HSS).
In this way, although there is a considerable number of investigations about the LDB
phenomenon in SCCB, no study has investigated the possible influence of different types
of steel and their mechanical properties (fy and fu ) on the LDB strength of SCCB. Even
q
Mcr
though standard procedures consider indirectly, through the slenderness ratio (λ = M ),
pl
the yield strength of the steel sections, no comparative study was carried out between the
LDB strength obtained for different types of steel in numerical analyses with the SSRC and
ECCS design curves used to verify the LDB strength of SCCB. In addition, no study on
the LDB strength of SCCB has thoroughly investigated the influence of the longitudinal
reinforcement area variation in the concrete slab and the behavior of standard procedures
in relation to this parameter. Therefore, this article aims to assess the LDB strength of SCCB
through the development of post-buckling numerical analysis with the Dassault Systèmes
ABAQUS 6.14 [38] software. In the post-buckling numerical analysis, the initial geometric
imperfection, residual stress, real shear connector, geometric nonlinearity, and material
nonlinearity were considered through the numerical model developed. The SCCB analyzed
are simply supported, with restrictions on lateral slab displacement, and are subjected to a
uniform hogging moment distribution. In the parametric study, four types of steel with
different mechanical properties were analyzed. In addition, the I-section, the unrestrained
length, and the reinforcement rate in the concrete slab were varied. The analyses shown in
this work can provide a reference for future research and specification reviews.

2. LDB Strength in SCCB

Vlasov’s assumption [39] that the cross-section remains undistorted is not applicable to
the mode of distortional buckling, which is characterized by lateral and torsional buckling
in the compression flange accompanied by out-of-plane distortion in the web [19].
Eurocode 4 (EN 1994-1-1) [13] deals with the lateral buckling of SCCB by reducing the
section moment resistance at the internal support (plastic moment of the composite beam),
Mpl-CB , to a lower value, Mu,dist , referred to the beam buckling strength (Equations (1)–(4)).
Because the composite beam is one of several parallel members attached to the same
concrete slab, the design is based on the inverted U-frame model to determine of the elastic
critical moment.
Mu,dist = χ LT M pl −C. beam (1)

 q  −1
2
χ LT = φLT + φ2LT − λ LT ≤1 (2)

h
2
i
φLT = 0.5 1 + α LT λ LT − 0.2 + λ LT (3)

s
M pl −C. beam
λ LT = (4)
Mcr

109
Eng 2023, 4

In the current version of EC4 [13], no expression is presented to determine the LDB
elastic critical moment. However, in the previous version of EC4 [13] (EN 1994-1-1:1992),
the methodology proposed by Roik et al. [14] to determine the elastic distortional critical
moment was adopted (Equations (5)–(8)).
s 
α g Cdist k s L2
Mcr = GJ + EIa f ,y (5)
L π2

k1 k2
ks = (6)
k1 + k2
αEc Ic2
k1 = (7)
a

Ea t3w
k2 = (8)
4(1 − νa2 )hs
The Brazilian standard code, ABNT NBR 8800:2008 [15], is also based on the inverted
U-frame model to determine of the elastic critical moment. However, differently from
EC4 [13], the current version of the Brazilian code recommends the use of the procedure by
Roik et al. [14] for determining the LDB elastic critical moment. To obtain the LDB strength
the Brazilian standard uses the 2P design curve provided by the SSRC (Structural Stability
Research Council).
Zhou and Yan [4], observing divergences between numerical results and the EC4 [13]
procedure, proposed practical formulas (Equations (9)–(12)) to estimate the LDB strength
of steel-concrete composite beams under the action of uniform hogging moment. The
authors [4] numerically investigated the LDB behavior of SCCCs. Zhou and Yan [4]
analyzed the I-section influence, the unrestricted length, and the shear interaction degree
between the concrete slab and the steel I-section.

Mu,dist = φPR M pl −C. beam (9)

φPR = 1.56 − 0.58λ PR ≤ 1.0 (10)

!0.2 !0.4  0.6

L tf hs
λ PR = 0.09 (1.5 + ρ)0.5 (11)
bf bf tw

Ar f r
ρ=   (12)
Aw f w + 2A f f f

Bradford [29] also stated that the U-frame model, adopted by standard procedures like
EC4 [13], has been conservative in most cases. Then, the author [29] investigated the LDB
through special-purpose inelastic finite element method of analysis to study the buckling
of beams with continuous and complete tension flange restraint. Bradford [29] suggests a
new design proposal based on AS4100 (Equations (13) and (14)).
s 
 M 2  
M pl − I − B 
pl − I − B
Mu,dist = 0.6 +3− M ≤ M pl − I − B (13)
 Mo Mo  pl − I − B

s !0.5  1/3
M pl − I − B L hw 0.5
λB = = 0.02 α−
m (14)
Mo r f c,y tw

110
Eng 2023, 4

3. Numerical Model
The numerical model showed in this paper is the same presented in the previous
paper, Rossi et al. [1], where the LDB in SCCB was investigated by the authors. To carry
out the numerical analyses the ABAQUS software [38] was used. With this software it
is possible to develop elastic buckling analyzes and post-buckling analyzes (nonlinear
inelastic analysis). For the elastic buckling analysis, the buckle linear perturbation method
was used to estimate the critical elastic stability load by obtaining eigenvalues and their
eigenvectors. In this method, the critical elastic stability load is obtained by the product of
the first positive eigenvalue (lower energy) by the external load applied to the structure in
the initial state. Importantly, this type of analysis does not consider any imperfections in
the structure. After this, the post-buckling analysis is performed, considering the initial
geometric imperfections. The structure shape in the buckling analysis, normalized to
the initial imperfection value, was adopted as the shape at the beginning of the post-
buckling analysis. Thus, the implementation of geometric imperfection was performed by
the “IMPERFECTION” command. Residual stresses were included within the model as
initial conditions. These initial conditions are included in a set of finite elements (shells,
in this case) to which a given value of initial stress is provided. The set of elements can
be defined by means of standard pre-processing tools. The procedure consists of defining
several longitudinal partitions of the geometry. Each partition corresponds to a given set
of elements that present the same value of initial stress. The residual stress patterns are
assumed constant along the longitudinal direction regardless of the presence of transverse
stiffeners (which might affect locally such pattern). The Static Riks method was used to
solve the geometric nonlinearity problem. This method, also known as modified Riks
algorithm, can obtain equilibrium solutions for instability problems.

3.1. Geometry, Element Type and Mesh

The numerical model developed faithfully represents the geometry of the problem.
The composite behavior between the I-section and the concrete slab was guaranteed by
Eng 2023, 4 2231
means headed studs shear connectors. The finite elements used and other properties of the
developed numerical model can be seen in (Figure 3).

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Numerical
Numericalmodel.
model.

The concrete
The concreteslabs,
slabs,the
theheaded
headedshear
shearstud
studconnectors andand
connectors the the
actuator werewere
actuator modelled
modelled
using the eight-node linear hexahedral solid elements with reduced
using the eight-node linear hexahedral solid elements with reduced integration andintegration andhour-
hourglass control (C3D8R). Elements with reduced-integration were adopted
glass control (C3D8R). Elements with reduced-integration were adopted as they could as they
could reduce
reduce computer
computer run timerun[40].
timeThe[40]. The dimensions
mesh mesh dimensions were verified
were verified by means
by means of
of sensitivity
sensitivity analyzes, Rossi et al. [33]. For I-beams the quadrilateral element S4R
analyzes, Rossi et al. [33]. For I-beams the quadrilateral element S4R (shell element) with (shell
element) with four nodes and reduced integration was used. The S4R element has six
four nodes and reduced integration was used. The S4R element has six degrees of freedom
degrees of freedom per node-three rotations and three translations. Rossi et al. [41,42] and
per node-three rotations and three translations. Rossi et al. [41,42] and Ferreira, Rossi, and
Ferreira, Rossi, and Martins [43] performed a sensitivity analysis for I beams discretized
with S4R elements showing that the size of the 10 mm element provides good results with
relatively low processing time. The reinforcing bars were performed with two-node linear
three-dimensional truss elements 111 (T3D2). The dimensions used in the discretization of
each element are shown in Table 1 and can be seen in Figure 4.
 Figure 3. Numerical model.

The concrete slabs, the headed shear stud connectors and the actuator were modelled
using the eight-node linear hexahedral solid elements with reduced integration and
hourglass control (C3D8R). Elements with reduced-integration were adopted as they
Eng 2023, 4 could reduce computer run time [40]. The mesh dimensions were verified by means of
sensitivity analyzes, Rossi et al. [33]. For I-beams the quadrilateral element S4R (shell
element) with four nodes and reduced integration was used. The S4R element has six
degrees of freedom per node-three rotations and three translations. Rossi et al. [41,42] and
Martins [43] performed a sensitivity analysis for I beams discretized with S4R elements
Ferreira, Rossi, and Martins [43] performed a sensitivity analysis for I beams discretized
showing thatwith
the size
S4R of the 10 showing
elements mm element provides
that the size of good
the 10results with relatively
mm element low pro-
provides good results with
cessing time. relatively
The reinforcing bars were performed with two-node linear three-dimensional
low processing time. The reinforcing bars were performed with two-node linear
truss elements (T3D2). The dimensions
three-dimensional used in(T3D2).
truss elements the discretization of eachused
The dimensions element arediscretization
in the shown of
in Table 1 andeach
canelement
be seenare
in Figure 4.
shown in Table 1 and can be seen in Figure 4.
Table 1. Element type and size.
Table 1. Element type and size.
Section Part Section Part Element Type
Element Type Element Element
Size Size
Reinforcement bars
Reinforcement bars T3D2 T3D2 10 mm 10 mm
Headed shearHeaded
stud shear stud C3D8R C3D8R 2 mm 2 mm
I-beam S4R 10 mm
I-beam S4R 10 mm
Concrete slab C3D8R 20 mm
Actuator Concrete slab C3D8R C3D8R 20 mm 20 mm
Actuator C3D8R 20 mm

Eng 2023, 4 2232

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Discretized Discretized model.
model.
3.2. Contact
3.2. Contact Properties
Properties
The
The interaction
interactionbetween
betweenthetheconstituent parts
constituent of the
parts numerical
of the model
numerical was was
model performed
performed
using interaction and constraint options available in ABAQUS, in Figure 5 thedetails
using interaction and constraint options available in ABAQUS, in Figure 5 the detailsofof the
the model
model cancan be observed.
be observed.

Figure 5. Interaction between contact surfaces.

Figure 5. Interaction between contact surfaces.
For the interaction
For the interaction between
between the
the headed
headed stud
stud and
and the
the top
top flange,
flange, the
the option
option “Tie
“Tie con-
constrain” was used, which simulates the welded connection between these two elements,
strain” was used, which simulates the welded connection between these two elements, in
in which the relative displacement between both is totally prevented. The interactions
which the relative displacement between both is totally prevented. The interactions between
between the following surfaces—headed stud/concrete slab and concrete slab/steel
beam—was performed using the surface-to-surface interaction option (contact). The
normal and tangential behavior between these contact surfaces was defined using the
“Hard” and “Penalty” options, respectively. The value used for the friction coefficient was
112
0.4 [40,44,45].
The interaction between the reinforcement bars and concrete slab was performed
Eng 2023, 4

the following surfaces—headed stud/concrete slab and concrete slab/steel beam—was per-
formed using the surface-to-surface interaction option (contact). The normal and tangential
behavior between these contact surfaces was defined using the “Hard” and “Penalty” options,
respectively. The value used for the friction coefficient was 0.4 [40,44,45].
The interaction between the reinforcement bars and concrete slab was performed
using the embedded element technique. In this technique perfect bond between embedded
elements and host elements was chosen. This bonding will constrain the translational
degree of freedom of the embedded nodes and will also avoid slip between the reinforcing
bars and concrete [40]. Finally, the interaction between the actuator and the concrete slab
was also carried out through the “Tie constrain” option.

3.3. Boundary Conditions and Initial Imperfections

The SCCB analyzed are simply supported with lateral bracing (Figure 6). The lateral
bracing simulates the condition of a composite floor, which has infinite stiffness in the
slab plane (transversal stiffness). This situation prevents any lateral displacement of the
composite beam, restrictions similar to those developed by Tong et al. [28] and Zhou and
Yan [4]. The boundary conditions used try to represent the restrictions performed in the
tests by Tong et al. [28], investigated in the present paper. The forces can be applied at one
or both ends (cantilever) of the beam according to the desired negative moment distribution
configuration. The possible modes of instability, LDB or LB (local buckling) that govern
the strength of these elements are analyzed in the internal span (L), between supports.
Eng 2023, 4
To prevent any form of instability from occurring in the cantilevered regions, avoiding
2233
interferences in the developed analysis, web stiffeners were placed at both ends, as shown
Eng 2023, 4 2233
in Figure 6. Details of the boundary conditions developed in the ABAQUS software can be
seen in Figure 7.

Figure 6. Boundary condition of the experimental tests by Tong et al. [35].

Figure 6. BoundaryFigure 6. Boundary condition of the experimental tests by Tong et al. [35].
condition of the experimental tests by Tong et al. [35].

Figure 7. Details of the boundary conditions in ABAQUS software.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Details
Detailsof
ofthe
theboundary
boundaryconditions
Regarding in in
conditions ABAQUS
the geometric ABAQUS
and software.
software.
structural imperfections, the initial lateral bending and
the residual stresses were considered. In the former imperfection, the steel member is not
Regarding
Regarding thethe geometric
geometric
ideally straight,and
and but structural
structural imperfections,
has someimperfections,
initial the
geometric the initial
initial
deformation lateral
lateral
such as bending
bending and and
the initial bending
the
the residual stresses
residual stresses were
andwere considered.
considered.
initial distortion. In In
The the former
thelatter
former imperfection,
imperfection,
imperfection the the
is caused by steel
steel member
member
the residual notis not
is stress due to
ideally straight,
ideally straight, but
but has
hassome
welding and
somehotinitial
initialgeometric
rolling [46]. deformation
A nonlinear
geometric such
post-buckling
deformation suchas the
analysisinitial
as theshould bending
consider
initial bendingboth the
and initial initial geometric
initial distortion. imperfection andisresidual stress.
by For the geometric imperfectionto anto
initial
and distortion. The Thelatter
latterimperfection
imperfection caused
is caused the
by the residual stress
residual due due
stress
welding and bending with magnitude of L/1000 was adopted. To consider residual
both the both the
stresses,
welding andhot
hotrolling
rolling
Galambos
[46]. A nonlinear
[46]. A nonlinear
and Ketter
post-buckling
model [47]post-bucklinganalysis
(Equations (15)
shouldshould
analysis
and (16))
considerconsider
was adopted, as shown in
initial geometric imperfection and residual stress. For the geometric imperfection an initial
Figure 8. The geometric and structural imperfections were determined through a
bending with magnitude of L/1000 was adopted. To consider residual stresses, the
sensitivity study published in a previous article, Rossi et al. [33]. In this study [33] the
Galambos and Ketter model
authors [47]
that (Equations
found113 (15)
the magnitude and (16))
of L/1000 was adopted,
for geometric as shown
imperfections and in
the residual
Figure 8. The geometric and structural imperfections were determined through a
stress model by Galambos and Ketter [47] provided results closer to the experimental test.
sensitivity study published in a previous article, Rossi et al. [33]. In this study [33] the
Eng 2023, 4

the initial geometric imperfection and residual stress. For the geometric imperfection
Figure 7. Details of the boundary conditions in ABAQUS software.
an initial bending with magnitude of L/1000 was adopted. To consider residual stresses,
the Galambos
Regardingand the Ketter
geometricmodel
and [47] (Equations
structural (15) andthe
imperfections, (16)) waslateral
initial adopted, as shown
bending and in
Figure 8. The geometric and structural imperfections were determined through
the residual stresses were considered. In the former imperfection, the steel member is not a sensitivity
study
ideallypublished in ahas
straight, but previous article,geometric
some initial Rossi et al. [33]. In this
deformation study
such [33]initial
as the the authors
bendingfound
that
and initial distortion. The latter imperfection is caused by the residual stress due to by
the magnitude of L/1000 for geometric imperfections and the residual stress model
Galambos
welding andandhotKetter
rolling[47] provided
[46]. results
A nonlinear closer to the
post-buckling experimental
analysis test. both the
should consider
initial geometric imperfection and residual stress. For the geometric imperfection an initial
= 0.3 f y To consider residual stresses, the (15)
bending with magnitude of L/1000 wasσc adopted.
Galambos and Ketter model [47] (Equations (15) and (16)) was adopted, as shown in

Figure 8. The geometric and structural imperfections were determined through a
sensitivity study published in a previous b f t f Rossi et al. [33]. In this study [33] the
article,
σt =    0.3 f y (16)
authors found that the magnitude ofbL/1000
t + tfor geometric
d − 2t imperfections and the residual
f f w f
stress model by Galambos and Ketter [47] provided results closer to the experimental test.

(a) (b)
Figure 8.8.Residual
Figure Residual stresses.
stresses. (a) Galambos
(a) Galambos and Ketter
and Ketter model model
[47]; (b)[47]; (b) stresses
residual residual stresses
in the in the
numerical model.
numerical model.
The residual stresses were included within the model as initial conditions. These initial
conditions are included in a set of finite elements (shells, in this case) to which a given
value of initial stress is provided. The set of elements can be defined by means of standard
pre-processing tools. The procedure consists of defining several longitudinal partitions
of the geometry. Each partition corresponds to a given set of elements that present the
same value of initial stress. The residual stress patterns are assumed constant along the
longitudinal direction regardless of the presence of transverse stiffeners (which might affect
locally such patterns).

3.4. Material Properties

3.4.1. Steel
For the steel sections, the adopted constitutive relationship was proposed by
Earls [48,49]. The stress–strain relationships presented by Earls is an elastoplastic model
where the consideration of the steel hardening effect is performed through a tri-linear
region (Figure 9a). For longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, an elastoplastic
model with positive linear hardening was adopted, as shown in Figure 9b. Finally, the
model assigned to the headed stud shear connectors was the perfect elastoplastic, as shown
in Figure 9c.

114
 For the steel sections, the adopted constitutive relationship was proposed by Earls
[48,49]. The stress–strain relationships presented by Earls is an elastoplastic model where
the consideration of the steel hardening effect is performed through a tri-linear region
(Figure 9a). For longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, an elastoplastic model
with positive linear hardening was adopted, as shown in Figure 9b. Finally, the model
Eng 2023, 4 assigned to the headed stud shear connectors was the perfect elastoplastic, as shown in
Figure 9c.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 9. Stress–strain relationships of steel. (a) tri-linear hardening, (b) positive linear hardening,
Figure 9. Stress–strain relationships of steel. (a) tri-linear hardening, (b) positive linear hardening,
(c) perfect elastoplastic
(c) perfect elastoplastic.

3.4.2. Concrete
The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model was used to represent the concrete material.
The CDP model is a criterion based on the models proposed by some authors [50–52], and has
been widely used in modeling concrete and other quasi-brittle materials. The model considers
three hypotheses based on the plasticity theory: The initial yield surface determines when plas-
tic deformation begins; the flow rule determines the direction of plastic deformation; and the
softening/hardening rule defines how the surface flow evolves with plastic deformation [53].
The stress–strain relationships used to represent the behavior of concrete in compres-
sion was proposed by Carreira and Chu [54] (Equations (17) and (18)).

σ β c (ε/ε c )
= (17)
f cm β c − 1 + (ε/ε c ) β c
 3
f cm
βc = + 1.55 ( MPa) (18)
32.4
For the representation of the concrete behavior in tensile, the Carreira and Chu [55]
proposal (Equation (19)) was also used.

σ β c (ε/ε t )
= (19)
f tm β c − 1 + (ε/ε t ) β c

4. Numerical Model Verification

The numerical model developed to analyze the LDB behavior of SCCB under hogging
moment was validated in the previous paper, Rossi et al. [1]. The numerical validation
was developed considering the experimental models analyzed by Tong et al. [28]. The

115
Eng 2023, 4

comparison between the experimental results of Tong et al. [28] and the results of the
post-buckling numerical analysis can be seen in Table 2 and Figure 10.
Table 2. Calibration results.

Test FE
Test Number Mtest /MFE
Mtest (kNm) Failure MFE (kNm) Failure
B3.0-350-1 205.1 LDB 207.8 LDB 0.987
B4.2-350-1 206.9 LDB 206.9 LDB 1.000
Eng 2023, 4 B4.2-350-1-C 203.7 LDB 203.8 LDB 0.9992236
B4.2-400-1 210.5 LDB 215.1 LDB 0.979

250
250

200 200

150

M (kN.m)
M (kN.m)

150

100 100

50 50
Test Test
FE FE
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
θ (rad)
θ (rad)
(a) (b)
250 250

200 200

150 150
M (kN.m)
M (kN.m)

100 100

50 50
Test Test
FE FE
0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
θ (rad) θ (rad)
(c) (d)
Figure 10. Test vs. FE results. (a) B3.0-350-1; (b) B4.2-350-1; (c) B4.2-350-1-C; (d) B4.2-400-1.
Figure 10. Test vs. FE results. (a) B3.0-350-1; (b) B4.2-350-1; (c) B4.2-350-1-C; (d) B4.2-400-1.
The comparison between the results of the numerical model and the experimental
The comparison between the results of the numerical model and the experimental
tests showed proximity. Therefore, the numerical model is validated given the conformity
tests showed proximity. Therefore, the numerical model is validated given the conformity
of the results and will be used for the development of the parametric study.
of the results and will be used for the development of the parametric study.
5. Parametric Study
5. Parametric Study
The purpose of this article is to investigate the LDB behavior of SCCB. For this, 180
The purpose of this article is to investigate the LDB behavior of SCCB. For this,
post-buckling numerical analyzes were developed with the ABAQUS [38] software. In the
180 post-buckling numerical analyzes were developed with the ABAQUS [38] software. In
parametric study, the influence on the LDB behavior of the steel type and its mechanical
theproperties
parametric study, the influence on the LDB behavior of the steel type and its mechanical
was investigated. In addition, it was also varied the I-sections dimensions: the
properties was investigated.
unrestricted span length andInthe
addition, it wasrate
reinforcement alsoinvaried the I-sections
the concrete slab. Thedimensions:
analyses werethe
unrestricted
developed considering SCCB with three different I-sections, whose geometricanalyses
span length and the reinforcement rate in the concrete slab. The were
properties
developed considering SCCB
can be found in Table 3. with three different I-sections, whose geometric properties
can be found in Table 3.
Table 3. I-Sections geometric properties.

I-Section d (mm) bf (mm) tf (mm) tw (mm) L (mm) Sstud (mm)

CB350 349 127 8.5 5.8
116 4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 200
CB450 450 152 10.8 7.6 4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 200
 Eng 2023, 4

Table 3. I-Sections geometric properties.

I-Section d (mm) bf (mm) tf (mm) tw (mm) L (mm) Sstud (mm)

Eng CB350 349 127 8.5 5.8 4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 200
Eng 2023,
2023, 44 CB450 450 152 10.8 7.6 4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 200
22
CB600 599 178 12.8 10 4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 200

Four different steel types were considered for the I-sections, which have a yield
strength
mm;
mm; 7000 (fy )mm;
7000 of 250
mm; and
andMPa,
8000
8000 290
mm.
mm. Mpa, 350 Mpa,
Finally,
Finally, it andconsidered
it was
was 450 Mpa. Regarding
considered three the unrestricted
three different
different reinforcement
reinforcement ra ra
span length (L),
distributed according to Figure 6, five situations were analyzed: 4000 mm;with
5000 mm;
distributed in the slab width, as shown in Figure 11, by means of bars with diameters oo
in the slab width, as shown in Figure 11, by means of bars diameters
6000
mm, mm;
16 7000 mm; 25 andmm.
8000This
mm. Finally, it was considered threewas
different reinforcement
rates
16 mm,
mm, and
mm,distributed and
in
25 slab
the
This reinforcement
mm.width, reinforcement
as shown in
distribution
distribution
Figure 11, by means
wasof
chosen
chosen
bars with
with
with the
the objective
diameters
objective
allowing the neutral line to rise towards the concrete slab; in this way, almost the entir
allowing the
of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 25 mm. This reinforcement distribution was chosen with the objective entir
neutral line to rise towards the concrete slab; in this way, almost the
section
section is under
is the
under compression,
compression, thus
thus theallowing
allowing for
for the
the LDB
LDB occurrence. Furthermo
of allowing neutral line to rise towards concrete slab; in this way,occurrence. Furthermo
almost the entire
according
according to Zhou and Yan [4] the ratio between the total area of the longitudi
I-section is to
under Zhou and
compression, Yan
thus [4] the
allowing ratio
for thebetween
LDB the
occurrence.total area
Furthermore,of the
accord-
longitudi
reinforcement
ing to Zhou and Yan
reinforcement bars
bars[4]and the
the I-sections
the ratio
and between thecross-sectional
I-sections total area of the area
cross-sectional area must
must be
longitudinal less than
less than 0.5,
reinforcement
be 0.5, wh
wh
bars and
represents the I-sections
usual cross-sectional
values, which area
were must be
respected. less than
The 0.5, which
cross-section
represents usual values, which were respected. The cross-section characteristics of represents usual
characteristics of
values,
SCCB which werecan respected. The Figure
cross-sectionThe characteristics ofbeams
the SCCB analyzed can
SCCB analyzed
analyzed can be be seen
seen inin Figure 11. 11. The composite
composite beams were were subjected
subjected aa unifo
unifo
be seen in
distribution Figure
of 11.
the The composite
hogging moment beams were
(Figure subjected
12). a uniform distribution of the
distribution of the hogging moment (Figure 12).
hogging moment (Figure 12).

Figure
Figure 11.
Figure11.
11. Cross-section
Cross-section
Cross-section details
details of
of the
details the
the SCCB
ofSCCB (dimensions
(dimensions
SCCB in mm).in
(dimensions in mm).
mm).

Figure
Figure12.
Figure 12.
12.Hogging
Hogging
Hoggingmoment distribution
moment
moment in the in
distribution
distribution parametric
in the study. study.
the parametric
parametric study.
The representation of the 180 numerical analyses developed can be seen in Figure 13.
The
The representation
representation of
of the
the 180
180 numerical
numerical analyses
analyses developed
developed can
can be
be seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure

117
Eng 2023, 4
Eng 2023, 4 2238

fy=250 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=290 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

CB350
fy=350 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=450 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=250 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=290 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

SCCB CB450
fy=350 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=450 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=250 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=290 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

CB600
fy=350 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

fy=450 MPa L=4000; 5000; 6000; 7000; 8000 mm Ø=8; 16 and 25 mm

Figure 13. Numerical models evaluated in parametric study.

Figure 13. Numerical models evaluated in parametric study.
The analyzed models present full shear connection degree since the investigations by
The analyzed models present full shear connection degree since the investigations by
Zhou and Yan [4] and Tong et al. [28] showed that the effect of the shear connection degree
Zhou and Yan [4] and
on theTong
LDB et al. [28]
strength showed thatFor
is insignificant. the
theeffect of the
modeling shear connection
of materials degreestudy
in the parametric
on the LDB strengththe is insignificant.
stress–strain For thepresented
relationships modeling in of materials
item in theThe
3.4 were used. parametric
mechanicalstudy
properties
the stress–strain relationships
of the materialspresented
are shown in item 4.
in Table 3.4 were used. The mechanical properties
of the materials are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Materials mechanical properties for parametric study.
Table 4. Materials
Materials mechanical properties
E (MPa) ν for parametric study.
fck‐cylindrical (Mpa) fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa)
Concrete elements 32,834 0.2 30 - -
Materials E (MPa) ν fck-cylindrical (Mpa) fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa)
Steel A36 200,000 0.3 - 250 450
Concrete
Steel A572-Gr 42 elements
200,000 32,834 0.3 0.2 - 30 290- - 435
Steel A572-Gr 50Steel A36200,000 200,000 0.3 0.3 - - 250
350 450450
Steel
Steel A572-Gr 65A572-Gr200,000
42 200,000 0.3 0.3 - - 290
450 435550
ReinforcementSteel A572-Gr210,000
bars 50 200,000 0.3 0.3 - - 350
500 450540
Steel A572-Gr200,000
Headed studs 65 200,000 0.3 0.3 - - 450
345 550 -
Reinforcement bars 210,000 0.3 - 500 540
Headed studs 6. Results
200,000 0.3
and Discussion - 345 -
The analyzes developed in this article aim to study the LDB behavior of SCCB. For
6. Results and Discussion
this, post-buckling numerical analyzes were developed with the ABAQUS software [38].
The influence on LDB strength of four steel types with different mechanical properties
The analyzeswas
developed in this
investigated. article aim
In addition, the to study the
following LDB behavior
parameters of SCCB. I-section,
were investigated: For
this, post-buckling numericallength,
unrestrained analyzesand were developed
the longitudinal with the ABAQUS
reinforcement software
ratio in the concrete [38].
slab. The
The influence on numerical
LDB strength ofresults
analysis four steel types with
were compared different
with standardmechanical
procedures thatproperties
use the classic
was investigated.design
In addition, theSSRC
curves of the following parameters
and ECCS, were
and also with the investigated:
procedures of ZhouI-section,
and Yan [4]
unrestrained length, and the [29].
and Bradford longitudinal reinforcement ratio in the concrete slab. The
numerical analysis results were compared with standard procedures that use the classic
design curves of the SSRC and ECCS, and also with the procedures of Zhou and Yan [4]
and Bradford [29].

6.1. Steel Type Influence

In the parametric study developed, I-sections with mechanical properties of four
different steel types were analyzed (Table 4). The ultimate moment results for models with
the I-sections CB350, CB450, and CB600 are shown in Figure 14a–c, respectively. The results
in Figure 14 are for models with longitudinal reinforcements with 8 mm diameter.

118
 6.1. Steel Type Influence
In the parametric study developed, I-sections with mechanical properties of four
different steel types were analyzed (Table 4). The ultimate moment results for models with
Eng 2023, 4
the I-sections CB350, CB450, and CB600 are shown in Figures 14a–c, respectively. The
results in Figure 14 are for models with longitudinal reinforcements with 8 mm diameter.

350
A36 A572-GR42 A572-GR50 A572-GR65 600 A36 A572-GR42 A572-GR50 A572-GR65
300
500
250
Mu-FE (kN.m)

Mu-FE (kN.m)
400
200
150 300

100 200

50 100

0 L=4.0 m
0 1 2 3 4 5

L=4.0 m L=5.0 m L=6.0 m L=7.0 m L=8.0 m L=4.0 m L=5.0 m L=6.0 m L=7.0 m L=8.0 m

(a) (b)
1050 A36 A572-GR42 A572-GR50 A572-GR65
900
Mu-FE (kN.m)

750
600
450
300
150
0 1 2 3 4 5

L=4.0 m L=5.0 m L=6.0 m L=7.0 m L=8.0 m

(c)
Figure 14. LDB strength for different steel types. (a) CB350; (b) CB450; (c) CB600.
Figure 14. LDB strength for different steel types. (a) CB350; (b) CB450; (c) CB600.
As expected, the highest LDB strengths were obtained for the steel A572 GR65, which
As expected, the highest LDB strengths were obtained for the steel A572 GR65, which
has a yield strength (fy) of 450 MPa. It is also observed that with the increase in the yield
has a yield strength (fy ) of 450 MPa. It is also observed that with the increase in the yield
strength (fy), there is an increase in the LDB ultimate moment. Taking as reference the steel
strength (fy ), there is an increase in the LDB ultimate moment. Taking as reference the steel
with a yield strength of 250 MPa, it is verified that for an increase of 16%, 40%, and 80%
with a yield strength of 250 MPa, it is verified that for an increase of 16%, 40%, and 80%
in the yield strength (fy = 290 MPa; fy = 350 MPa; fy = 450 MPa), the variation of the LDB
inultimate
the yieldmoment
strength (f = 290 MPa; fy =and
wasy10.12%, 23.60%,
35042.43%,
MPa; fyrespectively.
= 450 MPa), the variation of the LDB
Another fact that can be
ultimate moment was 10.12%, 23.60%, and 42.43%, respectively.
observed in Figure 14 is the small variation from the LDB ultimate Another
moment fact
due that
to can
the be
observed in Figure 14 is the small variation from the LDB ultimate moment
unrestricted length (L) variation, which shows that the span length is not a predominant due to the
unrestricted length (L) variation,
factor in the LDB strength of SCCB. which shows that the span length is not a predominant
factor in
Forthe
theLDB strength of
development of aSCCB.
general analysis of the mechanical properties’ (fy) influence
For the development
of different steel types on ofthea LDB
general analysis
strength of theFigure
of SCCB, mechanical properties’
15 is presented. In (f y ) influence
Figure 15,
ofthe
different steel types
reduction factor (𝜒 on the LDB
) calculated as a function of the ultimate moment values 15,
strength of SCCB, Figure 15 is presented. In Figure
Mu− FE
the reduction factor (χ = M pl − ) calculated as a function of the ultimate moment values
obtained in the FE analyses, and,
CB as a function of the composite section plastic moment,
obtained
calculated according to the and,
in the FE analyses, as theory
plastic a function
(EC4of[13]),
the composite section
are compared for plastic
modelsmoment,
with
calculated according to
different steel types. the plastic theory (EC4 [13]), are compared for models with different
steel types.
In Figure 15, the reference values for the reduction factor (χref. ) were calculated as a
function of the ultimate moment values obtained for the steel A36 (fy = 250 MPa). The
results in Figure 15 show that the average value of the ratio (χ/χref. ) for the steel A572-GR65
is 0.86. This result is 14% lower when compared to the values obtained for the steel A36.
This result shows that, although the LDB ultimate moment for A572-GR65 steel is higher
than the value obtained with A36 steel, the value of the reduction factor (χ) is 14% lower.
That is, for steels with a value of higher yield strength (fy ), there is a greater difficulty for
the composite section to reach the plastic moment, with LDB being responsible for reducing
the sectional moment. It is also observed in Figure 15 that the average value of the ratio
(χ/χref. ) for A572-GR50 steel is 0.93, that is, 7% lower when compared to the values obtained
for A36 steel. Finally, the reduction factor (χ) values for models with A572-GR42 steel are

119
Eng 2023, 4

compared with the reference values. The average value of the ratio (χ/χref. ) for A572-GR42
steel is 0.98, that is, only 2% lower than the values of A36 steel. This proximity occurs due
Eng 2023, 4 to the yield strength (fy ) of the two types of steels are close: 250 MPa for A36 steel2240
and 290
MPa for A572-GR42 steel.

1.10

1.05

1.00

0.95
χ/χref.

0.90

0.85

0.80

0.75

0.70
100 150 200 250 300 350
L/ry
Reference (A36)
A572-GR42 [Avg. 0.98; SD 2.80%; Var. 0.08% ]
A572-GR50 [Avg. 0.93; SD 2.96%; Var. 0.09% ]
A572-GR65 [Avg. 0.86; SD 4.75%; Var. 0.23% ]

Figure15.
Figure LDBreduction
15.LDB reduction factor
factor forfor different
different steel
steel type.
type.

In Figure
In order to 15,compare the values
the reference values offor
thethe
reduction
reduction factor (χ),(χobtained
factor ref.) were through
calculated theasFE a anal-
yses, withofthe
function thevalues
ultimate obtained
moment through
valuesthe standard
obtained forprocedures
the steel A36 (ABNT NBR
(fy = 250 8800:2008
MPa). The [15]
and EC4
results [13]), Tables
in Figure 15 show5–7 thataretheshown.
averageIn standard
value procedures,
of the ratio (χ/χref.) forthe
q
thereduction factor
steel A572-GR65 (χ) is
is 0.86. This Mcr the steel A36.
obtained asresult is 14% of
a function lower
the when
relative compared
slendernessto thefactor
values(λ obtained
= for
M pl −CB ) calculated as a
This result shows that, although the LDB ultimate moment for A572-GR65 steel is higher
function of the LDB elastic critical moment and the plastic moment of the composite section,
than the value obtained with A36 steel, the value of the reduction factor (χ) is 14% lower.
which is dependent on the steel yield strength (fy ). (fy), there is a greater difficulty for
That is, for steels with a value of higher yield strength
Table 5 presents
the composite sectionthe to results
reach the for the models
plastic with 8with
moment, mm reinforcement
LDB being responsible bars, comparisons
for
are made between the values of the reduction factor (χ) obtained
reducing the sectional moment. It is also observed in Figure 15 that the average value by the standard procedures
of
andratio
the through the
(χ/χref. FEA572-GR50
) for analyses for each
steel type that
is 0.93, of steel used
is, 7% lowerin the
whenI-sections.
compared In to
Tables 6 and 7 the
the values
same comparisons
obtained for A36 steel. areFinally,
made,the however,
reduction forfactor
models (χ) with
values 16for
mm and 25
models mm
with reinforcement
A572-GR42
bars, respectively. More information about the results
steel are compared with the reference values. The average value of the ratio (χ/χ obtained for each beam canref.) be
forfound
on Appendix A.
A572-GR42 steel is 0.98, that is, only 2% lower than the values of A36 steel. This proximity
occurs It due
is observed
to the yield in Table
strength 5 that the
(fy) of thevalues
two typesof the of reduction factor250
steels are close: (χ)MPaobtained
for A36by the
standard
steel and 290procedures (NBR 8800:2008
MPa for A572-GR42 steel. [15] and EC4 [13]) are lower than the values obtained
withIn theorder
FE analyses.
to compare Thisthesituation
values of shows a very conservative
the reduction behaviorthrough
factor (χ), obtained of the Brazilian
the FE [15],
for models
analyses, withwith the8 mm
valuesreinforcement
obtained through bars, athe situation
standard alsoprocedures
observed by RossiNBR
(ABNT et al. [1],
Zhou and[15]
8800:2008 Yanand [4],EC4
and[13]),
Bradford
Tables[29],
5–7 are in relation
shown. In tostandard
the European
procedures,procedure [13]. Table 5
the reduction
also presents
factor the percentage
(χ) is obtained error values
as a function of the
of the standard
relative procedures
slenderness calculated
factor (𝜆 in relation
)
to the results obtained with the FE analyses. Percentage error values were calculated for
calculated
models with as adifferent
function steel
of thetypes.
LDB elastic critical
For the moment
Brazilian and theprocedure
standard plastic moment of the
[15], the average
composite section, which is dependent on the steel yield strength (fy).
values of the percentage error for steels with a yield strength (fy ) of 250 MPa, 290 Mpa,
Table 5 presents the results for the models with 8 mm reinforcement bars,
350 Mpa, and 450 MPa were −31.4%, −32.1%, −39.8%, and −35.1%, respectively. These
comparisons are made between the values of the reduction factor (χ) obtained by the
results show that the LDB ultimate moment values obtained by the Brazilian standard
standard procedures and through the FE analyses for each type of steel used in the I-
procedure [15] are inferior to the values obtained by the FE analyses, verifying a consid-
sections. In Tables 6 and 7 the same comparisons are made, however, for models with 16
erably conservative situation. When the results are compared with the values obtained
mm and 25 mm reinforcement bars, respectively. More information about the results
by the European standard procedure [13], there is an intensification of this conservative
obtained for each beam can be found on Appendix A.
situation. The percentage error values for the European standard [13] are −39.7%, −42.2%,
−51.7%, and −51.5% for steels with a yield strength of 250 MPa, 290 MPa, 350 MPa, and
450 MPa, respectively. Therefore, the ultimate moment values obtained by the European
procedure [13] are up to 50% lower than the values obtained with the FE analyses for the
models with reinforcement bars of 8mm.

120
 Table 5. Comparison between the reduction factor values (χ) calculated by standard procedures and obtained by FE analyses for models with 8
mm bars.
Eng 2023, 4
fy = 250 MPa fy = 290 MPa fy = 350 MPa fy = 450 MPa
χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%)
I- ø L λ λ λ λ
FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 −
Section (mm) (m) χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3
4 0.76 1.05 0.79 0.75 −33.8 −40.3 0.81 1.02 0.76 0.72 −33.7 −41.4 0.87 1.00 0.73 0.68 −38.1 −48.0 0.98 0.96 0.67 0.61 −43.2 −57.0
5 0.76 1.01 0.78 0.75 0.81 0.98 0.76 0.72 0.88 0.96 0.72 0.67 0.98 0.90 0.67 0.61
8
−28.6 −34.9 −29.3 −36.8 −33.5 −43.2 −35.6 −49.0
CB350 6 0.77 1.04 0.78 0.74 0.82 1.00 0.76 0.71 0.89 0.93 0.72 0.67 0.99 0.89 0.66 0.60
mm
−33.1 −39.7 −32.4 −40.2 −29.6 −39.3 −33.8 −47.1
7 0.77 1.04 0.78 0.74 −33.2 −39.9 0.82 1.00 0.75 0.71 −33.0 −40.9 0.89 0.95 0.72 0.67 −31.8 −41.6 0.99 0.87 0.66 0.60 −31.1 −44.3
8 0.77 1.01 0.78 0.74 −30.0 −36.6 0.82 1.00 0.75 0.71 −32.9 −40.9 0.89 0.96 0.72 0.67 −34.0 −44.1 1.00 0.85 0.66 0.60 −28.7 −41.7
4 0.81 1.00 0.76 0.72 −31.7 −39.3 0.86 0.98 0.73 0.68 −34.1 −43.3 0.94 0.95 0.69 0.64 −37.5 −49.5 1.06 0.90 0.63 0.56 −43.7 −60.4
5 0.82 1.00 0.76 0.71 0.88 0.96 0.73 0.68 0.95 0.93 0.68 0.63 1.07 0.87 0.62 0.55
8
−32.8 −40.7 −32.5 −42.1 −36.6 −49.0 −40.3 −57.1
CB450 6 0.83 1.05 0.75 0.71 0.88 1.03 0.72 0.67 0.96 0.96 0.68 0.62 1.08 0.89 0.61 0.55
mm
−40.1 −48.7 −42.4 −52.9 −40.7 −53.7 −44.3 −61.8
7 0.83 0.95 0.75 0.71 −27.2 −35.1 0.89 0.97 0.72 0.67 −34.4 −44.4 0.97 0.85 0.68 0.62 −25.9 −37.7 1.09 0.79 0.61 0.54 −28.6 −44.4
8 0.83 0.98 0.75 0.70 −31.4 −39.6 0.89 0.90 0.72 0.67 −25.3 −34.7 0.97 0.86 0.67 0.62 −27.4 −39.4 1.09 0.76 0.61 0.54 −24.1 −39.4
4 0.89 0.93 0.72 0.67 −28.9 −38.5 0.95 0.90 0.69 0.63 −30.9 −42.6 0.92 1.12 0.70 0.65 −59.2 −72.3 1.17 0.79 0.56 0.49 −40.5 −60.1
5 0.90 0.93 0.71 0.66 0.97 0.88 0.68 0.62 0.94 1.06 0.69 0.64 1.19 0.72 0.55 0.48
8
−31.4 −41.7 −30.7 −43.0 −52.4 −65.6 −31.0 −49.8
CB600 6 0.91 0.94 0.70 0.65 0.98 0.90 0.67 0.61 0.95 1.08 0.69 0.63 1.21 0.75 0.54 0.47
mm
−33.3 −44.1 −34.6 −47.6 −56.6 −70.6 −38.2 −58.3
7 0.92 0.94 0.70 0.65 −34.5 −45.6 0.99 0.89 0.67 0.61 −33.1 −46.3 0.95 1.07 0.68 0.63 −57.1 −71.4 1.21 0.76 0.54 0.47 −40.6 −61.2
8 0.92 0.85 0.70 0.65 −21.1 −31.2 0.99 0.82 0.66 0.60 −23.1 −35.4 0.96 0.93 0.68 0.62 −36.7 −49.3 1.22 0.66 0.54 0.47 −22.7 −40.8
Avg. −31.4 −39.7 Avg. −32.1 −42.2 Avg. −39.8 −51.7 Avg. −35.1 −51.5
SD SD SD SD
4.2 4.4 4.4 4.7 11.1 12.3 7.1 8.2
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Var. Var. Var. Var.
17.4 19.1 19.0 21.8 124.1 152.2 51.1 67.9
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Table 6. Comparison between the reduction factor values (χ) calculated by standard procedures and obtained by FE analyses for models with 16 mm bars.

121
fy = 250 MPa fy = 290 MPa fy = 350 MPa fy = 450 MPa
χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%)
I- ø L λ λ λ λ
Section (mm) (m) FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 −
χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3
4 0.62 0.82 0.85 0.83 3.3 0.4 0.66 0.81 0.83 0.81 2.8 −0.5 0.71 0.77 0.81 0.78 5.3 1.5 0.78 0.75 0.78 0.74 2.8 −2.2
5 0.63 0.81 0.85 0.82 4.7 1.8 0.66 0.77 0.83 0.80 7.2 4.0 0.71 0.72 0.81 0.78 10.4 6.7 0.78 0.72 0.77 0.73 6.2 1.2
CB350 16 6 0.63 0.80 0.85 0.82 6.1 3.2 0.67 0.78 0.83 0.80 5.6 2.3 0.72 0.74 0.81 0.77 8.7 4.9 0.79 0.72 0.77 0.73 7.1 2.1
mm 7 0.63 0.79 0.85 0.82 7.0 4.2 0.67 0.75 0.83 0.80 9.9 6.7 0.72 0.75 0.81 0.77 6.5 2.6 0.79 0.72 0.77 0.73 6.2 1.1
8 0.63 0.79 0.85 0.82 6.6 3.7 0.67 0.77 0.83 0.80 6.8 3.5 0.72 0.73 0.80 0.77 9.6 5.8 0.79 0.68 0.77 0.73 12.2 7.4
4 0.69 0.83 0.82 0.79 −0.7 −4.5 0.73 0.80 0.80 0.77 0.4 −3.9 0.78 0.81 0.77 0.74 −4.2 −9.7 0.87 0.79 0.73 0.68 −8.2 −15.7
5 0.69 0.80 0.82 0.79 1.6 0.74 0.80 0.80 0.76 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.73 0.88 0.74 0.72 0.68
16
−2.2 −0.6 −5.1 −1.4 −6.9 −2.6 −10.1
CB450 6 0.70 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.80 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.88 0.75 0.72 0.67
mm
−2.0 −6.0 −4.6 −9.4 −5.1 −11.0 −4.7 −12.4
7 0.70 0.80 0.81 0.78 2.2 −1.7 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.76 4.3 −0.2 0.80 0.76 0.76 0.72 0.9 −4.6 0.89 0.69 0.72 0.67 3.6 −3.6
8 0.71 0.79 0.81 0.78 3.3 −0.6 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.76 4.2 −0.3 0.80 0.72 0.76 0.72 5.3 −0.1 0.89 0.67 0.72 0.67 6.3 −0.8
4 0.78 0.79 0.78 0.74 −1.6 −6.9 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.71 −5.0 −11.2 0.89 0.78 0.72 0.67 −7.6 −15.6 0.99 0.73 0.67 0.61 −9.1 −19.8
5 0.79 0.79 0.77 0.73 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.70 0.90 0.76 0.71 0.66 1.00 0.70 0.66 0.60
16
−3.0 −8.7 −5.8 −12.4 −6.1 −14.3 −6.4 −17.3
CB600 6 0.80 0.81 0.76 0.72 0.84 0.80 0.74 0.70 0.91 0.76 0.71 0.65 1.01 0.69 0.65 0.59
mm
−5.9 −11.9 −8.2 −15.2 −7.5 −16.1 −6.2 −17.4
7 0.81 0.80 0.76 0.72 −5.4 −11.4 0.85 0.82 0.74 0.70 −10.0 −17.3 0.92 0.73 0.70 0.65 −3.9 −12.3 1.02 0.68 0.65 0.58 −5.3 −16.5
8 0.81 0.73 0.76 0.72 3.6 −2.0 0.85 0.73 0.74 0.69 1.7 −4.8 0.92 0.68 0.70 0.65 3.1 −4.9 1.02 0.61 0.64 0.58 5.8 −4.3
Avg. 1.3 −2.8 Avg. 0.6 −4.2 Avg. 0.9 −4.9 Avg. 0.5 −7.2
SD SD SD SD
4.2 5.3 6.1 7.4 6.5 8.1 6.8 8.8
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Var. Var. Var. Var.
17.7 27.6 37.0 55.0 41.8 65.2 46.4 77.5
(%) (%) (%) (%)
 Table 7. Comparison between the reduction factor values (χ) calculated by standard procedures and obtained by FE analyses for models with
25 mm bars.
Eng 2023, 4
fy = 250 MPa fy = 290 MPa fy = 350 MPa fy = 450 MPa
χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%) χ Percent Error (%)
I- ø L λ λ λ λ
FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 − FE NBR EC3 (χNBR − (χEC3 −
Section (mm) (m) χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3 χFE )/χNBR χFE )/χEC3
4 0.48 0.81 0.91 0.89 10.5 9.0 0.50 0.81 0.90 0.88 10.5 8.8 0.56 0.72 0.88 0.86 18.0 16.0 0.64 0.67 0.84 0.82 20.6 18.1
5 0.49 0.79 0.91 0.89 13.2 11.7 0.50 0.77 0.90 0.88 14.3 12.7 0.57 0.70 0.87 0.85 20.3 18.3 0.65 0.64 0.84 0.81 24.2 21.7
CB350 25 6 0.49 0.76 0.91 0.89 16.2 14.7 0.51 0.81 0.90 0.88 10.0 8.3 0.57 0.71 0.87 0.85 18.9 16.9 0.65 0.62 0.84 0.81 25.5 23.0
mm 7 0.49 0.78 0.90 0.89 14.3 12.8 0.51 0.79 0.90 0.88 11.6 9.9 0.57 0.70 0.87 0.85 19.9 17.9 0.65 0.62 0.84 0.81 26.1 23.6
8 0.49 0.78 0.90 0.89 13.6 12.1 0.51 0.79 0.90 0.88 12.4 10.7 0.57 0.69 0.87 0.85 20.4 18.4 0.65 0.61 0.84 0.81 27.2 24.7
4 0.57 0.74 0.87 0.85 15.0 12.9 0.61 0.70 0.86 0.83 17.9 15.6 0.66 0.69 0.83 0.81 16.8 13.9 0.73 0.67 0.80 0.76 16.1 12.4
5 0.57 0.72 0.87 0.85 17.2 15.1 0.62 0.69 0.85 0.83 18.9 16.5 0.67 0.67 0.83 0.80 18.6 15.8 0.74 0.66 0.79 0.76 16.9 13.1
CB450 25 6 0.58 0.79 0.87 0.85 9.6 7.3 0.62 0.74 0.85 0.83 13.4 10.9 0.68 0.69 0.83 0.80 16.3 13.3 0.75 0.66 0.79 0.76 16.7 12.8
mm 7 0.58 0.72 0.87 0.85 17.4 15.3 0.62 0.67 0.85 0.83 20.9 18.5 0.68 0.65 0.82 0.80 21.3 18.4 0.75 0.60 0.79 0.75 23.9 20.3
8 0.58 0.71 0.87 0.85 17.8 15.7 0.63 0.66 0.85 0.82 22.2 19.9 0.68 0.63 0.82 0.79 23.9 21.2 0.75 0.57 0.79 0.75 27.7 24.3
4 0.67 0.69 0.83 0.80 16.9 14.0 0.71 0.69 0.81 0.78 15.0 11.5 0.77 0.66 0.78 0.75 15.4 11.1 0.85 0.64 0.74 0.70 13.9 8.3
5 0.68 0.70 0.82 0.79 14.9 11.8 0.72 0.69 0.80 0.77 14.6 11.0 0.78 0.66 0.78 0.74 15.3 10.8 0.86 0.63 0.73 0.69 14.8 8.9
CB600 25 6 0.69 0.73 0.82 0.79 11.6 8.3 0.73 0.71 0.80 0.77 11.5 7.6 0.79 0.68 0.77 0.73 12.4 7.7 0.87 0.61 0.73 0.68 15.9 9.9
mm 7 0.69 0.73 0.82 0.79 11.3 7.9 0.73 0.70 0.80 0.76 12.0 8.0 0.79 0.67 0.77 0.73 12.6 7.8 0.87 0.62 0.73 0.68 14.6 8.5
8 0.69 0.66 0.82 0.79 19.4 16.3 0.74 0.64 0.80 0.76 19.0 15.4 0.80 0.59 0.77 0.73 23.4 19.2 0.88 0.56 0.72 0.68 23.2 17.6
Avg. 14.6 12.3 Avg. 14.9 12.3 Avg. 18.2 15.1 Avg. 20.5 16.5
SD SD SD SD
2.9 3.0 3.9 3.9 3.5 4.2 5.1 6.2
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Var. Var. Var. Var.
8.6 9.0 15.3 15.3 12.1 17.4 26.0 38.7
(%) (%) (%) (%)

122
Eng 2023, 4

Still in relation to Table 5, observing the percentage error evolution for the different
steel types, a growth tendency of the errors is verified with the yield strength (fy ) increase,
except for the steel with a yield strength of 450 MPa. This situation shows that the use of
steels with different mechanical characteristics has an impact on the LDB strength that is
not captured by the design curves of SSRC (used by NBR q8800:2008 [15]) and ECCS (used
by EC3), which use the relative slenderness factor (λ = MMcr ).
pl −CB
Table 6 presents the results for models with 16 mm reinforcement bars. The results of
Table 6 show a greater proximity between the LDB ultimate moment values obtained by the
standard procedures and by the FE analyses. This situation can be explained by the plastic
moment calculation of the composite section, which is dependent on the longitudinal
reinforcement area present in the effective width of the concrete slab. Therefore, with
the increase in the steel area, there is an increaseq
in the plastic moment, and, therefore, a
reduction in the relative slenderness factor (λ = MMcr ), and, consequently, an increase
pl −CB
in the reduction factor (χ). Thus, with the increase in the plastic moment and the reduction
factor, there is an increase in the value of the LDB ultimate moment, which leads to a closer
approximation with the standard values. It is observed in Table 6 that the average values
of the percentage error for the Brazilian standard [15] are 1.3%, 0.6%, 0.9%, and 0.5%, and
for the European standard [13] −2.8%, −4.2%, −4.9%, and −7.2%, for steels with a yield
strength of 250 MPa, 290 MPa, 350 MPa, and 450 MPa, respectively. Regarding the steel
type, it is verified, for the Brazilian procedure [15] (curve 2P of the SSRC), that there is
no great variation in the average values of the percentage errors for the different steel
types. However, for the European standard [13], there is an increase in divergences with
the increase in the I-section steel yield strength.
Finally, Table 7 shows the results for models with reinforced bars with 25 mm diameter.
Contrary to the results observed in Table 5, Table 7 shows a non-conservative situation
of the standard procedures; that is, the results of the FE analyses were lower than the
ultimate moment values obtained by the standard procedures. The explanation for this
situation is the same as that presented in the previous paragraph; that is, with the increase
of the steel area in the effective width of the concrete slab, there is an increase
qin the plastic
moment, and, therefore, a reduction in the relative slenderness factor (λ = MMcr ), and,
pl −CB
consequently, an increase in the reduction factor (χ). Thus, with the increase in the plastic
moment and the reduction factor, there is an increase in the LDB ultimate moment value,
higher than those obtained in the FE analyses. In Table 7, it is observed that the average
values of the percentage error in relation to the Brazilian standard [15] are 14.6%, 14.9%,
18.2%, and 20.5%, for the European standard [13] these values are 12.3%, 12.3%, 15.1%,
and 16.5%, for steels with a yield strength of 250 MPa, 290 MPa, 350 MPa, and 450 MPa,
respectively. Analyzing the percentage error evolution, it is also observed a small influence
of the yield strength variation on the LDB ultimate moment values that are not captured by
the classic SSRC and ECCS curves.
Figure 16 shows the deformed shape and von Mises stresses, for the CB450 model
with a length of 6.0 m and reinforcement bars with 8 mm diameter for the four steel types
analyzed. For the model with steel yield strength of 250 MPa (Figure 16a), the maximum
stress in the I-section web (middle of the span) varies from 230.30 to 258.98 MPa. For the
model with 290 MPa yield strength (Figure 16b), the maximum stress in the I-section web
varies from 287.60 to 316.31 MPa. For the model in Figure 16c, with a yield strength of
350 MPa, the maximum web stress ranges from 332.94 to 363.16 MPa, and finally, for the
model with a yield strength of 450 MPa (Figure 16d) the maximum web stress varies from
422.35 to 460.67 MPa.

123
 analyzed. For the model with steel yield strength of 250 MPa (Figure 16a), the maximum
stress in the I-section web (middle of the span) varies from 230.30 to 258.98 MPa. For the
model with 290 MPa yield strength (Figure 16b), the maximum stress in the I-section web
varies from 287.60 to 316.31 MPa. For the model in Figure 16c, with a yield strength of 350
Eng 2023, 4 MPa, the maximum web stress ranges from 332.94 to 363.16 MPa, and finally, for the
model with a yield strength of 450 MPa (Figure 16d) the maximum web stress varies from
422.35 to 460.67 MPa.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 16. von Mises stress distribution (Unit = MPa). (a) fy = 250 MPa; (b) fy = 290 MPa; (c) fy = 350
Figure 16. von Mises stress distribution (Unit = MPa). (a) fy = 250 MPa; (b) fy = 290 MPa;
MPa; (d) fy = 450 MPa.
(c) fy = 350 MPa; (d) fy = 450 MPa.

6.2.6.2. Analytical
Analytical Proceduresand
Procedures andOther
OtherParameters
Parameters
The increase in the area of reinforcement bars present in the effective width of the
The increase in the area of reinforcement bars present in the effective width of the
concrete slab causes the increase in the plastic moment of the composite section calculated
concrete slab causes the increase in the plastic moment of the composite section calculated
by plastic theory, which consequently leads to an increase in the LDB ultimate moment
by plastic theory, which consequently leads to an increase in the LDB ultimate moment
calculated by standard procedures such as EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15]. However,
Eng 2023, 4 calculated by standard procedures such as EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15]. However, 2246 the
the numerical analyses developed in this article show a small variation in LDB strength
numerical analyses developed in this article show a small variation in LDB strength due to
due to the increase in the area of reinforcement bars. Figure 17 shows the LDB ultimate
themoment
increaseresults
in thefor
area of reinforcement bars. Figure 17 shows the LDB ultimate moment
models with reinforcement bars with a diameter of 8 mm, 16 mm, and
results for models with reinforcement bars with a diameter of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 25 mm.
25 mm. In Figure 17 the reference values are those obtained by the models with 8 mm
In Figure 17 the reference values are those obtained by the models with 8 mm bars.
bars.

1.20

1.15
Mu-FE/Mu-FE-ref.

1.10

1.05

1.00

0.95

0.90
100 150 200 250 300 350
L/ry
Reference (Bars ø 8mm)
Bars ø 16mm [Avg. 1.034; SD 2.39%; VAR 0.06%]
Bars ø 25mm [Avg. 1.078; SD 2.26%; VAR 0.05%]

Figure
Figure 17.
17.Influence
Influenceofoflongitudinal reinforcement.
longitudinal reinforcement.

It is observed in Figure 17 that the average value of the ratio (Mu‐FE/Mu‐FE‐ref.) for models
with reinforcement bars with 16 mm diameter is 1.034; that is, there is an average gain in
the ultimate moment value of about 3.4%. Regarding the models with 25 mm bars, the
average value of the ratio (Mu‐FE/Mu‐FE‐ref.) is 1.078. This shows that the ultimate moment
124
has an average gain of 7.8% compared with the models with 8 mm bars. This situation
shows that, despite a considerable increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area, there
 0.95

0.90
100 150 200 250 300 350
L/ry
Reference (Bars ø 8mm)
Eng 2023, 4 Bars ø 16mm [Avg. 1.034; SD 2.39%; VAR 0.06%]
Bars ø 25mm [Avg. 1.078; SD 2.26%; VAR 0.05%]

Figure 17. Influence of longitudinal reinforcement.

It is observed in Figure 17 that the average value of the ratio (Mu-FE /Mu-FE-ref. ) for
modelsIt with reinforcement
is observed in Figure bars with
17 that the 16 mm diameter
average value of theis 1.034;
ratio (M that is, u‐FE‐ref.
u‐FE/M there) for
is an average
models
with reinforcement bars with 16 mm diameter is 1.034;
gain in the ultimate moment value of about 3.4%. Regarding the models withthat is, there is an average gain25inmm
the ultimate moment value of about 3.4%. Regarding the models with
bars, the average value of the ratio (Mu-FE /Mu-FE-ref. ) is 1.078. This shows that the ultimate 25 mm bars, the
average value of the ratio (M u‐FE/Mu‐FE‐ref.) is 1.078. This shows that the ultimate moment
moment has an average gain of 7.8% compared with the models with 8 mm bars. This
has an average
situation gaindespite
shows that, of 7.8%acompared
considerable withincrease
the modelsin thewith 8 mm bars.
longitudinal This situationarea,
reinforcement
there is an insignificant increase in the value of the LDB ultimate moment. area, there
shows that, despite a considerable increase in the longitudinal reinforcement
is an insignificant increase in the value of the LDB ultimate moment.
Figure 18 shows the deformed shape and the distribution of the absolute maximum
Figure 18 shows the deformed shape and the distribution of the absolute maximum
stresses in the principal plane for models CB350 with a length of 6.0 m, A572-GR50 steel
stresses in the principal plane for models CB350 with a length of 6.0 m, A572-GR50 steel
and with longitudinal reinforcements of 8 mm (Figure 18a), 16 mm (Figure 18b), and 25 mm
and with longitudinal reinforcements of 8 mm (Figure 18a), 16 mm (Figure 18b), and 25
(Figure 18c). It is observed in Figure 18 that the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement
mm (Figure 18c). It is observed in Figure 18 that the increase in the longitudinal
area in the effective width of the concrete slab causes an increase in the maximum tension
reinforcement area in the effective width of the concrete slab causes an increase in the
and compression
maximum tension stresses, reflecting the
and compression increase
stresses, in the the
reflecting LDB ultimate
increase in moment, a situation
the LDB ultimate
verified
moment, in athe numerical
situation models
verified in theanalyzed.
numerical models analyzed.

Eng 2023, 4 2247

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 18. Stress distribution for the CB350 model with 6 m span (Unit = MPa). (a) Model with 8 mm
Figure 18. Stress distribution for the CB350 model with 6 m span (Unit = MPa). (a) Model with 8 mm
longitudinal reinforcement bars; (b) model with 16 mm longitudinal reinforcement bars; (c) model
longitudinal
with 25 mmreinforcement bars; (b) model
longitudinal reinforcement bars.with 16 mm longitudinal reinforcement bars; (c) model
with 25 mm longitudinal reinforcement bars.
As seen in Figure 17, the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area in the
As seen
effective in Figure
width of the 17, the increase
concrete in the
slab leads longitudinal
to an reinforcement
insignificant increase in theareaLDBin the effective
ultimate
width of the concrete slab leads to an insignificant increase in the
moment. However, this increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area causes a LDB ultimate moment.
However, this increase
considerable increaseininthe
theplastic
longitudinal
momentreinforcement
value calculated area causes atoconsiderable
according EC4 [13] by in-
crease in the plastic moment value calculated according to EC4
plastic theory. This situation causes an increase in the LDB ultimate moment [13] by plastic theory.
value,This
situation
calculated according to the procedures of EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15], as the to
causes an increase in the LDB ultimate moment value, calculated according
the procedures
longitudinal of EC4 [13] area
reinforcement and increases.
NBR 8800:2008
Figure 19[15], as the
shows thelongitudinal reinforcement
comparison between the
area increases.
European Figure
[13] and 19 shows
Brazilian the comparison
[15] standard between
design curves theresults
with the Europeanof the[13] and Brazil-
FE analyses
ian
for[15] standard
models with design
8 mm curves
(Figure with
19a), the results
16 mm of the19b),
(Figure FE analyses
and 25 mm for models
(Figure with
19c). 8Inmm
(Figure 19a),
addition, 16 mm
Figure 19 (Figure 19b),
also shows theand 25 mm
values (Figure
of the 19c). Inanalysis
experimental addition, of Figure 19 also
four beams shows
tested
by Tong et al. [28], which served to validate the numerical model of this article.

125
 effective width of the concrete slab leads to an insignificant increase in the LDB ultimate
moment. However, this increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area causes a
considerable increase in the plastic moment value calculated according to EC4 [13] by
plastic theory. This situation causes an increase in the LDB ultimate moment value,
Eng 2023, 4
calculated according to the procedures of EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15], as the
longitudinal reinforcement area increases. Figure 19 shows the comparison between the
European [13] and Brazilian [15] standard design curves with the results of the FE analyses
for models with 8 mm (Figure 19a), 16 mm (Figure 19b), and 25 mm (Figure 19c). In
the values Figure
addition, of the19 experimental analysis
also shows the ofthe
values of four beams tested
experimental by Tong
analysis of fouretbeams
al. [28], which
tested
served to validate
by Tong et al. [28],the numerical
which served model of this
to validate the article.
numerical model of this article.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 19. LDB strength for different steel type and comparison with [28]. (a) Models with 8 mm
Figure 19. LDB strength for different steel type and comparison with [28]. (a) Models with 8 mm
bars; (b) models with 16 mm bars; (c) models with 25 mm bars.
bars; (b) models with 16 mm bars; (c) models with 25 mm bars.
It is observed in Figure 19 three different situations. In Figure 19a, the results of the
It is observed in Figure 19 three different situations. In Figure 19a, the results of the
FE analyses provided LDB ultimate moment values higher than those obtained by the
FEBrazilian
analyses provided LDB ultimate moment values higher than those obtained by the
[15] and European [13] standard procedures. The average percentage error of
Brazilian [15]
the FE analysesandresults
European
when[13] standard
compared to procedures.
the EuropeanThe average[13]
procedure percentage error of
was −46.28%,
the
which shows considerable conservatism in the EC4 procedure [13]. Regarding 46.28%,
FE analyses results when compared to the European procedure [13] was − the
which shows
Brazilian considerable
standard conservatism
[15], which is based oninthetheSSRC
EC42P
procedure
curve, the[13]. Regarding
average the Brazilian
percentage error
standard [15], which
was −34.60%, is basedconservatism.
also showing on the SSRCFigure 2P curve, the average
19a also presents percentage error
the results of fourwas
−34.60%, also showing conservatism. Figure 19a also presents the results of four beams
tested experimentally by Tong et al. [28]. The results of these four beams are close to the
values of the FE analyses developed in this article, since the longitudinal reinforcement
area of the beams by Tong et al. [28] is similar to the models with 8 mm bars analyzed in
the present work.
In relation to Figure 19b, which presents the results for the models with 16 mm
diameter longitudinal reinforcement, a close proximity is observed between the results
of the FE analyses and the standard procedures of EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15]. The
increase in the plastic moment of the composite section is the reason that leads to the greater
proximity between the results of the standard procedures and those obtained through the
FE analyses. For the results presented in Figure 19b, the average percentage error of
the numerical results compared with the standard procedures is 0.83% for the Brazilian
standard [15] and −4.78% for the European standard [13]. Finally, in Figure 19c, the results
of the FE analyses are compared with the standard procedures for the models with 25 mm
diameter longitudinal reinforcement. It is observed in Figure 19c that the LDB ultimate
moment values obtained by means of the FE analyses are inferior to the standard results,
which leads to an unsafe situation of the European [13] and Brazilian [15] standards. As
verified, the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area does not cause a considerable
gain in the LDB strength. However, for the EC4 [13] and NBR 8800:2008 [15] procedures,
the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area leads to a considerable gain from the
LDB strength of SCCB, which leads to this unsafe situation for the European [13] and
Brazilian [15] procedures. In Figure 19c the average percentage error of the numerical
results compared with the standard procedures is 17.05% for the Brazilian standard [15]
and 14.05% for the European standard [13].
The results of the FE analyses were also compared with the analytical procedures
presented by Zhou and Yan [4] and Bradford [29]. In Figure 20, the results of the FE analyses
are compared with the Zhou and Yan procedure [4].

126
 gain from the LDB strength of SCCB, which leads to this unsafe situation for the European
[13] and Brazilian [15] procedures. In Figure 19c the average percentage error of the
numerical results compared with the standard procedures is 17.05% for the Brazilian
standard [15] and 14.05% for the European standard [13].
The results of the FE analyses were also compared with the analytical procedures
Eng 2023, 4
presented by Zhou and Yan [4] and Bradford [29]. In Figure 20, the results of the FE
analyses are compared with the Zhou and Yan procedure [4].

1.4 1.4
Zhou and Yan (2017) Zhou and Yan (2017)
FE (A36) FE (A36)
1.2 FE (A572-GR42) 1.2 FE (A572-GR42)
FE (A572-GR50) FE (A572-GR50)
Mu,FE/Mpl-CB

Mu,FE/Mpl-CB
1 FE (A572-GR65) 1 FE (a572-GR65)

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
λPR λPR
(a) (b)
1.4
Zhou and Yan (2017)
FE (A36)
1.2 FE (A572-GR42)
FE (A572-GR50)
Mu,FE/Mpl-CB

1 FE (A572-GR65)

0.8

0.6

0.4
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
λPR
(c)

Figure 20. Comparison of FE results with the Zhou and Yan procedure [4]. (a) Models with 8 mm
bars; (b) models with 16 mm bars; (c) models with 25 mm bars.

It is observed in Figure 20 that the longitudinal reinforcement area variation in the

concrete slab is also responsible for three different situations when the results of the FE
analyses are compared with the Zhou and Yan procedure [4]. For the models with 8 mm
diameter longitudinal reinforcement (Figure 20a) the results of the FE analyses show greater
agreement with the Zhou and Yan [4] procedure. The results analysis of the LDB ultimate
moment shows that the average value of the ratio (MZhou and Yan /Mu ,FE ) is 1.08, that is, the
values obtained through the analytical procedure of Zhou and Yan [4] are on average 8.0%
higher than those obtained with the FE analyses. Figure 20b presents the results obtained
with the FE analyses for the models with 16 mm bars. It is verified that with the increase
in the longitudinal reinforcement area there is also an increase in the divergence between
the results of the FE analyses and the results of the Zhou and Yan procedure [4]. The
average value of the ratio (MZhou and Yan /Mu ,FE ) is 1.28, that is, the results of the procedure
developed by the authors [4] are on average 28% higher than the results obtained in the
numerical analysis, an unsafe situation. Finally, Figure 20c shows the results for the models
with 25 mm diameter longitudinal reinforcement bars. There is also a tendency to increase
the divergence between the numerical results and the Zhou and Yan [4] procedure as the
longitudinal reinforcement area is increased. For the results in Figure 20c, the average
value of the ratio (MZhou and Yan /Mu ,FE ) is 1.34, which shows an unsafe situation in the Zhou
and Yan procedure [4]. Figure 20 also presents the results for the models with the different
steel types analyzed, it is verified that, as for the standard procedures, in the Zhou and Yan
procedure [4] the influence of the steel type is not captured properly.
Finally, Figure 21 presents the comparison between the results obtained with the FE
analyses and the Bradford [29] procedure.

127
 Figure 20c, the average value of the ratio (MZhou and Yan/Mu,FE) is 1.34, which shows an unsafe
situation in the Zhou and Yan procedure [4]. Figure 20 also presents the results for the
models with the different steel types analyzed, it is verified that, as for the standard
procedures, in the Zhou and Yan procedure [4] the influence of the steel type is not
captured properly.
Eng 2023, 4
Finally, Figure 21 presents the comparison between the results obtained with the FE
analyses and the Bradford [29] procedure.

1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2

Mu,FE/Mpl-I-B
Mu,FE/Mpl-I-B

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Bradford (2000) Bradford (2000)
0.4 FE (A36) 0.4 FE (A36)
FE (A572-GR42) FE (A572-GR42)
0.2 FE (A572-GR50) 0.2 FE (A572-GR50)
FE (A572-GR65) FE (A572-GR65)
0 0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
λB λB
(a) (b)
1.6
1.4
1.2
Mu,FE/Mpl-I-B

1
0.8
0.6
Bradford (2000)
0.4 FE (A36)
FE (A572-GR42)
0.2 FE (A572-GR50)
FE (A572-GR65)
0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
λB
(c)

Figure 21. Comparison of FE results with the Bradford [29] procedure. (a) Models with 8 mm bars;
(b) models with 16 mm bars; (c) models with 25 mm bars.

The results in Figure 21 show a similar behavior of the Bradford procedure [29] in
comparison with the results of the FE analysis between the models with longitudinal
reinforcement of 8 mm (Figure 21a), 16 mm (Figure 21b), and 25 mm (Figure 21c). This
situation is due to the fact that the Bradford procedure [29] does not consider the plastic
moment of the composite section, but only the I-section plastic moment to determine the
LDB ultimate moment. This situation can be confirmed with the analysis of the average
value of the ratio (MBradford /Mu ,FE ) which provided values of 0.59, 0.57, and 0.55 for the
models with reinforcement bars with a diameter of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 25 mm, respectively.
However, despite providing safe results, the Bradford procedure [29] is considerably
conservative. Regarding the results for the different steel types analyzed, it is verified that
for the models with greater steel yield strength, there is a greater proximity of the FE results
with the author’s procedure [29]. On the other hand, with the reduction in the steel yield
strength, there is a tendency to increase the divergences between the FE results and the
Bradford procedure [29].
Finally, Figure 22 shows the LDB ultimate moment values for models with A572-GR50
steel and 8 mm reinforcement bars. The results show that the unrestricted length variation
does not significantly influence the LDB ultimate moment value, a situation also observed
by Rossi et al. [1]. It is verified in Figure 22 that the preponderant factor in the LDB ultimate
moment values is the I-section geometric properties.
The results presented show that the standard procedures are still flawed in determining
the LDB strength of SCCB under the action of the hogging moment. The influence of
parameters not previously investigated was presented, such as the I-section steel type and
a considerable variation in the longitudinal reinforcement area in the effective width of the
concrete slab. The investigation of these factors showed flaws until then not observed, in the
standard procedures such as EC4 [13] and NBR8800:2008 [15]. The comparison between the
FE results and the analytical procedures, such as Zhou and Yan [4] and Bradford [29], shows

128
 models with reinforcement bars with a diameter of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 25 mm,
respectively. However, despite providing safe results, the Bradford procedure [29] is
considerably conservative. Regarding the results for the different steel types analyzed, it
is verified that for the models with greater steel yield strength, there is a greater proximity
of the FE results with the author’s procedure [29]. On the other hand, with the reduction
Eng 2023, 4 in the steel yield strength, there is a tendency to increase the divergences between the FE
results and the Bradford procedure [29].
Finally, Figure 22 shows the LDB ultimate moment values for models with A572-
GR50 steel and 8 mm reinforcement bars. The results show that the unrestricted length
that further investigations are still needed to fully understand the LDB phenomenon in
variation does not significantly influence the LDB ultimate moment value, a situation also
SCCB. Thus, the results presented in this article can provide a reference for future research
observed by Rossi et al. [1]. It is verified in Figure 22 that the preponderant factor in the
and specification reviews.
LDB ultimate moment values is the I-section geometric properties.

1100
CB350 CB450 CB600
Mu,FE (kN.m) 900

700

500

300

100
3500 4500 5500 6500 7500 8500
L (mm)
Figure 22.
Figure 22.Influence
Influenceofofunrestricted
unrestrictedlength.
length.

7. Conclusions
The results presented show that the standard procedures are still flawed in
determining the LDB
In this article, thestrength of SCCB
LDB strength of under
SCCB the
wasaction of the hogging
investigated throughmoment. The
the development
influence of parameters not previously investigated was presented, such
of post-buckling numerical analyses with the ABAQUS software. The SCCB analyzed as the I-section
steelsimply
are type and a considerable
supported variation
with lateral in theInlongitudinal
bracing. reinforcement
the parametric study, 180area in the were
analyses
effective width of the concrete slab. The investigation of these factors showed flaws until
developed, varying the following factors: the mechanical properties of the steel I-section,
then not observed, in the standard procedures such as EC4 [13] and NBR8800:2008 [15].
the dimensions of the I-sections, the unrestricted length, and the longitudinal reinforcement
The comparison between the FE results and the analytical procedures, such as Zhou and
area present in the effective width of the concrete slab. Finally, the results were compared
Yan [4] and Bradford [29], shows that further investigations are still needed to fully
with current standard procedures and analytical proposals. In this way, it was concluded:
understand the LDB phenomenon in SCCB. Thus, the results presented in this article can
Theaincrease
•provide referenceinfor
thefuture
I-section steeland
research yield strength causes
specification an increase in the LDB ultimate
reviews.
moment values. Taking as reference the steel with a yield strength of 250 MPa, it
7. Conclusions
is verified that for an increase of 16%, 40%, and 80% in the yield strength (fy = 290;
fy =
In 350;
this fy = 450),
article, the strength
the LDB variation ofin the LDB
SCCB ultimate moment
was investigated throughwas
theof 10.12%, 23.60%,
development
and 42.43%, respectively.
of post-buckling numerical analyses with the ABAQUS software. The SCCB analyzed are
• It was verified that for the models with a higher steel yield strength (fy ), the LDB occurs
simply supported with lateral bracing. In the parametric study, 180 analyses were
for ultimate
developed, varyingmoment valuesfactors:
the following lower thethanmechanical
the plasticproperties
moment ofof the
the steel
composite section,
I-section,
that is, the greater the steel yield strength, the lower the chances of the composite
the dimensions of the I-sections, the unrestricted length, and the longitudinal
section reaching the plastic moment, with the LDB being the failure mode responsible
for defining the ultimate moment value;
• There was a tendency to increase divergences between the numerical results and the
curves of ECCS (EC4) and SSRC (NBR 8800:2008), with the increase in the steel yield
strength (fy ), that is, for steels with greater yield strength, the greater the divergences
between the FE results and standard procedures.
• The increase in the longitudinal reinforcement area present in the concrete slab causes
a small increase in the LDB strength. For an increase of 244% in the longitudinal
reinforcement area, there was only an increase of about 7.8% in the value of the LDB
ultimate moment;
• Different behavior of the standard procedures was verified, due to the variation of the
longitudinal reinforcement area, when compared to the ultimate moment obtained by
the FE analyses. For a longitudinal reinforcement rate that approximates practical situ-
ations (8 mm bars), the standard procedures proved to be considerably conservative.
As the longitudinal reinforcement area in the effective width of the concrete slab is
increased, the behavior of the standard procedures is changed. For the longitudinal
reinforcement with 16 mm bars, the standard results are close to the numerical values,
showing a good behavior of the standard procedures. However, for models with
25 mm bars, the European [13] and Brazilian [15] standard procedures provided
ultimate moment results superior to those obtained by FE analyses;

129
Eng 2023, 4

• The Zhou and Yan [4] procedure showed a behavior similar to that observed in the
standard procedures, that is, with the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement
rate, there is a variation of the divergences with the results of the FE analyses. This
situation is caused by the fact that the procedures of Zhou and Yan [4], the European
standard [13] and the Brazilian standard [15], define the LDB ultimate moment value
due to the reduction of the plastic moment of the composite section, and, any change
in this value was shown to be sensitive to the behavior of the mentioned procedures;
• It was found that the Bradford procedure [29] is not sensitive to the variation in the
longitudinal reinforcement rate, since the definition of the LDB ultimate moment is
a function of the I-section plastic moment, and not of the composite section plastic
moment. The comparison between the results of the FE analyses and Bradford’s proce-
dure [29] showed that this provides safe results, however, considerably conservative;
• It was verified that the LDB ultimate moment is not very sensitive to the unrestricted
length variation of the SCCB. The predominant factor is the dimensions of the I-section.
In general, it was verified that the standard procedures are still flawed in determining
the LDB strength of SCCB. It was found that the European [13] and the Brazilian [15]
standard procedures show different behaviors due to the longitudinal reinforcement area
variation. In addition, they are sensitive to the variation of the steel mechanical properties,
tending to an increase or reduction of the divergences depending on the yield strength
variation (fy ). The comparison between the FE results and the analytical procedures, such
as Zhou and Yan [4] and Bradford [29], shows that further investigations are still needed to
fully understand the LDB phenomenon in SCCB. Thus, the results presented in this article
can provide a reference for future research and specification reviews.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R., C.H.M. and A.S.C.d.S.; methodology, A.R., A.S.d.C.
and V.M.d.O.; software, A.R., A.S.d.C. and V.M.d.O.; validation, A.R., A.S.d.C. and V.M.d.O.; formal
analysis, A.R.; investigation, A.R., A.S.d.C. and V.M.d.O.; resources, A.R.; data curation, A.R., C.H.M.
and A.S.C.d.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R,.; writing—review and editing, A.R., A.S.d.C.
and V.M.d.O.; visualization, A.R.; supervision, C.H.M. and A.S.C.d.S.; project administration, C.H.M.
and A.S.C.d.S.; funding acquisition, C.H.M. and A.S.C.d.S. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was financed by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001 and by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq).
Data Availability Statement: The data is available upon request.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge CAPES and CNPq for the financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
A sectional area of the steel I-beam
Af sectional area of the steel beam flange
Ar sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement in concrete slab
Aw sectional area of the steel beam web
a spacing between parallel beams
bf flange width
Cdist property associated with the distribution of bending moments
d section depth
E modulus of elasticity
Ea elasticity modulus of structural steel
Ec Ic2 flexural stiffness per unit width of the slab
fck-cubic characteristic compressive cubic strength of concrete
fck-cylindrical characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete

130
Eng 2023, 4

fcm compressive strength of concrete

ff yield strength of the flange I-beams
fr yield strength of the reinforcement bars
ftm concrete tension strength
fu ultimate strength
fy yield strength
G shear modulus
hs distance between the centroids of the flanges
hw web depth
Iaf,y moments of inertia of area of the structural steel section about the weak axis
J torsional constant
ks rotational stiffness
k1 bending stiffness of the concrete slab
k2 bending stiffness of the web of I-beam
L unrestrained length of composite beam
Mcr elastic distortional critical moment
MFE ultimate moment obtained from the finite element analysis
Mpl-CB plastic moment obtained by I-beam more reinforcement bars
Mpl-I-B plastic moment of I-beam
Mtest experimental test ultimate moment
Mu,dist resistant moment obtained by analytical procedures
rfc,y radius of gyration of the compression flange
Sstud spacing between headed stud connectors
tf flange thickness
tw web thickness
U displacement
UR rotational displacement
α coefficient equal to 2 for an edge beam, with or without a cantilever, or 3 for an inner beam
αg factor related to the cross-section geometry of the composite beam by Roik et al.
αLT imperfection factor according EC3
αm modification factor of the moment distribution according AS4100
βc stress–strain relationship form factor of concrete in compression
δ lateral displacement
ε strain
εc compressive strain
εt tensile strain
εu ultimate strain
εy yield strain
θ rotation
λ slenderness ratio
λ LT slenderness ratio according EC3
λPR slenderness ratio according Zhou and Yan
νa Poisson’s ratio of structural steel
ρ force ratio according Zhou and Yan
σ stress
σc residual compression stress
σt residual tensile stress
φPR stability coefficient according Zhou and Yan
φLT stability coefficient according EC3
χLT reduction factor according EC3

131
 Appendix A
Eng 2023, 4

Geometric Parameters fy = 250 MPa fy = 290 MPa fy = 350 MPa fy = 450 MPa
a b a b a b a b
I- MFE MFE MFE MFE
ø (mm) L (m)
Section (kNm) Mpl-I (kNm) Mpl-C.beam (kNm) (kNm) Mpl-I (kNm) Mpl-C.beam (kNm) (kNm) Mpl-I (kNm) Mpl-C.beam (kNm) (kNm) Mpl-I (kNm) Mpl-C.beam (kNm)
4 187.32 131.85 177.87 205.39 152.95 201.53 237.75 184.59 236.86 284.13 237.33 295.46
5 179.13 131.85 177.87 197.51 152.95 201.53 228.29 184.59 236.86 267.04 237.33 295.46
CB350 8 mm 6 184.87 131.85 177.87 201.63 152.95 201.53 221.00 184.59 236.86 262.23 237.33 295.46
7 184.77 131.85 177.87 202.16 152.95 201.53 224.12 184.59 236.86 256.30 237.33 295.46
8 180.19 131.85 177.87 201.82 152.95 201.53 227.54 184.59 236.86 251.10 237.33 295.46
4 336.68 266.93 335.81 376.44 309.63 383.59 432.31 373.70 455.13 517.47 480.47 574.18
5 336.71 266.93 335.81 368.87 309.63 383.59 425.02 373.70 455.13 498.42 480.47 574.18
CB450 8 mm 6 353.75 266.93 335.81 394.32 309.63 383.59 434.81 373.70 455.13 508.65 480.47 574.18
7 320.11 266.93 335.81 370.79 309.63 383.59 387.73 373.70 455.13 451.14 480.47 574.18
8 330.19 266.93 335.81 345.09 309.63 383.59 391.20 373.70 455.13 433.87 480.47 574.18
4 607.05 539.40 654.24 674.08 625.70 751.44 787.23 755.16 704.23 903.03 970.92 1139.82
5 610.78 539.40 654.24 663.06 625.70 751.44 743.05 755.16 704.23 822.99 970.92 1139.82
CB600 8 mm 6 614.81 539.40 654.24 676.83 625.70 751.44 757.06 755.16 704.23 856.43 970.92 1139.82
7 617.29 539.40 654.24 665.84 625.70 751.44 755.31 755.16 704.23 863.88 970.92 1139.82
8 554.04 539.40 654.24 613.21 625.70 751.44 655.03 755.16 704.23 749.43 970.92 1139.82
4 197.70 131.85 240.13 218.83 152.95 269.88 239.58 184.59 311.71 284.72 237.33 377.33
5 194.28 131.85 240.13 208.33 152.95 269.88 225.82 184.59 311.71 273.47 237.33 377.33
CB350 16 mm 6 191.05 131.85 240.13 211.47 152.95 269.88 229.44 184.59 311.71 270.26 237.33 377.33
7 188.96 131.85 240.13 201.59 152.95 269.88 234.63 184.59 311.71 272.49 237.33 377.33
8 189.71 131.85 240.13 208.38 152.95 269.88 226.70 184.59 311.71 254.79 237.33 377.33
4 352.54 266.93 426.17 382.13 309.63 478.59 447.85 373.70 555.12 537.13 480.47 679.50
5 342.56 266.93 426.17 383.88 309.63 478.59 432.69 373.70 555.12 505.44 480.47 679.50
CB450 16 mm 6 353.97 266.93 426.17 397.65 309.63 478.59 446.80 373.70 555.12 513.02 480.47 679.50

132
7 338.85 266.93 426.17 363.14 309.63 478.59 419.95 373.70 555.12 470.91 480.47 679.50
8 334.80 266.93 426.17 363.04 309.63 478.59 400.93 373.70 555.12 456.89 480.47 679.50
4 628.58 539.40 797.48 697.16 625.70 879.14 797.42 755.16 1028.62 926.56 970.92 1275.36
5 631.46 539.40 797.48 695.93 625.70 879.14 777.01 755.16 1028.62 890.53 970.92 1275.36
CB600 16 mm 6 645.84 539.40 797.48 707.56 625.70 879.14 782.25 755.16 1028.62 881.05 970.92 1275.36
7 640.07 539.40 797.48 716.77 625.70 879.14 752.17 755.16 1028.62 868.96 970.92 1275.36
8 584.30 539.40 797.48 638.74 625.70 879.14 699.76 755.16 1028.62 774.36 970.92 1275.36
4 206.91 131.85 254.63 221.16 152.95 274.12 251.04 184.59 349.45 302.23 237.33 452.10
5 200.34 131.85 254.63 211.23 152.95 274.12 243.32 184.59 349.45 287.65 237.33 452.10
CB350 25 mm 6 193.26 131.85 254.63 221.52 152.95 274.12 247.26 184.59 349.45 282.26 237.33 452.10
7 197.41 131.85 254.63 217.50 152.95 274.12 243.84 184.59 349.45 279.76 237.33 452.10
8 198.84 131.85 254.63 215.55 152.95 274.12 242.41 184.59 349.45 275.42 237.33 452.10
4 361.81 266.93 486.42 396.20 309.63 563.41 461.84 373.70 666.25 548.33 480.47 818.91
5 351.22 266.93 486.42 389.96 309.63 563.41 449.23 373.70 666.25 539.93 480.47 818.91
CB450 25 mm 6 382.57 266.93 486.42 415.02 309.63 563.41 460.75 373.70 666.25 539.66 480.47 818.91
7 349.24 266.93 486.42 378.96 309.63 563.41 432.70 373.70 666.25 491.72 480.47 818.91
8 347.02 266.93 486.42 372.13 309.63 563.41 417.53 373.70 666.25 466.47 480.47 818.91
4 641.11 539.40 930.85 722.59 625.70 1050.25 807.54 755.16 1219.74 948.98 970.92 1487.96
5 652.32 539.40 930.85 720.41 625.70 1050.25 801.63 755.16 1219.74 930.19 970.92 1487.96
CB600 25 mm 6 675.12 539.40 930.85 743.66 625.70 1050.25 824.83 755.16 1219.74 912.33 970.92 1487.96
7 675.68 539.40 930.85 737.68 625.70 1050.25 819.96 755.16 1219.74 922.46 970.92 1487.96
8 612.75 539.40 930.85 677.31 625.70 1050.25 717.36 755.16 1219.74 827.37 970.92 1487.96
a
I-section plastification moment; b Composite section plastification moment.
Eng 2023, 4

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134
Article
Insight into the Optimization of Implementation Time in Cob
Construction: Field Test and Compressive Strength Versus
Drying Kinetics
Karim Touati 1,2, *, Baraa Al Sahmarany 2 , Malo Le Guern 2 , Yassine El Mendili 3 , François Streiff 4
and Steve Goodhew 5

1 EPF Ecole d’Ingénieurs, 21 Boulevard Berthelot, 34000 Montpellier, France

2 ComUE Normandie Université, Builders Ecole d’Ingénieurs, 1 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 14610 Epron, France;
[email protected] (B.A.S.); [email protected] (M.L.G.)
3 Institut de Recherche en Constructibilité IRC, Ecole Spéciale des Travaux Publics, 28 Avenue du Président
Wilson, 94234 Cachan, France; [email protected]
4 Parc Naturel Régional des Marais du Cotentin et du Bessin, 50500 Carentan les Marais, France;
[email protected]
5 School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +33-4-99-65-99-55

Abstract: Mastering construction times is of paramount importance in making vernacular earth

construction techniques attractive to modern clients. The work presented here is a contribution
towards the optimization of the construction time of cob buildings. Therefore, this paper follows
the evolution of a cob’s mechanical properties during its drying process in the case of a double-
walling CobBauge system. Laboratory tests and in situ measurements were performed, and further
results were described. Volumetric water content sensors were immersed in the walls of a CobBauge
prototype building during its construction. The evolution of the cob layer’s compressive strength
and Clegg Impact Value (CIV) as a function of its water content has been experimentally studied
and discussed. These studies showed that compressive strength and CIV are correlated with water
Citation: Touati, K.; Al Sahmarany,
content, and both properties decrease exponentially with time. In this study, a new tool to evaluate
B.; Le Guern, M.; El Mendili, Y.;
Streiff, F.; Goodhew, S. Insight into
cob’s mechanical performances in situ has been proposed, Clegg Impact Soil Tester. This was linked
the Optimization of Implementation to compressive strength, and a linear relationship between these two properties was found. Finally,
Time in Cob Construction: Field Test appropriate values of compressive strength and CIV to satisfy before formwork stripping and re-
and Compressive Strength Versus lifting were proposed. For this study’s conditions, these values are reached after approximately
Drying Kinetics. Eng 2023, 4, 27 days.
2075–2089. https://doi.org/10.3390/
eng4030117 Keywords: implementation time; cob; water content; compressive strength; Clegg Impact Value
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi

Received: 24 June 2023

Revised: 19 July 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 19 July 2023
Climate change has been observed worldwide over recent decades. This is in major
Published: 25 July 2023
part due to greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). In France, the sector of the manufacturing
and construction industry, in particular, related to the use and construction of residen-
tial/tertiary buildings contributed to 152.7 MtCO2 eq in 2021, representing 36.5% of total
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. GHG emissions [1]. Thus, construction is one of the major target sectors that should be
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. focused on to reduce carbon footprints. This can be achieved by specifying less processed
This article is an open access article materials, using locally sourced natural materials, and low environmental impact processes.
distributed under the terms and In the context of global climate change, the development of earthen construction is a real
conditions of the Creative Commons alternative to reduce the CO2 emissions from the construction sector. However, this age-old
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// material must be able to demonstrate good mechanical resistance and adequate water
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ resistance whilst complying with conditions imposed by the current building regulations.
4.0/).

Eng 2023, 4, 2075–2089. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030117 135 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

Earthen construction is gaining popularity as a potential means of establishing local

value chains with minimal environmental impact. However, the growth of this historically
existing building technology, concentrated in a number of locations of developed countries
is still limited due to the high cost, labour intensity, and construction periods because of
the material drying time. One of the most popular earthen construction techniques in the
Northwest of Europe is cob. Natural fibers, water, and silty-clayey soils are typically used to
make cob. Water is added to the mixture to cause it to transform into a plastic state, which
enables the efficient production of reasonably thick load-bearing building walls. Cob has
gained less interest since the beginning of the 20th century in favor of industrial materials
thought to be more effective and contemporary with a high degree of standardization.
When compared to modern construction methods, cob has actually numerous perceived
drawbacks, including low insulating capabilities, long construction durations, high labor
demands, etc. [2]. Actually, buildings using cob (in its original conception) do not adhere
to global thermal construction rules. To overcome this issue and allow building designers
to use cob as a walling material, some aspects of the properties of the finished walling need
to be improved in order to enhance cob housings’ thermal performances. Alongside this
need, the implementation of new methods is being examined to reduce construction times
and associated costs.
Cob- and earthen-based materials, in general, have seen a rise in attention since the
1980s due to climatic concerns, especially in France and the United Kingdom [3–11]. This is
partly because of its many environmental benefits, namely its durability, minimal environ-
mental effect, and occupational thermal comfort [12,13]. Understanding and improving
cob’s geotechnical, thermal, and mechanical properties has been the subject of several
studies [7,12,14,15].
Accordingly, the CobBauge EU Interreg project is concentrated on creating, imple-
menting, and testing a novel low-carbon technology employing regional soils and plant
fibers. This earth fiber-based technique attempts to create a hybrid walling system by
combining a load-bearing (cob) and an insulating (light earth) layer, as shown in Figure 1.
In order to create 100% earth-based walling that ensures structural resistance and thermal
insulation, cob and light earth are naturally blended. In the first phase of the project, many
formulations have been examined and evaluated to identify the best earth/fiber mixtures
that would enable the construction of the building with a double walling system that
complies with French and United Kingdom standards. In this first phase, studies focused
on the geotechnical properties of soils, followed by the mechanical and thermal properties
of soil–fiber composites. Two prototype buildings have been built in France and the United
Kingdom as part of the project’s second phase in order to evaluate how the CobBauge
hybrid walling affects the behavior of those buildings on the site.
When compared to other modern construction techniques, a building with a cob
represents an issue possibly limiting its large-scale rollout. This concerns construction
times. With cob, construction times are usually long and sometimes weather dependent.
These long construction times are mainly due to the leakage of knowledge regarding the
drying kinetics of the mixtures. Thus, the first aim of this present work is to understand
the cob’s drying process in situ and propose a methodology to optimize the walling’s
construction time. This objective can be achieved by studying and understanding the
impact of water content on the mechanical performances of cob. The second aim of this
work is to propose a field test allowing the knowledge of in situ performances (drying
kinetics and compressive strength). The results will make it possible to evaluate cob drying
and compressive strength progress in situ. Since a double walling system is implemented
within formwork, this contribution can be useful in the optimization of form-stripping
times, particularly, influencing cob construction times, in general.

136
Eng 2023,44, FOR PEER REVIEW
Eng2023, 3

Figure1.1.In
Figure Insitu
situimplementation
implementationof
ofaaCobBauge
CobBaugedouble
doublewalling
wallingsystem.
system.

2.2. Materials
Materialsand
andMethods
Methods
2.1.
2.1. Soils Particle Sizeand
Soils Particle Size andGeotechnical
GeotechnicalCharacterization
Characterization
Three
Threesoils
soilswere
wereused
usedin
inthe
theconstruction
constructionof
ofaaprototype
prototypebuilding
buildingin inFrance,
France,designed
designed
to
to allow the research team to assess the construction process performances and energy
allow the research team to assess the construction process performances and energy
efficiency
efficiency of the CobBauge
of the CobBaugetechnique.
technique.The The cob
cob layer
layer (subject
(subject of this
of this present
present paper)
paper) is
is con-
constituted of two different soils. The soils used in this study were collected in
stituted of two different soils. The soils used in this study were collected in LieusaintLieusaint
quarry (Société des Sablières du Cotentin, SABCO Normandy). These soils are locally
quarry (Société des Sablières du Cotentin, SABCO Normandy). These soils are locally
sourced from a geographical area that is associated with existing cob buildings. Their
sourced from a geographical area that is associated with existing cob buildings. Their ge-
geotechnical characterizations were performed. The clay activity was evaluated using the
otechnical characterizations were performed. The clay activity was evaluated using the
methylene blue value test according to standard NF P94-068 [16] and Atterberg’s limit
methylene blue value test according to standard NF P94-068 [16] and Atterberg’s limit
according to standard NF EN ISO 17892-12 [17]. Retrieved soil properties constituting cob
according to standard NF EN ISO 17892-12 [17]. Retrieved soil properties constituting cob
mixture and classification can be found in Table 1.
mixture and classification can be found in Table 1.
Table 1. Atterberg limits, methylene blue values, and soil classification.
Table 1. Atterberg limits, methylene blue values, and soil classification.
Liquid Limit Plasticity Index Methylene Blue Value
Soil Liquid Plasticity Methylene Blue USCS Classification
[%] [%] [g/100 g]
Soil Limit Index Value USCS Classification
Soil 1 22.8 2.3 1.35 Low plasticity silt (ML)
[%] [%] [g/100 g]
Soil 1 22.8 2.3 Silty sand with gravel
Soil 2 28.5 4.2 2.31 1.35 Low plasticity silt (ML)
(SM)
Silty sand with gravel
Soil 2 28.5 4.2 2.31
(SM)
The mineralogical composition of soil 1 reveals the presence of the following major
phases:
Thequartz (54.8%),composition
mineralogical muscovite (26.2%),
of soil 1 montmorillonite (6.9%),
reveals the presence and
of the albite (4.2%),
following major
with
phases: quartz (54.8%), muscovite (26.2%), montmorillonite (6.9%), and albiteTable
small occurrences of illite, kaolinite, goethite, rutile, and huntite (see (4.2%),2) with
[18].
Subsequently, soil 1 is typical of silty soil. It is composed of quartz grains and
small occurrences of illite, kaolinite, goethite, rutile, and huntite (see Table 2) [18]. Subse- silicates
(feldspars, micas, serpentines, and smectites). Silt particles are intermediate sand and clay
quently, soil 1 is typical of silty soil. It is composed of quartz grains and silicates (feldspars,
in size and have similar properties.
micas, serpentines, and smectites). Silt particles are intermediate sand and clay in size and
have similar properties.

137
Eng 2023, 4

Table 2. Mineralogical composition of soil 1 with refined values of unit cell volume and average
diameter. One standard deviation is indicated in parenthesis on the last digit.

〈D〉
Phases V (%)
(nm)
Quartz
54.8 (5) 492 (10)
SiO2
Muscovite
26.2 (5) 35 (5)
KAl2 (AlSi3 O10 )(F,OH)2
Montmorillonite
6.9 (2) 111 (6)
(Na,Ca)0 .3 (Al,Mg)2 Si4 O10 (OH)2
Albite
4.2 (2) 43 (5)
NaAlSiO3
Kaolinite
2.1 (3) 78 (5)
Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4
Goethite
2.0 (3) 21 (1)
α-FeO(OH)
Rutile
1.6 (3) 92 (5)
TiO2
Illite
1.1 (2) 100 (5)
(K,H3 O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2 (Si,Al)4 O10 [(OH)2 ,(H2 O)]
Huntite
1.1 (2) 123 (5)
Mg3 Ca(CO3 )4

Soil 2 is made of natural quartz (99% silica) [18].

2.2. Flax Straw

The selection of flax straw was based on the results of an earlier study [14], which
established that flax straw offered earth–fiber mixes optimum compressive strength when
dried while retaining good workability during mixing. Flax straw incorporated into the
soil represents theoretically a proportion of 2.5% of the mixed dry mass. In laboratory, the
flax straw is cut to a length of 7 ± 1 cm. On site, flax straw was introduced into the mix in
its raw state. This latter presents an absolute density equal to 1266 ± 55 kg·m−3 and an
absorption coefficient at 24 h equal to 350 ± 11%.

2.3. Sample Preparation

To study cob’s compressive strength as a function of water content, 24 specimens
were prepared at the same time with same proportion of soil, straw, and water. To be
representative of what can be encountered in situ after cob implementation, 8 different
water contents are considered: 19%, 17%, 15%, 13%, 11%, 9%, 5%, and 0%. Three samples
are made for each water content. Cylindrical molds with the following dimensions were
used: Ø110 mm × H220 mm. Before starting the production of the specimens, the mold’s
inner face was oiled. Afterwards, the mixture was compacted in several layers (a new layer
is added when the previous one is considered completely compact) with a wooden tamper
with dimensions equal to 30 mm × 30 mm × 410 mm (see Figure 2). Then, 24 h after filling
the molds, the samples were turned upside down in order to ensure a good distribution of
the water in them. In addition, the molds are slightly opened to accelerate the drying of the
mixtures. Then, these samples are demolded after two or three days and left to dry until
reaching their required water content.

138
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Eng 2023, 4 Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 2. Preparation of cob samples at different water contents for the compressive strength
study. 2. Preparation of cob samples at different water contents for the compressive strength study.
Figure Figure 2. Preparation of cob samples at different water contents for the compressive strength
study. Control and Bulk Density
2.4. Water Content
2.4. Water Content Control and Bulk Density
To
Tobetter
better control
control the
thedrying
dryingprocess,
process, the samples
sampleswere
theDensity wereplaced
placedin inthe
thelaboratory
laboratoryat ataa
2.4. Water Content
◦ C andControl and Bulk
temperature
temperatureofof21 21±± 22 °C and aa relative
relative humidity
humidityof of50
50±± 2%.
2%. When
When thethe required
required moisture
moisture
content To better samples
control the drying process,48the samples were placed in the laboratory a
contentwaswasreached,
reached,the the sampleswere werecovered
coveredfor for 48hhto tohomogenize
homogenizethe thewater
watercontent
content
within temperature
them, and their of 21
bulk ± 2 °C
density and
was a relative
measured humidity
before of 50 ± 2%.
performing When
the the required moistu
compressive
within them, and their bulk density was measured before performing the compressive
strength contentFigure
was reached, the samples were covered for 48 hfollowing
to homogenize the water conte
strengthtest
test(see
(see Figure3). 3).The
Thebulk
bulkdensity
densitywas wasdetermined
determinedby by followingthe thestandard
standard
NF withinSuccessive
them, and their bulk density was measured beforemade
performing the compressi
NFX31-501
X31-501[19].
[19]. Successivemeasurements
measurementsof ofthe
thesample’s
sample’sweight
weightare
are madeuntiluntilreaching
reaching
and strength
stabilizing at thetest (see Figure 3).
corresponding The bulk
required waterdensity
content.wasSamples
determined
with by following
following the standa
water
and stabilizing at the corresponding required water content. Samples with following wa-
content NF
havehaveX31-501
beenbeen [19].
prepared: Successive
19, 17, measurements of the sample’s weight are made until reachi
ter content prepared: 19,15,
17,13,
15,11,
13,9,11,
5, and
9, 5,0%.
andThese percentages
0%. These have been
percentages have
chosen and stabilizing
to approach at the
valuesvalues corresponding
encountered on siteon required
during water
the cob’s content. Samples with following w
been chosen to approach encountered site during thedrying course.course.
cob’s drying
ter content have been prepared: 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 5, and 0%. These percentages ha
been chosen to approach values encountered on site during the cob’s drying course.

Figure3.3.Samples
Figure Samplescoverage
coverageto
tohomogenize
homogenizewater
watercontent
content(the
(thesamples
samplesare
arenumbered
numberedfrom
from11toto24).
24).

2.5. FigureStrength
3. Samples coverage to homogenize water content (the samples are numbered from 1 to 2
2.5.Compressive
Compressive Strength
To
Tomaintain
maintain aameasure
measure of
ofconsistency
consistencybetween
between the
thesamples,
samples, enabling
enabling the
the research
research
2.5. Compressive Strength
team
team to relate the structural performance of the samples to the needs of the system,
to relate the structural performance of the samples to the needs of the walling walling
To maintain
compressive strength a measure
measurements of consistency
were undertakenbetween the samples,
on samples enabling
with different waterthe resear
contents. Compressive strength tests are performed on the prepared cylindrical samplesthe walli
team to relate the structural performance of the samples to the needs of

139
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 6
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 6

Eng 2023, 4
system, compressive strength measurements were undertaken on samples with different
system,
water compressive
contents. strengthstrength
Compressive measurements were
tests are undertaken
performed on onthesamples
prepared with different
cylindrical
water contents. Compressive strength tests are performed on the
samples (∅110 mm × H220 mm) in accordance with the NF EN 13286-41 standard [20]. An prepared cylindrical
(∅110
IGM mm
samples
press × H220
(∅110
with mm mm)
× H220
a load in mm)
accordance
capacity ofin250 with
accordance
kN wasthe NF the
with
used. EN 13286-41
TheNF ENare
tests standard
13286-41
performed [20].
standard
with AnanIGM
[20]. An
im-
press
posed with
IGM press a
loading load
with capacity
a load
rate of
capacity
of 0.40 250
kN/s.of kN was used.
250deformation
The The
kN was used. tests
of The are performed
the tests with
are performed
specimens is measuredan imposed
withwith
an im-
a
loading
vertical rate of 0.40
posed loading rate kN/s.
displacement 0.40The
ofsensor in deformation
kN/s. of the
The deformation
contact with the specimens
lowerof plate ofisthe
measured
the specimens press with
is (see
measured a vertical
Figure with
4). a
displacement sensor insensor
vertical displacement contactinwith the with
contact lowertheplate of the
lower press
plate (seepress
of the Figure 4).Figure 4).
(see

Figure 4. Compressive strength test on cob samples at different water content under an IGM press.
Figure4.4.Compressive
Figure Compressivestrength
strengthtest
teston
oncob
cobsamples
samplesatatdifferent
differentwater
watercontent
contentunder
underan
anIGM
IGMpress.
press.
2.6. Clegg Impact Value
2.6.
2.6.Clegg Impact
CleggClegg
Impact Value
Value Soil Tester (CIST) was proposed by Dr. Bade Clegg in the 1970s as
The Impact
The
The Clegg
Clegg Impact
Impact
an alternative to the CBR Soil
SoilTester
Tester
test. (CIST)
The (CIST)
output was ofproposed
was CISTby
proposed
the Dr.Dr.
by
device Bade
isBadeClegg
called in the
Clegg
the in 1970s
the
Clegg as an
1970s
Impactas
alternative
an alternative
Value to the
(CIV). In to CBR
thisthe test. The
CBR test.
present output
study,The of
output
this the
valueof CIST device
thebeCIST
will linked is called
device
to the the Clegg
is compressive Impact
called the Clegg Value
Impact
strength in
(CIV).
Valueto
order In this present
(CIV).
proposeIn this
a sitestudy,
present
controlthis value
study,
test. will
thisstudy
To valuebeClegg
linked
will be to the Value,
linked
Impact compressive
to the 10 strength
compressive
specimens in order
strength
were pre-in
to propose
order
pared. to bea representative
site control
Topropose test.
ofTo
a site control study
test.
what To Clegg
can study ImpactImpact
Clegg
be encountered Value, 10 specimens
Value,
in situ, were
waterprepared.
10 specimens
5 different were pre-
contents
To be
pared. representative
To be of
representativewhat can
of be
what encountered
can be in
encounteredsitu, 5
in different
situ,
have been considered: 19%, 15%, 11%, 5%, and 0%. For mold availability considerations, 5 water
different contents
water have
contents
been
have
two considered:
samples 19%, for
been considered:
are made 15%,
19%,
each11%,
15%, 5%,
11%,
water and5%,0%.
content. and For
CBR0%.mold availability
For mold
molds withavailability considerations,
the following two
considerations,
dimensions
samples
were are
two samples
used: Ø152made
aremm for
made each water
for each
× H117 content.
mm.water CBR molds
content.method
Preparation with
CBR molds the
is quitewithfollowing dimensions
the following
similar to the onedimensionswere
described
used: Ø152 mm ×mm H117 mm.mm. Preparation method is quite similar to the oneonedescribed in
inwere
the used: Ø152
precedent × H117
paragraph Preparation
(see Figure 5). method is quite similar to the described
the precedent paragraph (see Figure
in the precedent paragraph (see Figure 5). 5).

Mixer Material mixing CBR molds filled

Mixer Material mixing CBR molds filled
5. Preparation
Figure 5.
Figure Preparationofofcob
cobsamples at different
samples water
at different contents
water for the
contents forClegg ImpactImpact
the Clegg Value measurement.
Value meas-
Figure 5. Preparation of cob samples at different water contents for the Clegg Impact Value meas-
urement.
The mobility of the CIST makes it possible to perform in situ tests relatively quickly.
urement.
Initially, the CIST device was developed for non-cohesive backfill materials. Clegg impact
soil tester is implemented in accordance with ASTM D5874-02. This method using a
hammer of 4.5 kg is suitable for soils or aggregates with particle sizes less than 37.5 mm.

140
 soil tester is implemented in accordance with ASTM D5874-02. This method using a ham-
mer of 4.5 kg is suitable for soils or aggregates with particle sizes less than 37.5 mm. The
soils used in this present study have particle sizes less than 20 mm (see Figure 6). The
impact height is equal to 0.45 m. The hammer diameter is 0.05 m. The CIV value is ob-
tained using the knowledge of gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81 m·s−2) and the decelera-
Eng 2023, 4 tion measured during the hammer drop (a in m·s−2) is expressed as the following equation
[21]:
a
The soils used in this present study have CIV = sizes less than 20 mm (see Figure 6). The
particle10 · g
(1)
impact height is equal to 0.45 m. The hammer diameter is 0.05 m. The CIV value is obtained
usingThethe Clegg Impact
knowledge of Value can be used
gravitational to calculate
acceleration 9.81 m·s−2such
(g = quantities ) andasthe
thedeceleration
modulus of
elasticity or
measured the CBR
during (California
the hammer Bearing
drop − 2
(a in mRatio)
·s ) isvalue using correlations.
expressed In this
as the following study,[21]:
equation CIV
is linked to cob’s compressive strength. This can represent an easy way for craftsmen to
control cob’s resistance in situ. This can a
CIVbe=interesting to know if a cob lift is sufficiently
(1)
dry and resistant to receive a new lift on its top.·g
10

Figure6.6.Clegg
Figure CleggImpact
ImpactSoil
SoilTester
Testeron
oncob
cobsamples
samplesatatdifferent
differentwater
watercontents.
contents.

The
2.7. In Clegg
Situ Impact Value
Implementation andcan be used to calculate quantities such as the modulus of
Monitoring
elasticity
Theor the focus
main CBR (California Bearing
of this research Ratio)
is the value
drying using
rates correlations.
of CobBauge dualInwalls.
this study, CIV
It is, there-
isfore,
linked to cob’sto
important compressive strength. measurements
undertake moisture This can represent an easy way for
of representative craftsmen
samples. to
In this
control cob’s resistance in situ. This can be interesting to know if a cob lift
present work, Campbell scientific CS655 sensors, based on reflectometry principle, have is sufficiently
dry
beenand resistant
used to receive
to locally measure a new lift on itsWater
Volumetric top. Content (VWC). This type of sensor (with
an accuracy of ±3%) has shown its efficiency when measuring VWC in soil materials [22–
2.7. In Situ Implementation and Monitoring
24].
The
The main
theoryfocus of this
behind the research
CS655 wateris the dryingreflectometer
content rates of CobBauge
is baseddual walls.
on the It is,
speed at
therefore, important to undertake moisture measurements of representative
which an electromagnetic wave travels through the sensor’s two rods. The latter depends samples. In
this present
on the work, Campbell
material’s scientific CS655
dielectric permittivity sensors, based
surrounding on reflectometry
the two rods. Dielectricprinciple, have
permittivity
been used to locally measure Volumetric Water Content (VWC). This type of sensor
is then converted to volumetric water content using the Topp equation [25]. For the sake (with an
accuracy of ± 3%) has shown its efficiency when measuring VWC in soil materials
of greater contact between mixes and rods, sensors were positioned horizontally in cob at [22–24].
The theory
the same heightsbehind the CS655
and depths. Probeswater
werecontent reflectometer
positioned parallel toisthe
based
weston thesurfaces
wall speed at at
which an electromagnetic wave travels through the sensor’s two rods. The latter depends
on the material’s dielectric permittivity surrounding the two rods. Dielectric permittivity is
then converted to volumetric water content using the Topp equation [25]. For the sake of
greater contact between mixes and rods, sensors were positioned horizontally in cob at the
same heights and depths. Probes were positioned parallel to the west wall surfaces at two
different heights, 25 and 50 cm, from the lift basis. Volumetric water content considered
in this present work is an average of these two considered heights. The thickness of cob
in this west wall is equal to 25 cm. Additionally, information gathered via CS 655 probes
was logged in the CR1000X data logger every 15 min during the course of more than a year
(from May 2020 to November 2021). The following weather conditions are presented in

141
 two different heights, 25 and 50 cm, from the lift basis. Volumetric water content consid-
two different
ered heights,
in this present 25 and
work is an50average
cm, from the lifttwo
of these basis. Volumetric
considered waterThe
heights. content consid-
thickness of
ered in this present work is an average of these two considered heights.
cob in this west wall is equal to 25 cm. Additionally, information gathered via CS 655 The thickness of
Eng 2023, 4 cob in this west wall is equal to 25 cm. Additionally, information
probes was logged in the CR1000X data logger every 15 min during the course of moregathered via CS 655
probes
than was (from
a year loggedMayin the CR1000X
2020 data logger
to November 2021).every
The 15 min during
following the course
weather of more
conditions are
than a year
presented in (from
FigureMay 2020 to November
7: temperature, relative2021). The following
humidity, wind speed weather conditions
and direction, are
radia-
presented
Figure in Figure
7: temperature,
tion, and 7: temperature,
relative
rainfall recovered relative
humidity,
every 15 min.wind humidity, wind speed
speed and direction,
Instrumentation and direction,
radiation,
implemented radia-
andisrainfall
on site shown
tion, and 8.
recovered
in Figure rainfall
every 15recovered every 15 min.implemented
min. Instrumentation Instrumentation implemented
on site is shown inon site is
Figure 8.shown
in Figure 8.

Figure
Figure 7. Weatherconditions
7. Weather conditions(temperature,
(temperature,RH,
RH, W.D.,
W.D., W.S.,
W.S., radiation,
radiation, rainfall)
rainfall) recovered
recovered via avia
WS-a
Figure
GP1 7. Weather
weather conditions
station near the (temperature,
prototype RH, W.D., W.S., radiation, rainfall) recovered via a WS-
building.
WS-GP1 weather station near the prototype building.
GP1 weather station near the prototype building.

Figure 8. Instrumentation (weather station and volumetric water content sensors) implemented in
Figure8.8.Instrumentation
Figure
situ. Instrumentation (weather
(weather station
station andand volumetric
volumetric water
water content
content sensors)
sensors) implemented
implemented in situ.in
situ.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cob’s Compressive Strength and Density as Function of Water Content
Figure 9 shows the different types of failure (deformation) that occurred in the samples
after the compressive loading. When the water content is above 11%, there is crushing
of the sample, and plastic behavior is predominant. However, when the water content is
equal to or less than 11%, the sample breaks, and cracks are present throughout the sample.

142
 3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cob’s Compressive Strength and Density as Function of Water Content
Figure 9 shows the different types of failure (deformation) that occurred in the sam-
ples after the compressive loading. When the water content is above 11%, there is crushing
Eng 2023, 4 of the sample, and plastic behavior is predominant. However, when the water content is
equal to or less than 11%, the sample breaks, and cracks are present throughout the sam-
ple.

Figure
Figure 9. Cob’ssamples
9. Cob’s samplesfacies
facies after
after compressive
compressive loading
loading at different
at different water content.
water content.

The evolutionofofthe
The evolution thecob’s
cob’s compressive
compressive strength
strength and density
and density as a function
as a function of waterof water
content
content is reportedininTable
is reported Table 3 and
3 and Figure
Figure 10.this
10. On Onlatter,
this latter,
maximummaximum compressive
compressive strengthstrength
and one
and one at
at1%1%deformation
deformation are presented. A deformation
are presented. of 1% is considered
A deformation in this pre- in this
of 1% is considered
sent work
present workfor considerations regarding
for considerations the easethe
regarding of straightening wall surfaces
ease of straightening wallbefore the before
surfaces
application of plasters or renders.
the application of plasters or renders.
Table 3. Evolution of compressive strength and Clegg Impact Value as function of water contents
Table Evolution of
3. encountered
usually in compressive
situ. strength and Clegg Impact Value as function of water contents
usually encountered in situ.
WC VWC Density σε = 1% σmax CIV
WC
[wt.%] [mVWC
3·m−3] [kg· Density
m−3] [MPa] σε = 1% [MPa] σmax [-] CIV
[wt.%] [m3 ·m−3 ] m−3 ]
19 0.3672738 1933.02[kg
± ·15.65 [MPa]
0.04 ± 0.03 [MPa]
0.08 ± 0.01 04.0 ± 0.0 [-]
1917 0.3672738
0.3315272 1933.02
1950.16 ± 15.65 0.06 ±
± 09.67 0.04 ± 0.03 0.15 ± 0.01
0.02 0.08 ± 0.01 - 04.0 ± 0.0
17 0.3315272 1950.16 ± 09.67 0.06 ± 0.02 0.15 ± 0.01 -
15 0.2822145 1881.43 ± 35.80 0.12 ± 0.02 0.20 ± 0.00 08.0 ± 1.4
15 0.2822145 1881.43 ± 35.80 0.12 ± 0.02 0.20 ± 0.00 08.0 ± 1.4
1313 0.2425423
0.2425423 1865.71 ± 05.37
1865.71 ± 05.37 0.20 ± 0.02
0.20 ± 0.02 0.29 ± 0.03
0.29 ± 0.03 - -
11
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 0.2002693
0.2002693 1820.63
1820.63 ± ± 05.64
05.64 0.37 0.37
± ±
0.03 0.03 0.42 ± 0.42 ± 0.01
0.01 12.5 ± 0.712.5 ± 0.7 10
99 0.1625859
0.1625859 1806.51
1806.51 ± 02.25 0.58 ±
± 02.25 0.58 ± 0.02 0.65 ± 0.02
0.02 0.65 ± 0.02 - -
5 0.0868015 1736.03 ± 10.24 1.19 ± 0.03 1.35 ± 0.03 20.0 ± 1.4
05 0.0868015
0 1736.03 ± 10.24
1656.98 ± 08.11 1.19 ± 0.03
2.27 ± 0.30 1.35 ± 0.03 20.0 ± 1.434.0 ± 1.4
2.60 ± 0.03
0 0 1656.98 ± 08.11 2.27 ± 0.30 2.60 ± 0.03 34.0 ± 1.4

Figure 10. Figure 10. Evolution

Evolution of cob’s of cob’s compressive
compressive strength
strength as function
as function of water
of water content.
content.

The clay content is critical in earth building because it maintains the larger particles
connected. However, soils containing more than 30% clay have very high shrinkage/swell-
143
ing ratios, which, along with their proclivity to absorb moisture, can result in large fissures
in the finished cob product and thus impact its mechanical performance. The soil 1 is com-
Eng 2023, 4

The clay content is critical in earth building because it maintains the larger particles con-
nected. However, soils containing more than 30% clay have very high shrinkage/swelling
ratios, which, along with their proclivity to absorb moisture, can result in large fissures
in the finished cob product and thus impact its mechanical performance. The soil 1 is
composed of quartz (54.8%), muscovite (26.2%), montmorillonite (6.9%), and albite (4.2%),
with minor traces of kaolinite, goethite, rutile, illite, and huntite. Some clays have the
ability to widen the interfoliar spaces between their leaves. The incorporation of hydrated
cations (Na, Ca, etc.) provides it with this property, allowing it to compensate for chronic
charge shortages (Andrade et al., 2011). The phenomenon disappears if the clay charge
is too high (e.g., micas or muskovite in our sample: total clay charge of −1 entirely coun-
terbalanced by the dehydrated cations (e.g., pyrophyllite, talc: total clay charge of 0, no
interfoliar cation). With a charge ranging from 0.3 to 0.8, the smectites subclass is among
the expandable species. The crystalline structure might expand due to the water injected
via the hydrated cations [26]. The swelling increased as a result of the high humidity.
Montmorillonite is the only expandable species identified in our soil 1, at a rate of 6.9%.
The amount of muscovite, albite, kaolinite, and illite in our soil will impact its shrinkage
characteristics. These crystals have few water molecules between their layers due to their
tiny interfoliar space [26]. As a result, they have negligible intercrystalline swelling when
immersed in water [27]. As a result, when dried, these four species shrink significantly
less than smectite clays like montmorillonite [28]. Considering the number of smectites,
the cob layer shrinkage properties are mainly affected by the quantity of muscovite, albite,
kaolinite, and illite. These structures have few water molecules between their layers, and
they exhibit negligible intercrystalline swelling and shrink substantially less than smectite
clays like montmorillonite.
To explain the influence of the drying processes, the phase composition of soil 1 after
drying was determined via XRD (Table 4). The corresponding XRD pattern is shown
in Figure 11. The XRD analysis shows the disappearance of huntite combined with the
decrease in the montmorillonite content in favor of the formation of carbonated calcium
hemicarboaluminate (see Tables 2 and 3). Montmorillonite is the only expandable species
found in the structural cob. The presence of kaolinite, muscovite, and illite, as well as the
reduction in montmorillonite, will decrease the shrinking behavior. Indeed, these crystals
have a weak intercrystalline swelling behavior and contain a minor amount of water [26].
The formation of carbonated calcium hemicarboaluminate leads to the enhancement of
compressive strength (see Figure 10).

Table 4. Mineralogical composition of soil 1 after the drying process.

Phases V (%) 〈D〉 (nm)

Quartz
61.2 (5) 492 (10)
SiO2
Muscovite
26.0 (5) 34 (5)
KAl2 (AlSi3 O10 )(F,OH)2
Montmorillonite
0.9 (2) 67 (5)
(Na,Ca)0 .3 (Al,Mg)2 Si4 O10 (OH)2
Albite
1.7 (2) 46 (5)
NaAlSiO3
Kaolinite
1.5 (3) 78 (5)
Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4
Illite
2.1 (2) 100 (5)
(K,H3 O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2 (Si,Al)4 O10 [(OH)2 ,(H2 O)]
Rutile
3.4 (3) 92 (5)
TiO2
Carbonated calcium hemicarboaluminate
3.2 (1) 61 (5)
Al Ca2 C0 .4 O9 .2

144
 have a weak intercrystalline swelling behavior and contain a minor amount of water [26].
The formation of carbonated calcium hemicarboaluminate leads to the enhancement of
Eng 2023, 4 compressive strength (see Figure 10).

Figure
Figure 11. pattern (red line) is superimposed
11. XRD pattern of soil 1. The computed pattern superimposed on the experi-
mental pattern (black dots). In the center, the fitted phases, and at the bottom, the
mental pattern (black dots). In the center, the fitted phases, and at the bottom, the difference
difference curve
curve
(Iobs−Icalc).
(Iobs−Icalc).

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 3.2.

TableClegg Impact Valuecomposition
4. Mineralogical as Functionofofsoil
Water Content
1 after the drying process. 12

Phases Results from the Clegg Impact Soil Tester are reportedV in(%)
Table 3. Thus,⟨D⟩the(nm)
evolution
of the Clegg Impact Value as a function of water content is represented in Figure 12. On
Quartz
thiscontent
water latter, itranging
can be seen that 19
between CIV increases
wt.% and 0 with
wt.%,the decrease
Clegg 61.2 in
Impact cob’s water
(5)Value content.
varies492 (10)4 toFor
from
SiO2
35 water content
following ranging between 19
a quasi-exponential wt.%
law. As and 0 wt.%, Clegg
announced in theImpact Value varies
introduction, from 4 to 35
CIV measure-
Muscovitea quasi-exponential law. As announced in the introduction, CIV measurements
following
ments will allow us to propose a field test, allowing us to deduce 26.0 (5)the in situ cob’s
34 (5)com-
KAl2allow
will (AlSi3O )(F,OH)
us10to propose
watera content
field test, allowing
in-fine us
to to deduceif a the
lift in situ cob’s compressive
2
pressive strength and and know is sufficiently dry and
Montmorillonite
strength and water content and in-fine to know if a lift is sufficiently dry and67resistant to
resistant to receive a new lift on its upper side. 0.9 (2) (5)
receive
(Na,Ca)a0.new lift on
3 (Al,Mg) 2Siits upper
4O10 (OH)2side.
Albite
1.7 (2) 46 (5)
NaAlSiO3 Experimental data Exponential model
Kaolinite
40
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
1.5 (3) 78 (5)
Clegg Impact Value [-]

Illite35 R² = 0.9933 2.1 (2) 100 (5)

(K,H30 3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]

Rutile25
3.4 (3) 92 (5)
TiO220
Carbonated
15 calcium hemicarboaluminate
3.2 (1) 61 (5)
Al Ca2C0.4O9.2
10
5
3.2. Clegg Impact Value as Function of Water Content
0
Results from the Clegg Impact Soil Tester are reported in Table 3. Thus, the evolution
0 Impact Value
of the Clegg 5 as a function10of water content
15 is represented
20in Figure 12. On
this latter, it can be seen thatWater
CIV increases
contentwith the decrease in cob’s water content. For
[wt.%]
Figure 12. Evolution of Clegg Impact Value as function of cob’s water content.
Figure 12. Evolution of Clegg Impact Value as function of cob’s water content.

3.3. In Situ Water Content and Compressive Strength Evolution

Figure 13 shows the course of the volumetric water content and associated compres-
sive strength (at 1% deformation). As observed in the figure, cob’s volumetric water con-
tent has decreased gradually with
145 time and tends to a practical value after several months.
Moreover, it can be shown that the drying speed becomes slower with the decrease in the
 0
0 5 10 15 20
Water content [wt.%]

Eng 2023, 4
Figure 12. Evolution of Clegg Impact Value as function of cob’s water content.

3.3. In Situ Water Content and Compressive Strength Evolution

3.3. In Situ Water Content and Compressive Strength Evolution
Figure 13 shows the course of the volumetric water content and associated compres-
Figure
sive strength (at131%
shows the courseAs
deformation). of the volumetric
observed in thewater content
figure, cob’sand associated
volumetric compressive
water con-
tentstrength (at 1%gradually
has decreased deformation). As observed
with time and tendsintothe figure, cob’s
a practical valuevolumetric
after several water content
months.
has decreased gradually with time and tends to a practical value after
Moreover, it can be shown that the drying speed becomes slower with the decrease in the several months.
waterMoreover,
content init can
the be shown
wall. that thepresents
The drying drying speed becomes
two phases: slower
a first onewith
that the decrease
is faster andina the
second one slower. With water content getting lower, the drying process gets slower. This a
water content in the wall. The drying presents two phases: a first one that is faster and
second
drying one slower.
is consistent withWith
the water
typicalcontent
behaviorgetting lower, the drying
of construction process gets slower. This
materials.
drying is consistent with the typical behavior of construction materials.

Figure
Figure 13. Evolution
13. Evolution of cob’s
of cob’s compressive
compressive strength
strength withwith the water
the water content
content course.
course.

With the decrease in water content, the cob’s compressive strength increases. In this
figure, it can be observed that compressive strength passes from 0.04 to 0.06, 0.12, 0.20, 0.37,
and 0.58 MPa after 04, 15, 22, 44, and 68 days, respectively. After approximately one year
and two months, compressive strength is approaching 1.2 MPa.
In Figure 13, the reported water content is recovered in situ, but mechanical perfor-
mances are obtained on samples produced in the laboratory and tested at determined water
contents considering those encountered in situ.
In the studied prototype, formworks are released after 27 days, and a new lift was
raised directly. The choice of this delay is based on Norman craftsmen practice. At
that time, the VWC of the existing lift was approx. 0.2278 m3 /m3 corresponding to a
compressive strength of approx. 0.28 MPa. From this experience, it can be affirmed that
0.28 MPa (reached after approx. 27 days in this typical case and weather conditions) is
sufficient to raise up a new lift. However, this value can be optimized by performing
judicious calculations.
In this sense, calculations were undertaken by considering the stress imposed by the
new wet lift (layer of wet cob) on the existing lift. These calculations are based on the
knowledge of the wet cob density, its volume, gravitational acceleration, and existing lift
horizontal surface (see Equation (2)).

N m·g ρ·V·g
σ= = = (2)
S S S
where N is the normal stress, m is the wet cob mass, ρ is the wet cob density, V is the wet
cob volume, g is the gravitational acceleration, and S is the surface of the existing lift.
Considering the measured density of the wet cob, it was found that a new wet cob lift
(height = 70 cm) exerts a stress of 0.013 MPa directly after its implementation. This value
seems to be too low compared to that of compressive strength measured at 0.3673 m3 /m3
(water content of the newly implemented wet cob), which is equal to 0.04 MPa (for a

146
Eng 2023, 4

deformation of 1%). This would imply that a cob lift could support a new wet lift from the
first day after its implementation. But, this seems to be too optimistic. Consequently, when
trying to calculate the minimum mechanical resistance that a cob lift should reach before
raising up a new wet lift, other methods than the one presented here should be identified
and considered.

3.4. Clegg Impact Value and Compressive Strength

In the previous subsections, it was seen that both cob’s compressive strength and CIV
increase exponentially with the decrease in water content. Thus, the evolution of Clegg
Impact Value is plotted as a function of compressive strength. Figure 14 shows that the
evolution of CIV as a function of σ is best fitted via a linear relationship. On this latter,
it can be seen that the value of compressive strength obtained after 27 days of drying
(approx. 0.28 MPa) correspond to a CIV value of approx. 9. As it was already reported
that this compressive strength is sufficient to raise up a new lift, it can be stated here that
in situ measurement of a CIV value equal to or larger than 9 is sufficient for raising up a
new lift on the existing one. More on-site investigations could help to optimize this CIV
value. However, when dealing with soils different from those reported in this present
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW
study, the absolute values of compressive strength and Clegg Impact Value should be
considered carefully.

Experimental data Linear model

40
35 y = 12.46x + 5.7569
Clegg Impact Value [-]

30 R² = 0.9812
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Compressive strength [MPa]
Figure 14. Relationship between cob’s compressive strength (at 1% deformation) and Clegg Impact Value.
Figure 14. Relationship between cob’s compressive strength (at 1% deformation) and Clegg Impa
4. Conclusions
Value.
The first aim of this present work was to understand the link between cob’s drying
process and its mechanical performances in a CobBauge double-walling system. This
4. Conclusions
is consistent with
Thethefirstobjective of better
aim of this presentcontrolling
work was construction
to understand times. In this
the link regard,
between cob’s dryin
laboratoryprocess
and in andsitu its
studies were performed. First, the water content was
mechanical performances in a CobBauge double-walling system. Thisrecovered
during theconsistent
construction withof the
a cob wall (under
objective real controlling
of better conditions).construction
These measurements
times. In showed
this regard, labo
that wateratory
content
and in situ studies were performed. First, the water contentproduced
decreases exponentially with time. Then, samples were in durin
was recovered
the laboratory at the water of
the construction contents encountered
a cob wall (under real in situ. Afterward,
conditions). Thesethese samples were
measurements showed th
subjected to compressive
water strength tests
content decreases at different
exponentially water
with time.contents. When considering
Then, samples were producedthe in the l
decrease inboratory
cob’s water content,
at the waterascontents
shown in the in situ measurement,
encountered compressive
in situ. Afterward, strength were su
these samples
was foundjected
to follow an exponential increase.
to compressive strength tests at different water contents. When considering the d
The second
crease aim of this
in cob’s present
water workas
content, was to propose
shown in the ina simple tool allowingcompressive
situ measurement, evaluation streng
of cob’s hydromechanical performances in situ.
was found to follow an exponential increase. Thus, the Clegg Impact Soil Tester (CIST)
was proposed. TheIndeed, this can represent an easy way for craftsmen to control
second aim of this present work was to propose a simple tool allowing in situ cobevaluatio
drying and ofreadiness to receive a new
cob’s hydromechanical lift. In this in
performances sense,
situ. samples
Thus, thewere
Cleggalso subjected
Impact to
Soil Tester (CIST
the CIST inwas
order to obtain the Clegg Impact Value (CIV) at different water contents.
proposed. Indeed, this can represent an easy way for craftsmen to control in situ co The
drying and readiness to receive a new lift. In this sense, samples were also subjected
the CIST in order to obtain the Clegg Impact Value (CIV) at different water contents. Th
obtained results showed 147
that the evolution of CIV as a function of water content can b
best fitted via an exponential model.
From there, the evolution of Clegg Impact Value is plotted as a function of compre
Eng 2023, 4

obtained results showed that the evolution of CIV as a function of water content can be
best fitted via an exponential model.
From there, the evolution of Clegg Impact Value is plotted as a function of compressive
strength (σ). It was found that the evolution of CIV as a function of σ is best fitted via a
linear relationship.
In the studied wall, a new lift was raised up on the monitored one after 27 days. In
this present study, it was found that after this duration, volumetric water content (VWC) in
the wall was approximately equal to 0.2278 m3 /m3 . At this VWC, the cob presents a com-
pressive strength of approx. 0.28 MPa. When CIV was plotted as a function of compressive
strength, it was found that 0.28 MPa corresponds to a CIV value of approximately 9. As the
form striping and the raise up of a new lift at this compressive strength went well, it can
be stated that measuring a CIV value of at least 9 can allow the rise of a new CobBauge
lift safely.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.T., M.L.G., F.S. and S.G.; methodology, K.T., B.A.S.
and M.L.G.; investigation, data curation, and formal analysis, K.T., B.A.S., M.L.G. and Y.E.M.;
writing—original draft preparation, K.T., B.A.S., M.L.G. and Y.E.M.; writing—review and editing,
K.T., Y.E.M., F.S. and S.G.; funding acquisition, S.G. and F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The results presented in this article were obtained in the framework of the collaborative
project CobBauge, funded by the European cross-border cooperation program INTERREG V France
(Manche/Channel) England.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The experimental and computational data presented in this present
paper are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationship that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

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Article
Seismic Resilience and Design Factors of Inline Seismic
Friction Dampers (ISFDs)
Ali Naghshineh 1, *, Ashutosh Bagchi 1 and Fariborz M. Tehrani 2

1 Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering Concordia University,

Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada
2 Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740-8030, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: While damping devices can provide supplemental damping to mitigate building vibration
due to wind or earthquake effects, integrating them into the design is more complex. For example, the
Canadian code does not provide building designs with inline friction dampers. The objective of this
present article was to study the overstrength, ductility, and response modification factors of concrete
frame buildings with inline friction dampers in the Canadian context. For that purpose, a set of four-,
eight-, and fourteen-story ductile concrete frames with inline seismic friction dampers, designed
based on the 2015 National Building Code of Canada (NBCC), was considered. The analyses included
pushover analysis in determining seismic characteristics and dynamic response history analysis using
twenty-five ground motion records to assess the seismic performance of the buildings equipped with
inline seismic friction dampers. The methodology considered diagonal braces, including different
6 m and 8 m span lengths. The discussion covers the prescribed design values for overstrength,
ductility, and response modification factors, as well as the performance assessment of the buildings.
The results revealed that increasing the height of the structure and reducing the span length increases
the response modification factors.

Keywords: seismic; overstrength; ductility; resilience; inline seismic friction damper

Citation: Naghshineh, A.; Bagchi, A.; 1. Introduction

Tehrani, F.M. Seismic Resilience and
Utilizing the inherent ductility of a building to prevent catastrophic failure has led
Design Factors of Inline Seismic
to the development of seismic design codes and inelastic design response spectra. The
Friction Dampers (ISFDs). Eng 2023,
relationship between seismic load and damage is defined by equilibrium energy, in which
4, 2015–2033. https://doi.org/
10.3390/eng4030114
the total seismic inertia equals the sum of the elastic vibration energy, the cumulative
inelastic strain energy, and the energy absorbed by damping. Consequently, the energy
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi induced by structural damage equals the total seismic inertia minus the energy absorbed
Received: 12 June 2023
by damping. Simply put, the damping of and damage to a system directly affects one
Revised: 11 July 2023 another. In conventional structural systems, seismic energy is dissipated through lateral
Accepted: 14 July 2023 load-resisting systems. However, supplemental damping is employed in modern structural
Published: 18 July 2023 systems to mitigate and limit structural damage [1,2].
Consequently, modern structures consider the actual dynamic behavior of systems,
which can be categorized into isolation systems and energy dissipation devices, including
passive, semi-active, active, and hybrid systems [3,4]. Friction dampers (seismic brakes) are
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. examples of passive energy dissipation devices that dissipate energy through the friction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. caused by sliding two solid bodies against one another. When a structure is subjected to a
This article is an open access article major earthquake, the friction dampers attached to a typical brace dissipate a significant
distributed under the terms and proportion of the energy and slip instead of yielding before yielding the primary members
conditions of the Creative Commons
of a structure. Therefore, the initial cost could be significantly reduced with a high capacity
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
for energy dissipation. There are several approaches to using friction brace frames as
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
an energy dissipation mechanism in steel frames. Friction dampers have been used in
4.0/).

Eng 2023, 4, 2015–2033. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030114 150 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

combination with a frame to capture the global structural response with the tri-linear lateral
elastic-perfect-plastic shape. These methods are based on an equivalent one degree of
freedom and a multi-degree of freedom to determine the appropriate design of structural
components and slip loads to reduce structural damage and control drifts [5–8]. In another
instance, in an experimental setting, a full-scale Moment-Resisting Frame (MRF) system
with inline friction dampers exhibited enhanced performance and resilience via decreased
acceleration and increased damping. The friction-damped frame reduced acceleration by an
average of 25% across different ground and artificial motions. The friction-damped frame
enhanced structural damping by 6.74%, preserving strength and stiffness. The calculated
story drift demonstrated a resilient system with minimal deflection.
Additionally, the MRF effectively corrected residual elongation in the inline friction
dampers [9]. Some methods have been developed to capture the plastic mechanism
of friction dampers [10]. Alternatively, an energy-based method has been proposed to
determine the slip resistance of friction dampers in reinforced concrete structures [11].
Structural analysis under an earthquake in the elastic region can create reverse strength
in the structures that surpasses their structural response. Seismic codes take advantage of
the inherent capabilities of structures, including overstrength and ductility, to dissipate
significant amounts of earthquake energy. The ductility factor represents the ability of
a structure to dissipate energy in the inelastic range. It can be determined by dividing
the maximum displacement by the displacement at the yield point, which is influenced
by factors such as soil type and the fundamental period of the structure [2,12,13]. The
National Building Code of Canada [14] divides the minimum earthquake lateral force
by the Seismic Force-Resisting System (SFRS) reduction factor. This factor, known as the
response modification factor, can be calculated by multiplying the overstrength factor (R0 )
by the ductility-related force modification factor (Rd ). However, the 2015 National Building
Code of Canada does not explicitly include the overstrength factor (R0 ) or the ductility-
related force modification factor (Rd ). In the 2015 National Building Code of Canada [14],
several types of Seismic Force-Resisting Systems (SFRS ) are considered for ductility, with a
minimum value of 1.0 for brittle systems such as unreinforced masonry and a maximum
value of 5.0 for ductile moment-resisting frames. The overstrength factor ranges from 1.0 to
1.7, signifying the level of overstrength in the SFRS [14]. For friction brace frames, limited
to 10 stories in Canada, proposed values of 5.0 and 1.1 have been suggested for the ductility
and overstrength factors, respectively [15]. The seismic performance of fourteen-story
concrete moment-resisting frames (CMRFs) with and without friction dampers was studied.
The models with integrated friction dampers showed improved performance compared to
similar models without dampers. When friction dampers were integrated, the moment and
shear were reduced by approximately 75%, 69%, and 56% for ductile, moderately ductile,
and elastic CMRFs. This integration enhanced the building’s performance and reduced
potential damage to the primary frame members.
Moreover, it offset the cost of the damping system, resulting in an average cost saving
of around 11.5%. The closest equivalent system in the 2015 National Building Code of
Canada (NBCC) is for ductile buckling-restrained braced frames (Rd = 4, R0 = 1.2). These
factors are already conservative, primarily because the non-damage-based modification fac-
tor for Inline Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFDs) is substantially higher [16,17]. Furthermore,
the system can be tested with Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) ground motion
forces and at MCE displacement levels, contrasting with the equivalent systems that cannot
avoid uncertainty in their actual behavior.
Unlike yielding steel elements, the activation load and stiffness of the friction damper
are decoupled, meaning there is a wide range of energy dissipation capacities/stiffness
and ductility values that can be intentionally controlled by adjusting these two design
parameters. A response modification factor approach reduces this variability, enhancing
performance. This benefit is significant because of a wealth of knowledge developed over
several decades on using friction devices as supplemental damping devices for optimizing
seismic performance [5–7,18–20]. There is a broad consensus that a well-defined optimal

151
 Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

Eng 2023, 4
performance. This benefit is significant because of a wealth of knowledge developed over
several decades on using friction devices as supplemental damping devices for optimizing
performance
seismic point exists
performance for friction-damped
[5–7,18–20]. There is a broadstructures,
consensus and it adepends
that on the
well-defined structural
optimal
frame’s dynamic properties. Given this context, the benefits of the proposed R-factor design
performance point exists for friction-damped structures, and it depends on the structural
frame’s dynamic
approach, which properties.
seems to relyGivenon this
the context, the benefits
bilinearization that of the proposed
eliminates (or atR-factor
the veryde-least
sign approach, which seems to rely on the bilinearization that eliminates (or at
discourages) design optimization, should be more clearly highlighted. Therefore, this paper the very
least discourages)
addresses design
these issues optimization,
by evaluating the should be more factors,
SFRS reduction clearly highlighted.
including theTherefore,
overstrength,
this paper addresses these issues by evaluating the SFRS reduction
ductility, and response modification factors of four-, eight-, and factors, including the
fourteen-story ductile
overstrength, ductility, and response modification factors of four-, eight-, and fourteen-
concrete frames with inline seismic friction dampers. The evaluation involves detailed
story ductile concrete frames with inline seismic friction dampers. The evaluation involves
nonlinear static analysis procedures. Additionally, the effects of building height and span
detailed nonlinear static analysis procedures. Additionally, the effects of building height
length are considered. Moreover, the seismic performance of the buildings is assessed using
and span length are considered. Moreover, the seismic performance of the buildings is
nonlinear response history analysis.
assessed using nonlinear response history analysis.
2. Design of Structural Models
2. Design of Structural Models
In this study, the buildings are assumed to be in San Bernardino, California, with a
In this study, the buildings are assumed to be in San Bernardino, California, with a
latitude and longitude of 34.108 and −117.289, corresponding to a high seismic zone and
latitude and longitude of 34.108 and −117.289, corresponding to a high seismic zone and
site class “D.” Diagonal Braces with various span lengths of 6 m and 8 m are considered
site class “D.” Diagonal Braces with various span lengths of 6 m and 8 m are considered
in
in each building.
each Allthree
building. All threemodels
modelshave
havefive
five bays
bays in in each
each direction,
direction, as demonstrated
as demonstrated in in
Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Figure1.
Figure 1. Structural
Structural models
modelswith
withSingle
SingleDiagonal
DiagonalBraces (SBD).
Braces (SBD).

The
The 2015
2015 NBCC
NBCC andandETABS
ETABSsoftware
software (Version
(Version 16.2.1)
16.2.1) [14,21]
[14,21] were
were utilized
utilized to design
to design
four-, eight-, and fourteen-story ductile concrete frames with inline seismic friction dampers
four-, eight-, and fourteen-story ductile concrete frames with inline seismic friction damp-
ersevaluate
to to evaluate
thethe overstrength,ductility,
overstrength, ductility,and
and response
response modification
modification factors.
factors.When it was
When it was
established that the dampers activate before yielding in the primary members of
established that the dampers activate before yielding in the primary members of the framethe frame
subjected to
subjected tothe
thedesign
designearthquake,
earthquake, CSA
CSA A23.3-19
A23.3-19 [22]
[22] was
was employed
employed forfor detailing
detailing the
the con-
crete buildings, following the Ultimate Limit States (ULS) or strength design method [22].
For the cylindrical specimen, the assumed compressive strength at 28 days f c0 is 30 MPa,
with a modulus of elasticity Ec of 24,500 MPa, and the unit weight of reinforced concrete is
24 KN/m3 . The concrete cover for members exposed to the weather is 40 mm, while for
non-exposed members, it is 30 mm. The section properties of the columns are considered

152
Eng 2023, 4

70% of the moment inertia, and for beams, it is 35% of the moment inertia. To prevent
column plastic hinges, all beam-to-column joints in structural frames must satisfy the weak
beam–strong column criteria, ensuring adequate shear strength in the concrete moment-
resisting frame joints to withstand the maximum expected force in the adjoining brace(s).
This design procedure includes determining the effective area of the joint, determining the
panel-zone design shear force, and controlling the panel-zone shear stress. The assumed
design live and dead loads for all models are 1.5 KN/m2 and 2.4 KN/m2 , respectively,
while the snow load acting on the roof is 1.64 KN/m2 . The design details and the brace
sections are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Design details for different models.

Columns Beams Brace Section

Interior (Cm) Exterior (Cm) Interior (Cm)
Story Level 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span
4 4 45 × 45 50 × 50 40 × 40 45 × 45 35 × 35 40 × 40 W14 × 34 W14 × 38
3 45 × 45 50 × 50 40 × 40 45 × 45 35 × 35 40 × 40 W14 × 48 W14 × 53
2 50 × 50 55 × 55 45 × 45 50 × 50 40 × 40 45 × 45 W14 × 61 W14 × 68
1 55 × 55 60 × 60 50 × 50 55 × 55 40 × 40 45 × 45 W14 × 90 W14 × 99
8 8 45 × 45 50 × 50 40 × 40 45 × 45 40 × 40 45 × 45 W14 × 38 W14 × 43
7 45 × 45 50 × 50 40 × 40 45 × 45 40 × 40 45 × 45 W14 × 53 W14 × 53
6 60 × 60 65 × 65 55 × 55 60 × 60 55 × 45 55 × 50 W14 × 61 W14 × 68
5 60 × 60 65 × 65 55 × 55 60 × 60 55 × 45 55 × 50 W14 × 68 W14 × 74
4 65 × 65 70 × 70 60 × 60 65 × 65 55 × 45 55 × 50 W14 × 74 W14 × 82
3 65 × 65 70 × 70 60 × 60 65 × 65 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 90 W14 × 99
2 70 × 70 75 × 75 65 × 65 70 × 70 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 90 W14 × 120
1 70 × 70 75 × 75 65 × 65 70 × 70 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 159 W14 × 193
14 14 50 × 50 55 × 55 45 × 45 50 × 50 45 × 45 45 × 45 W14 × 34 W14 × 38
13 50 × 50 55 × 55 45 × 45 50 × 50 45 × 45 55 × 45 W14 × 43 W14 × 53
12 55 × 55 60 × 60 50 × 50 55 × 55 45 × 45 55 × 45 W14 × 53 W14 × 68
11 55 × 55 60 × 60 50 × 50 55 × 55 55 × 45 60 × 50 W14 × 68 W14 × 82
10 55 × 55 60 × 60 50 × 50 55 × 55 55 × 45 60 × 50 W14 × 74 W14 × 90
9 60 × 60 70 × 70 55 × 55 60 × 60 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 99 W14 × 120
8 60 × 60 70 × 70 55 × 55 60 × 60 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 109 W14 × 120
7 60 × 60 70 × 70 60 × 60 65 × 65 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 109 W14 × 132
6 70 × 70 75 × 75 60 × 60 65 × 65 60 × 50 65 × 55 W14 × 132 W14 × 159
5 70 × 70 75 × 75 60 × 60 65 × 65 65 × 55 65 × 55 W14 × 145 W14 × 176
4 70 × 70 75 × 75 60 × 60 65 × 65 65 × 55 70 × 60 W14 × 145 W14 × 176
3 75 × 75 80 × 80 65 × 65 70 × 70 65 × 55 70 × 60 W14 × 159 W14 × 176
2 75 × 75 80 × 80 65 × 65 70 × 70 65 × 55 70 × 60 W14 × 193 W14 × 211
1 75 × 75 85 × 85 65 × 65 70 × 70 65 × 55 70 × 60 W14 × 193 W14 × 233

3. Design of the Inline Seismic Friction Dampers

Buildings designed and constructed following earlier codes and standards often
need to meet the life safety criteria based on the current seismic criteria objectives as
earthquake requirements evolved. Therefore, in high seismicity zones, and sometimes even
in low to moderate seismicity regions, supplemental energy dissipation devices can be
employed as part of structural design concepts for new buildings, upgrades, or retrofits of
existing structures. In seismically isolated structures, these devices can provide additional
dampening and are broadly categorized into two groups, displacement dependent, such as
frictional sliding or metallic yielding, and velocity dependent, including viscoelastic and
viscous fluid dampers. The 2015 NBCC [14] recommends supplemental energy dissipation
but does not explicitly address friction dampers. It specifies that a supplemental energy
dissipation system should complement the seismic force-resisting system (SFRS). The
modeling of the system should consider greater ductility than that of the SFRS nonlinear
hysteretic behavior, and the inherent equivalent viscous damping of the system should
not exceed 2.5 percent of the critical damping, excluding the damping provided by energy

153
 ening and are broadly categorized into two groups, displacement dependent, such as fric-
tional sliding or metallic yielding, and velocity dependent, including viscoelastic and vis-
cous fluid dampers. The 2015 NBCC [14] recommends supplemental energy dissipation
but does not explicitly address friction dampers. It specifies that a supplemental energy
dissipation system should complement the seismic force-resisting system (SFRS). The
Eng 2023, 4
modeling of the system should consider greater ductility than that of the SFRS nonlinear
hysteretic behavior, and the inherent equivalent viscous damping of the system should
not exceed 2.5 percent of the critical damping, excluding the damping provided by energy
dissipation devicesand
dissipation devices andother
other structural
structural elements.
elements. The and
The SFRS SFRS and components
components of the sup- of the
supplemental
plemental energy energy dissipation
dissipation system
system should
should be modeled
be modeled elastically.
elastically. According
According to ASCE
to ASCE
7-22,
7-22, aa structure withaadamping
structure with dampingsystemsystem must
must have
have an an SFRS
SFRS thatthat
cancan resist
resist 100 percent
100 percent of of
the
theload
load path,
path, while
while a a structure withoutaadamping
structure without dampingsystem
systemmust musthave
haveatatleast
least
7575 percent of
percent
of the
the required
required design
design strength[2,23].
strength [2,23].
Various supplemental
Various supplementalenergy energy dissipation
dissipation devices
devicesexist, employing
exist, employingdifferent mecha-
different mech-
nisms to dissipate energy. These mechanisms include yielding mild
anisms to dissipate energy. These mechanisms include yielding mild steel, viscoelastic steel, viscoelastic be-
havior in in
behavior rubber-like
rubber-likematerials, shearing
materials, of viscous
shearing fluids,fluids,
of viscous orifice flow,
orificeand sliding
flow, andfriction.
sliding fric-
Inline Seismic Friction Dampers are utilized in structural engineering to mitigate the im-
tion. Inline Seismic Friction Dampers are utilized in structural engineering to mitigate the
pact of seismic forces on buildings and structures. They aim to absorb and dissipate the
impact of seismic forces on buildings and structures. They aim to absorb and dissipate
energy generated during earthquakes, reducing the structural response and minimizing
the energy generated during earthquakes, reducing the structural response and minimiz-
damage. These dampers dissipate energy via the frictional interaction between two slid-
ing damage. These dampers dissipate energy via the frictional interaction between two
ing solid components. This principle of solid friction is also observed in controlling tec-
sliding solid components. This principle of solid friction is also observed in controlling
tonic movement and earthquake generation and in smaller-scale applications such as au-
tectonic movement and earthquake generation and in smaller-scale applications such as
tomotive brakes, which dissipate kinetic energy. By slipping at a predetermined load be-
automotive
fore structuralbrakes, which
yielding, dissipate
friction damperskinetic energy.dissipate
effectively By slipping at a predetermined
a significant portion of the load
before structural yielding, friction dampers effectively dissipate
energy during a major earthquake event. This capability not only safeguards against a significant portion
ex- of
the energy during a major earthquake event. This capability not
tensive damage but also offers cost savings compared to the expense of new construction only safeguards against
extensive damage but also offers cost savings compared to the expense
or retrofitting existing buildings, as it provides high levels of energy dissipation. of new construction
or retrofitting existingof
A clear example buildings,
attached as it provides
damping, high levels
specifically of energy
Coulomb dissipation.
friction, can be illus-
trated by Equation (1). This example involves a block moving horizontallycan
A clear example of attached damping, specifically Coulomb friction, onbe illustrated
a rough
by
surface, where the equation states that the frictional force is directly proportional to surface,
Equation (1). This example involves a block moving horizontally on a rough the
where
normalthe equation states that the frictional force is directly proportional to the normal force.
force.
𝐹 𝜇 𝑁
F =µ N (1) (1)
f riction k
whereµµk is
where is the
the dynamic
dynamic friction
friction coefficient
coefficient or kinetic energy,
or kinetic and N
energy, and N is
is the
the normal
normal force
force [24].
k
[24]. When subjected to cyclic loads, frictional damping devices waste energy via a non-
When subjected to cyclic loads, frictional damping devices waste energy via a non-elliptical
elliptical hysteretic loop. A single-degree-of-freedom system consisting of a mass, spring,
hysteretic loop. A single-degree-of-freedom system consisting of a mass, spring, and friction
and friction can simulate this behavior. Figure 2 depicts an ideal Coulomb damper as a
can simulate this behavior. Figure 2 depicts an ideal Coulomb damper as a simplified
simplified depiction of this notion.
depiction of this notion.

Figure 2. Mass-spring
Figure 2. Coulombdamping
Mass-spring Coulomb damping and
and hysteresis
hysteresis loop
loop [24].
[24].

When the mass, denoted as q, experiences a displacement, and the applied force (Ft )
is less than the Coulomb friction force (Fk ), the system does not slip. In this scenario, the
force–displacement relationship, represented by F1 -q, demonstrates a linear characteristic
along the AB line with a slope of (1 − α)k. However, sliding occurs when the applied force
(F1 ) equals Fk , the displacement exceeds the critical value of q, and the force–displacement
relationship follows the BC line, establishing a loop. Slipping stops when the mass reverses
its motion, the applied force (Ft ) falls below Fk , and the force drops down the CD line with
a slope of (1 − α)k. At point D, where the displacement is qc − 2q, the compressive force
equals Fk , resulting in slipping along the DE line. As the mass reaches point E, moving in
the opposite direction, the force follows the EF line, and the cycle continues [24].

154
 force–displacement relationship, represented by F1-q, demonstrates a linear characteristic
along the AB line with a slope of (1 − α)k. However, sliding occurs when the applied force
(F1) equals Fk, the displacement exceeds the critical value of q, and the force–displacement
relationship follows the BC line, establishing a loop. Slipping stops when the mass re-
verses its motion, the applied force (Ft) falls below Fk, and the force drops down the CD
Eng 2023, 4 line with a slope of (1 − α)k. At point D, where the displacement is qc − 2q, the compressive
force equals Fk, resulting in slipping along the DE line. As the mass reaches point E, mov-
ing in the opposite direction, the force follows the EF line, and the cycle continues [24].
TheThe
dynamic
dynamicfriction behavior
friction of the
behavior ofInline Seismic
the Inline Friction
Seismic Damper
Friction (ISFD)(ISFD)
Damper is respon-
is responsi-
sible for its characteristic hysteresis pattern observed during the slipping
ble for its characteristic hysteresis pattern observed during the slipping stage. stage. To Toaccu-
accurately
rately represent
represent thethe elastoplastic
elastoplastic behaviorof
behavior ofthe
the damper,
damper, itit is
is recommended
recommendedtoto utilize thethe Wen
utilize
Wen model,
model, as as illustrated
illustrated inin Figure3.3.This
Figure Thismodel
modelisisideal
idealforforrepresenting
representingthe
thedynamic
dynamic friction
friction properties of ISFDs [2,3,25].
properties of ISFDs [2,3,25].

Figure
Figure 3. Parameters
3. Parameters of Wen
of Wen model
model for SFD,
for SFD, courtesy
courtesy of manufacturer
of manufacturer (2023) [26].
(2023) [26].

Inline
Inline Seismic
Seismic Friction
Friction DampersDampers
(ISFDs)(ISFDs)
should should be balanced
be balanced to ensure to ensure in-
structural structural
integrity
tegrity and prevent
and prevent excessive
excessive designdesign
force. force. Excessive
Excessive ISFDs deployment
ISFDs deployment leads toleads to rigidity
rigidity
while reducing their numbers eliminates their impact on the system. Therefore, it is crucial
while reducing their numbers eliminates their impact on the system. Therefore, it is crucial
to have
to have optimal
optimal shearshear
forcesforces
on the on thetoISFDs
ISFDs to minimize
minimize the demand theondemand
the frame onandthemax-
frame and
maximize energy dissipation. For this calibration, nonlinear response history
imize energy dissipation. For this calibration, nonlinear response history analysis shouldanalysis
be should
employed.be employed. The central
The central concept is to concept is to conduct
conduct static static
analysis and analysis
estimate theand estimate the
approxi-
mate forces acting on an inline seismic friction damper [16,17].
approximate forces acting on an inline seismic friction damper [16,17].
TheTheequivalent
equivalent lateral staticstatic
lateral analysis was performed
analysis to calculate
was performed the base
to calculate shear
the baseandshear and
stiffness
stiffness of each floor and the design parameters for each damper. Thesepre-
of each floor and the design parameters for each damper. These values are values are
sented in Table
presented in2.Table 2.

Table 2. ISFDs design parameters for different types of structures.

Kf (KN/mm) Kd (KN/mm) Ked (KN/mm) Post Yield Yielding

Story Level 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span Stiffness Ratio Exponent
4 4 124 134 136 146 148 165 0.0001 10
3 182 192 198 210 208 231 0.0001 10
2 238 262 260 286 265 296 0.0001 10
1 308 331 353 380 373 409 0.0001 10
8 8 139 143 152 156 165 186 0.0001 10
7 196 198 214 216 231 231 0.0001 10
6 233 243 254 265 265 296 0.0001 10
5 266 275 290 300 296 322 0.0001 10
4 289 305 315 333 322 355 0.0001 10
3 335 361 366 394 392 430 0.0001 10
2 359 461 392 503 392 522 0.0001 10
1 567 625 650 717 656 798 0.0001 10

155
Eng 2023, 4

Table 2. Cont.

Kf (KN/mm) Kd (KN/mm) Ked (KN/mm) Post Yield Yielding

Story Level 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span Stiffness Ratio Exponent
14 14 132 147 144 161 148 165 0.0001 10
13 157 211 171 230 186 231 0.0001 10
12 209 269 228 293 231 296 0.0001 10
11 255 314 278 343 296 355 0.0001 10
10 282 346 307 377 322 392 0.0001 10
9 390 458 426 499 430 522 0.0001 10
8 404 472 441 515 473 522 0.0001 10
7 429 499 468 544 473 573 0.0001 10
6 510 582 557 635 573 690 0.0001 10
5 571 647 623 706 631 765 0.0001 10
4 567 639 619 698 631 765 0.0001 10
3 622 685 679 748 690 765 0.0001 10
2 724 801 791 874 839 916 0.0001 10
1 690 813 792 933 798 963 0.0001 10

The slip loads are calculated using a method proposed for an equivalent single degree
of freedom with idealized lateral load deformation. The ratio of the total braces’ stiffness of
each floor to the total braces’ stiffness plus the story stiffness of each floor is calculated using
an iterative procedure, assumed to be 0.8. Additionally, nonlinear time history analysis can
be used as an iterative procedure to design the sections of braces and friction dampers [15].
Table 3 represents the equivalent static force analysis results and the slip force for all three
models.

Table 3. Seismic analysis results, slip loads, and calculated mass per damper.

Seismic Shear Seismic Brake Seismic Weight Mass per Damper

Forces (KN) Slip Forces (KN) (KN) (Kg)
Story Bracing Level 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span 6 m Span 8 m Span
4 SBD 4 1314 1364 140 150 12,877 16,523 80 80
3 901 949 240 250 12,877 16,523 115 115
2 638 676 310 330 12,877 16,523 115 115
1 369 387 370 390 12,877 16,523 115 115
8 SBD 8 1652 1685 180 180 28,174 33,923 80 80
7 996 1009 290 290 28,174 33,923 80 115
6 857 873 380 390 28,174 33,923 115 115
5 753 761 460 470 28,174 33,923 160 115
4 615 623 530 540 28,174 33,923 160 160
3 472 480 580 590 28,174 33,923 160 160
2 332 339 620 630 28,174 33,923 160 160
1 190 195 670 680 28,174 33,923 160 195
14 SBD 14 1579 1773 170 190 49,723 65,167 80 80
13 670 781 250 280 49,723 65,167 115 115
12 622 727 310 360 49,723 65,167 115 115
11 600 706 380 440 49,723 65,167 115 115
10 547 644 440 510 49,723 65,167 115 115
9 521 616 500 570 49,723 65,167 160 160
8 470 556 550 630 49,723 65,167 160 160
7 414 490 590 690 49,723 65,167 160 195
6 360 425 630 730 49,723 65,167 160 195
5 318 378 670 770 49,723 65,167 160 195
4 258 306 690 810 49,723 65,167 160 240
3 199 236 720 830 49,723 65,167 195 240
2 139 166 730 850 49,723 65,167 195 240
1 80 95 780 910 49,723 65,167 195 240
Note: Single Diagonal Braces (SBD).

4. Modal Analysis
The Eigenvalue analysis calculates the natural modes of the system, providing the
free-vibration mode shapes and frequencies. The Ritz value analysis determines modes
based on specific loading conditions. Since Ritz value yields a better basis than eigenvalue
analysis, especially for analyses involving superposition such as response spectrum or time-

156
Eng 2023, 4

history analysis, it was utilized to determine the natural periods of the YRB framed system.
Table 4 displays the fundamental period of the structure based on the modal analysis, and
the results for braced frames obtained from the 2015 NBCC [14] can be determined with
empirical Equation (2).
Ta = 0.025hn (2)
where Ta (s) represents the fundamental lateral period, and hn denotes the height of the
structure in the meter. Including ISFDs in the frame reduced approximately 60% to 70%
compared to the bare frames in the fundamental period. Moreover, the empirical equation
results are about 15 to 60% lower than those obtained by the Ritz analysis.
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Table 4. The fundamental period of the structures.

T (sec)-Analytical ISFD
Table 4. The fundamental period of the structures.
T(sec)-Analytical Bare Frame
Story Ta (s)
6 m-Span 8 m-Span 6 m-Span 8 m-Span
T (sec)‐Analytical ISFD T(sec)‐Analytical Bare Frame
Story Ta (s)
4 6 m‐Span0.56 8 m‐Span 0.56
6 m‐Span 0.81
8 m‐Span 0.78 0.37
4 8 0.56 0.89 0.56 0.85 0.81 1.36 0.78 1.33
0.37 0.73
8 14 0.89 1.46 0.85 1.41 1.36 1.85 1.33 1.82
0.73 1.25
14 1.46 1.41 1.85 1.82 1.25
5. Response Spectrum
5. Response Spectrum
The buildings in this study are assumed to be in San Bernardino, California, with a
The buildings in this study are assumed to be in San Bernardino, California, with a
trend design
trend design response
response spectrum
spectrum like Tofino
like Tofino on Vancouver
on Vancouver Island
Island in British in British
Columbia. A Columbia. A
single target response spectrum was developed for the maximum considered earthquake earthquake
single target response spectrum was developed for the maximum considered
(MCE
(MCE ) with
R)Rwith 5%5% damping,
damping, obtained
obtained by multiplying
by multiplying the designthe design
response response
spectrum by aspectrum by a
factorofof
factor 1.5,
1.5, as presented
as presented in Figure
in Figure 4. By selecting
4. By selecting a relative a relative
location location
in the Unitedin the United States,
States,
theMCE
the MCE R was incorporated into the Canadian code for performance assessment of the
R was incorporated into the Canadian code for performance assessment of the

inline friction dampers.

inline friction dampers.

Figure4.4.
Figure MCER
MCER andand
DER.DER.

Thespectral
The spectral acceleration
acceleration for a for
site a
insite
San in San Bernardino,
Bernardino, USA, wasUSA, was for
calculated calculated
differ- for different
ent hazard levels, considering both the basic safety earthquakes (BSE) for new
hazard levels, considering both the basic safety earthquakes (BSE) for new and existing and existing
building standards. An idealized relationship between base shear and displacement was
building standards. An idealized relationship between base shear and displacement was
established using a similar displacement approach for all the models. The analysis was
established
continued untilusing a similar
the frame’s displacement
maximum interstudyapproach for2.5allpercent
drift met the the models. The analysis was
design limit.
The elastic lateral stiffness (Ki), effective lateral stiffness (Ke), effective yield strength (Vdesign
continued until the frame’s maximum interstudy drift met the 2.5 percent y), limit. The
elastic
and lateral
target stiffnesswere
displacements (Ki ),determined
effective lateral stiffness (Ke ), effective yield strength (Vy ), and
accordingly.
target displacements were determined accordingly.
6. Nonlinear Static Analysis
6. Nonlinear Static
Nonlinear static Analysis
pushover analysis is carried out to calculate the structural strength
capacities and displacement demand. This procedure involves pushing the structure un-
Nonlinear static pushover analysis is carried out to calculate the structural strength
der a lateral load pattern to the level of displacement expected in the design earthquake.
capacities and displacement demand. This procedure involves pushing the structure under
The main goal of this analysis is to assess displacement demands in critical elements that
a lateral
exhibit load pattern
undesirable to the level
characteristics suchofasdisplacement expected
strength, stiffness in the design
discontinuities, earthquake. The
extra loads
main
on goal
brittle of this analysis
components, overallis to assessstability,
structural displacement demands
and regions exposedintocritical elements
significant dis- that exhibit
placement demand, which require special detailing [27–29]. The consideration of global
P-delta effects can be either non-iterative or iterative, depending on the mass and load
case. The design employs the Fiber section “P-M2-M3” with distributed plasticity and a
finite length hinge zone. 157
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 10

Eng 2023, 4
Furthermore, the columns have meshed at intermediate joints and intersecting
frames to improve the accuracy of simulating local P-delta effects. The load combinations
presented by the lateral loads shall be concerned with the P-Delta effect. The load combi-
nations are based on NBCC 2015 and include factor loads for ultimate limit states of 1.0D
+ 1.0E + 0.5Lundesirable characteristics
+ 0.25S. These factors such
represent 100% as dead
of the strength, stiffnessloads,
and earthquake discontinuities,
50% extra loads on brittle
components,
of the live load, and 25% of theoverall structural
snow load. stability,
The local P-δ andcanregions
effect, which exposed to significant displacement
cause a reduction
demand,
in the buckling which require
load, is automatically special
considered in thedetailing [27–29]. forThe
analysis, particularly consideration of global P-delta
slender
columns [21,27,29].
effects can be either non-iterative or iterative, depending
In this section, a nonlinear static pushover analysis was performed to calculate the
on the mass and load case. The
overstrength and ductility factors of each structure based on the target displacement of plasticity and a finite length
design employs the Fiber section “P-M2-M3” with distributed
MCER. The hinge zone.
calculated values are tabulated in Table 5 and presented in Figure 5.
Furthermore, the columns have meshed at intermediate joints and intersecting frames
Table 5. Nonlinear static analysis results.
to improve the accuracy of simulating local P-delta effects. The load combinations presented
Span Yield Design
by the loads shall Maximum
lateralOverstrength Dis‐ Yield Displace‐
be concerned with the P-Delta effect. The load combinations are
Ductility
Story Bracing Length Strength Vy Strength placement ment
(m) (KN) based on
Vd (KN) NBCC 2015
Factor Ro and include factor loads for ultimate
Δmax (mm) Δy (mm)
μ limit states of 1.0D + 1.0E +
4 SBD 6 4436 0.5L +
21550.25S. These
2.05 factors represent
95 100% of
20 the dead and
4.75 earthquake loads, 50% of the
8 5473 live load,
2221 and 25% 2.46 of the snow 80 load. The 22 local P-δ effect,
3.63 which can cause a reduction
8 SBD 6 5148 in the buckling load,
3362 1.53 is automatically
140 considered
30 in the
4.66analysis, particularly for slender
8 5934 3481 1.71 133 34 3.92
columns [21,27,29].
14 SBD 6 6448 4937 1.30 255 65 3.93
8 7509 In
5428this section,
1.38 a nonlinear220 static pushover
64 analysis
3.43 was performed to calculate the
overstrength
SBD: Single Diagonal Braces. and ductility factors of each structure based on the target displacement of
MCER. The calculated values are tabulated in Table 5 and presented in Figure 5.

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 11

Figure 5. Roof drift ratio versus normalized base shear (4, 8, and 14 stories).
Figure 5. Roof drift ratio versus normalized base shear (4, 8, and 14 stories).

The 2015 NBCC [14] introduced the related force modification factors for different
Seismic Force-Resisting Systems (SFRS), irrespective of building height, span length, and
bracing configurations. In addition, these factors are not considered for friction dampers.
Several relationships have been proposed to estimate the ductility factor [29–32]. In this
research, the method proposed by Miranda and Bertero (1994) [32], represented by Equa-
158
tions (3) and (4), was used to calculate the ductility reduction factor Rµ for stiff soil. Here,
µ represents ductility, T denotes the natural period of the structures, and ϕ is a function
Eng 2023, 4

Table 5. Nonlinear static analysis results.

Maximum
Yield Design Yield Dis-
Span Overstrength Displace- Ductility
Story Bracing Strength Strength placement
Length (m) Factor Ro ment µ
Vy (KN) Vd (KN) ∆y (mm)
∆max (mm)
4 SBD 6 4436 2155 2.05 95 20 4.75
8 5473 2221 2.46 80 22 3.63
8 SBD 6 5148 3362 1.53 140 30 4.66
8 5934 3481 1.71 133 34 3.92
14 SBD 6 6448 4937 1.30 255 65 3.93
8 7509 5428 1.38 220 64 3.43
SBD: Single Diagonal Braces.

The 2015 NBCC [14] introduced the related force modification factors for different
Seismic Force-Resisting Systems (SFRS), irrespective of building height, span length, and
bracing configurations. In addition, these factors are not considered for friction dampers.
Several relationships have been proposed to estimate the ductility factor [29–32]. In this
research, the method proposed by Miranda and Bertero (1994) [32], represented by Equa-
tions (3) and (4), was used to calculate the ductility reduction factor Rµ for stiff soil. Here,
µ represents ductility, T denotes the natural period of the structures, and φ is a function of
ductility, fundamental period, and soil conditions. These results are presented in Table 6.

µ−1
Rµ = +1 ≥ 1 (3)
ϕ

1 1 2
φ = 1+ − e−1.5|ln (T)−0.6| (4)
10T − µT 2T

Table 6. Response modification factors for 4, 8, and 14 stories.

Ductility Response
Span Length Overstrength
Story Bracing Reduction Modification
(m) Factor (Ro )
Factor (Rµ ) Factor (R)
4 SBD 6 3.06 2.61 8.01
8 2.32 2.55 5.93
8 SBD 6 2.20 3.52 7.74
8 1.91 2.97 5.64
14 SBD 6 1.47 4.43 6.52
8 1.41 3.96 5.53
Note: Single Diagonal Braces (SBD).

The seismic reduction factors for different types of structures are depicted in Figure 6.
The overstrength factors increase with decreasing span length and height of the structures,
with average values of 1.85 for an 8 m span and 1.63 for a 6 m span across different building
types. Among them, the four-story 6 m span presents the maximum overstrength factor of
3.06, while the fourteen-story 8 m span exhibits the minimum value of 1.41. The ductility
reduction factors range from a minimum value of 2.55 for a four-story 8 m span and a
maximum value of 4.43 for a fourteen-story 6 m span. Generally, the ductility factor tends
to increase in higher buildings, with average values of 3.66 for an 8 m span and 4.44 for a
6 m span. The closest value of response modification factors for ISFDs can be selected as
recommended by the NBCC 2015 [14] (R = 4.8), and the ASCE 7 (R = 8) for ductile buckling
restrained braced frames are 4.8 and 8. The recommended response modification values are
compared with those obtained with the analytical results shown in Figure 6. The highest
response modification factor, equal to the prescribed value by ASCE 7 [23], is observed
in the four-story building with a 6 m span, reaching 8.01. Generally, all values surpass

159
 and a maximum value of 4.43 for a fourteen-story 6 m span. Generally, the ductility factor
tends to increase in higher buildings, with average values of 3.66 for an 8 m span and 4.44
for a 6 m span. The closest value of response modification factors for ISFDs can be selected
as recommended by the NBCC 2015 [14] (R = 4.8), and the ASCE 7 (R = 8) for ductile buck-
ling restrained braced frames are 4.8 and 8. The recommended response modification val-
Eng 2023, 4
ues are compared with those obtained with the analytical results shown in Figure 6. The
highest response modification factor, equal to the prescribed value by ASCE 7 [23], is ob-
served in the four-story building with a 6 m span, reaching 8.01. Generally, all values sur-
thepass
recommended value value
the recommended by thebyNBCC
the NBCC20152015
[14] [14]
(R =(R4.8). These
= 4.8). values
These decrease
values decreasewith
withthe
increasing height
the increasing of the
height ofstructure andand
the structure thethe
span
spanlength.
length.Moreover,
Moreover,thetheaverage
average values
values of
response modification
of response factors
modification for for
factors all three models
all three modelsareare
6.876.87
andand
7.29 forfor
7.29 8m 8mand 6m
and 6mspan
lengths, respectively.
span lengths, respectively.

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 6. Overstrength, ductility, and response modification factors for 14, 8, and 4 stories.

7.Figure
Inelastic Responseductility,
6. Overstrength, Historyand
Analysis
response modification factors for 14, 8, and 4 stories.
The relationship between the response of the structure and ground-motion parameters
7. Inelastic
has Response
been explored HistoryaAnalysis
through different set of strategies [31,33,34]. Scaling and spectral
The relationship between the response of the structure and ground-motion parame-
ters has been explored through a different set of strategies [31,33,34]. Scaling and spectral
matching are two approaches for adjusting time series to be consistent with the design
160
response spectrum. Ground motions modification includes multiplying the initial time
series by the scaling factor. Then, the matched spectrum equals or exceeds the design
Eng 2023, 4

matching are two approaches for adjusting time series to be consistent with the design
response spectrum. Ground motions modification includes multiplying the initial time
series by the scaling factor. Then, the matched spectrum equals or exceeds the design
spectrum over a specified period range. Matching the time series frequency content to be
consistent with the design spectrum is Spectral matching [30,35].
This study obtained 25 different ground motion records from the Pacific Earthquake
Engineering Research Center (PEER) database [36], as presented in Table 7. Including a
diverse range of ground motions leads to a more comprehensive assessment of seismic
performance results. The SeismoMatch 2018 [37] software was used to match the accelero-
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW grams based on the design spectrum spectrally. The results of this matching process15are
illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Cont.

161
Eng 2023,
Eng 42023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 16

Figure 7. Matched
Figure accelerograms
7. Matched accelerogramsbased
basedon
onthe
thetarget
targetresponse
response spectrum for14,
spectrum for 14,8,8,and
and4 4stories.
stories.

Table 7. Summary of metadata of selected records.

8. Inter‐Story and Base Shear Demand Results
Scale Dynamic time history analysis was performed to Arias assess the seismic
Intensity Arias performance
Intensity PGA of
ID Earthquake Year Station Magnitude Mechanism
Factor the ISFDs. Figure 8 presents the mean values and the sum (cm/s,
ofOA)standard(cm/s, MA)
deviations for(g)all
1 0.8489 San Fernando twelve models.
1971 ThePacoima
maximum mean 6.61 values and the sum of standard
Reverse 8.94 deviation
14.06 were 1.98%
1.219
Dam
2 1.0261 Gazli USSR and 2.20% 1976 for the fourteen-story
Karakyr equipped with
6.8 ReverseISFDs, with
5.288 m and 6 m span lengths,
11.27 0.701
3 0.7926 Tabas Iran respectively.
1978 These numbers
Tabas 7.35
increased Reverse
to 2.90% and 3.33% 11.82 21.08 The eight-
for the bare frames. 0.853
Bonds
4 1.297 Imperial Valley-06 1979
story buildings with 6.53
ISFDs had maximum Strike-slip
values of 2.10%3.98 and 2.15% for 17.428 m and 0.598
6m
Corner
5 1.2494 Nahanni Canadaspans, while
1985 the brace Siteframes
1 6.76 Reverse 3.88
had maximum values of 3.20% and 3.50% for the same span8.44 1.107
Superstition Parachute
6 1.5274 1987 four-story structure experienced
length. The 6.54 Strike-slip
the same mean 3.74and sum of 14.96 0.432
standard devia-
Hills-02 Test Site
Reverse
7 1.6425 Loma Prieta tion values,
1989 with a maximum
BRAN of 2.29%
6.93 for ISFDs with both 85.35 m and 6 m span 17.74lengths. 0.456
The
Oblique
8 1.5415 Erzican Turkey bare frames
1992 showed values of 3.23%
Erzincan 6.69 and 3.75% for 8 m and1.52
Strike-slip 6 m spans, respectively.
9.12 The
0.386
Cape
9 0.9241 Cape Mendocinodrift ratios
1992 were reduced by approximately
7.01 60 to 70% compared
Strike-slip 5.95 to the bare frames. These
8.88 1.491
Mendocino
10 1.1584 Landers values moved
1992 to a Lucerne
lower level in 7.28
greater span length. Moreover,
Strike-slip 6.97 the story10.99
drift ratio con-
0.725
centration shifted toBeverly
higher levels with an increase in the height of the structures.
Hills—
11 1.6054 Northridge-01 1994 6.69 Reverse 3.08 14.71 0.443
14,145
Mulhol
12 1.1671 Kobe Japan 1995 KJMA 6.9 Strike-slip 8.39 13.32 0.834
Reverse
13 1.0745 Chi-Chi Taiwan 1999 CHY028 7.62 5.29 13.71 0.636
Oblique
14 1.2578 Duzce Turkey 1999 Bolu 7.14 Strike-slip 3.72 14.01 0.739
15 1.384 Manjil Iran 1990 Abbar 7.37 Strike-slip 4.64 25.29 0.514
Los Gatos—
Reverse
16 1.769 Loma Prieta 1989 Lexington 6.93 1.86 9.96 0.442
Oblique
Dam
17 1.6839 Tottori Japan 2000 SMNH01 6.61 Strike-slip 5.29 16.40 0.732
18 1.0737 Bam Iran 2003 Bam 6.6 Strike-slip 8.01 16.23 0.807
19 0.7526 Niigata Japan 2004 NIG019 6.63 Reverse 14.49 14.77 1.166
Joetsu
20 1.7991 Chuetsu oki Japan 2007 Kakizakiku 6.8 Reverse 1.31 17.23 0.303
Kakizaki
21 1.0158 Iwate Japan 2008 AKTH04 6.9 Reverse 11.81 16.44 1.343
El Mayor Cucapah CERRO
22 1.7436 2010 7.2 Strike-slip 2.97 23.58 0.286
Mexico PRIETO
Darfield New
23 0.982 Figure 8.2010 GDLC deviation
Mean and standard 7 values ofStrike-slip 4.49 for 4, 8, and
Inter story drift ratio 11.56
14 stories. 0.764
Zealand
24 1.5914 Duzce Turkey 1999 IRIGM 496 7.14 Strike-slip 13.36 16.21 1.031
25 Tohoku 1923 7.9 Subduction 11.51 59.71 0.427

8. Inter-Story and Base Shear Demand Results

Dynamic time history analysis was performed to assess the seismic performance of
the ISFDs. Figure 8 presents the mean values and the sum of standard deviations for

162
Eng 2023, 4
Figure 7. Matched accelerograms based on the target response spectrum for 14, 8, and 4 stories.

8. Inter‐Story and Base Shear Demand Results

all twelve models. TheDynamic
maximum time mean
history values
analysisand
was the
performed
sum of to standard
assess the seismic performance
deviation were of
the ISFDs. Figure 8 presents the mean values and the sum of standard deviations for all
1.98% and 2.20% for the fourteen-story equipped with ISFDs, with 8 m and 6 m span
twelve models. The maximum mean values and the sum of standard deviation were 1.98%
lengths, respectively.
andThese
2.20% numbers increased to
for the fourteen-story 2.90% and
equipped with 3.33%
ISFDs, for
withthe
8m bare
andframes.
6 m spanThelengths,
eight-story buildings with ISFDs had maximum values of 2.10% and 2.15%
respectively. These numbers increased to 2.90% and 3.33% for the bare frames. for 8 m The
andeight-
6 m spans, while the brace
story frames
buildings had
with maximum
ISFDs valuesvalues
had maximum of 3.20% andand
of 2.10% 3.50% forfor
2.15% the8 same
m and 6 m
span length. The four-story
spans, while structure experienced
the brace frames the same
had maximum valuesmean
of 3.20%andandsum
3.50%offor
standard
the same span
deviation values, with
length.a maximum
The four-storyof structure
2.29% forexperienced
ISFDs with theboth
same8meanm andand6 sum
m span lengths.
of standard devia-
tion values, with a maximum of 2.29% for ISFDs with both 8 m and 6 m span lengths. The
The bare frames showed values of 3.23% and 3.75% for 8 m and 6 m spans, respectively.
bare frames showed values of 3.23% and 3.75% for 8 m and 6 m spans, respectively. The
The drift ratios were reduced by approximately 60 to 70% compared to the bare frames.
drift ratios were reduced by approximately 60 to 70% compared to the bare frames. These
These values moved valuesamoved
to lowertolevel in greater
a lower span length.
level in greater Moreover,
span length. Moreover,thethe
story drift
story driftratio
ratio con-
concentration shifted to higher
centration levels
shifted withlevels
to higher an increase in the height
with an increase of theofstructures.
in the height the structures.

Eng 2023, 4,Figure Mean

8.REVIEW
FOR PEER and Figure
standard deviation
8. Mean valuesdeviation
and standard of Intervalues
storyof
drift
Interratio
storyfor 4,ratio
drift 8, and 148,stories.
for 4, 17 stories.
and 14

For the sake of brevity, only the maximum hysteresis curves of the three models are
shown in Figure 9. For
Thetheamount of dissipated
sake of brevity, energyhysteresis
only the maximum in the models
curves of with anmodels
the three 8 m span
are was
shown in Figure 9. The amount of dissipated energy in the models with an 8 m span was
more significantmore
than the 6 m span length, primarily due to the axial forces in the bracing.
significant than the 6 m span length, primarily due to the axial forces in the bracing.

Figure 9. Maximum hysteresis

Figure response
9. Maximum hysteresisfor 4-, 8-,
response for14-story.
4-, 8-, 14-story.

The results of the nonlinear response history analysis for the base shear demands are
presented in Figure 10. These values represent the maximum base shear for each ground
motion. It can be163
observed that all these values are below the capacity of each system.
Furthermore, the base shear demands are higher with longer span lengths and in taller
buildings.
Eng 2023, 4

The results of the nonlinear response history analysis for the base shear demands are
presented in Figure 10. These values represent the maximum base shear for each ground
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW
motion. It can be observed that all these values are below the capacity of each system.18
Furthermore, the base shear demands are higher with longer span lengths and in taller
buildings.

Figure 10. Cont.

164
 Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 19
Eng 2023, 4

Figure 10. Base shear demands for 4, 8, and 14 stories.

Figure 10. Base shear demands for 4, 8, and 14 stories.
9. Results and Discussions
9. Results and Discussions
Friction dampers, like other displacement-dependent devices, exhibit amplitude-
dependentFrictiondamping.
dampers, like
While other
thedisplacement-dependent
slip force remains constant, devices, exhibit amplitude-de-
displacements might alter.
pendent damping. While the slip force remains constant, displacements might alter. How-
However, the slip force can be adjusted depending on the required displacement. In this
ever, the slip force can be adjusted depending on the required displacement. In this in-
instance, the force–displacement ratio is not proportional, and decoupling the stiffness
stance, the force–displacement ratio is not proportional, and decoupling the stiffness from
from the yielding point is one of its advantages in high seismic zones. This article outlines
the yielding point is one of its advantages in high seismic zones. This article outlines the
the methodology for determining overstrength, response modification, and ductility factors
methodology for determining overstrength, response modification, and ductility factors
for various Inline Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFD) systems. Slip loads are calculated based
for various Inline Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFD) systems. Slip loads are calculated
on the lateral shear forces, shear deflection at each floor, the lateral stiffness of braces, and
based on the lateral shear forces, shear deflection at each floor, the lateral stiffness of
the lateral
braces, andstiffness of existing
the lateral stiffnessframes and braces.
of existing frames and The braces.
response The modification factors of four-
response modification
eight- and fourteen-story ductile concrete structures equipped with
factors of four- eight- and fourteen-story ductile concrete structures equipped with Inline Inline Seismic Friction
Dampers
Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFDs) of different span lengths and heights are determined by
(ISFDs) of different span lengths and heights are determined using the method
Miranda
using theand Bertero’s
method (1994) and
by Miranda method [32]. (1994)
Bertero’s For this purpose,
method [32].normalized
For this purpose,moment rotation
normal-
component
ized moment models
rotationarecomponent
calculatedmodels
for eacharebeam and column
calculated for each based
beamon andASCE
column 41 [38].
based These
component
on ASCE 41modeling[38]. Theseparameters
component aremodeling
applied to each structural
parameters member.
are applied The SLE,
to each DLE, and
structural
MSE
member.target displacement
The SLE, DLE, and is computed
MSE targetaccording
displacement to ASCE 41 [38]. according
is computed NonlineartostaticASCEanalysis
41
is[38].
thenNonlinear
performed to assess
static analysis theis seismic characteristics
then performed to assessofthe
each system.
seismic The performance
characteristics of
of each
each system
system. Theis performance
evaluated through nonlinear
of each system responsethrough
is evaluated historynonlinear
analysis, response
considering
twenty-five
history analysis,different groundtwenty-five
considering motions matched
different to the target
ground motions response
matched spectrum and the
to the target
structure’s period within
response spectrum and the the range of 0.2T
structure’s period to within
1.5 T. Thethe key
range observations
of 0.2T to 1.5and conclusions
T. The key
are summarized
observations andas follows: are summarized as follows:
conclusions
In the
In the NBCC 2015[14],
2015 [14],the
theclosest
closestductility
ductilityand and overstrength
overstrength factors
factors forequivalent
for an an equivalent
system are provided for a ductile buckling restrained braced frame. The overstrength
system are provided for a ductile buckling restrained braced frame. The overstrength fac-
tors ranging from 1.41 to 3.06, surpass the prescribed value (R = 1.2)
factors ranging from 1.41 to 3.06, surpass the prescribed value (R0 = 1.2) specified in the
0 specified in the NBCC
2015 [14].
NBCC 2015These
[14]. factors decreasedecrease
These factors with increasing height and
with increasing are higher
height and are in higher
shorterin span
shorter
span lengths. The ductility reduction factors, however, exhibited an upward trendthe
lengths. The ductility reduction factors, however, exhibited an upward trend when when
height
the heightincreased. The The
increased. ductility reduction
ductility factorsfactors
reduction range range
from 2.55from to 2.55
4.43 compared to the to
to 4.43 compared
NBCC
the NBCC 20152015 value
[14][14] 4. 4.
value
The response modification factor exhibits a decreasing trend as the height increases,
The response modification factor exhibits a decreasing trend as the height increases,
and it is more significant for smaller span lengths. The response modification factor ranges
and it is more significant for smaller span lengths. The response modification factor ranges
between 5.53 and 8.01, with an average of 6.56 and an average minus standard deviation
of 5.57, whereas the recommended value in the NBCC 2015 [14] for BRBF is 4.8. These
results suggest that structures with a height equal to or less than 50 m adopt a response

165
Eng 2023, 4

modification factor of 5.5. This factor covers approximately 95% of the cases and falls
within the safe range. The slip loads are calculated based on various factors, including the
brace angle, lateral shear forces, shear deflection at each floor, the lateral stiffness of the
bare frame, as well as the lateral stiffness of braces and their combination. Therefore, for
simplicity and a practical approach used by engineers, it is recommended that the system
be modeled as a braced frame, and the axial loads in the braces should be equal to or greater
than the slip load of the friction dampers. This approach ensures accurate representation
and sufficient capacity for the system. The results acquired from nonlinear response history
analysis, explicitly the STDEVA +Mean values, indicated a notable reduction in the story
drift ratio ranging from 60% to 70% for all three models incorporating ISFDs, compared to
the bare frames.
Moreover, the concentration of story drift demands was higher in taller buildings
while remaining relatively consistent or decreasing as the span length decreased. The
results from base shear demand indicated that increased structural height led to an elevated
base shear demand. Conversely, a decrease in the span length resulted in a reduction of
about 10% in the base shear demand.
The analysis of hysteresis curves demonstrated that longer span lengths exhibited
higher dissipated energy than shorter span lengths. Implementing the ISFD system directly
affects the reduction in the formation of the plastic hinges, resulting in an approximate
45% improvement in structural performance, which aligns with the objective of life safety
or better.
There was an accompanying increase in the base shear demand as the height of the
structure increased. On the other hand, a smaller span length resulted in a decrease.
Notably, implementing inline friction dampers resulted in a substantial reduction in the
dissipated energy, particularly in structures with larger span lengths.

10. Conclusions
This paper focuses on applying seismic reduction factors in line with the recommended
R values specified in the NBCC 2015 [14]. These reduction factors can support minimizing
the number of variable design parameters, enhancing structural performance. Because
of this, additional work is warranted to capture such performance for friction dampers.
Observations indicate that increasing the height of a structure reduces the overstrength
factor while increasing the ductility factor. Shorter span lengths result in greater response
modification factors; a suggested response modification factor for structures 50 m in height
is 5.5. Base shear demand increases with height and decreases with span length (10%
reduction). Hysteresis curve analysis demonstrates greater dissipated energy for longer
spans. Nonlinear response history analysis shows a substantial reduction (60–70%) in story
drift ratio when Inline Seismic Friction Dampers (ISFDs) are employed, compared to bare
frames. The concentration of story drift demands is higher in taller buildings but remains
consistent or decreases with shorter spans.
Further investigations are needed to comprehend and capture the performance of
friction dampers fully. Additional investigations can be conducted to assess the seismic
characteristics of buildings using different bracing configurations, floor heights, and bracing
angles. More detailed modeling approaches for structures equipped with ISFDs shall be
considered.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.N., A.B. and F.M.T.; methodology, A.N., A.B. and F.M.T.;
software, A.N.; validation, A.N., A.B. and F.M.T.; formal analysis, A.N.; investigation, A.N., A.B. and
F.M.T.; resources, A.B. and F.M.T.; data curation, A.N.; writing—original draft preparation, A.N.;
writing—review and editing, A.B. and F.M.T.; visualization, A.N., A.B. and F.M.T.; supervision, A.B.
and F.M.T.; project administration, A.B. and F.M.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

166
Eng 2023, 4

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
and the IC-IMPACTS Research Network is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also thank
O. Galindo, Quaketech Inc., for his valuable comments and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Glossary

R0 Overstrength factor
Rd Ductility-related force modification factor
Ta(s) Fundamental lateral period
hn Height of the structure
Ki Elastic lateral stiffness
Ke Effective lateral stiffness
Vy Effective yield strength
Vd Design Strength
φ Function of ductility
Rµ Ductility reduction factor
R Response modification factor
µ Ductility
∆max Maximum displacement
∆Y Yield displacement
SLE Service Level Event
DLE Design Level Event
MSE Maximum Seismic Event
ISFD Inline Seismic Friction Damper
NBCC National Building Code of Canada
MRF Moment Resisting Frame
SFRS Seismic Force Resisting System
MCE Maximum Considered Earthquake
SBD Single Diagonal Braces

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people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

168
Review
Surface Waterproofing Techniques: A Case Study in Nova
Lima, Brazil
Lorena Carias de Freitas Gomes, Henrique Comba Gomes * and Elvys Dias Reis *

Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 30421-169, MG, Brazil;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (H.C.G.); [email protected] (E.D.R.)

Abstract: Considering the various problems caused by infiltration in civil construction, this study
aimed to identify the most appropriate waterproofing methods for different types of surfaces. A study
was conducted on the mechanisms of water infiltration on surfaces and the waterproofing methods
available on the market, focusing on asphalt blankets, in addition to a literature review highlighting
state-of-the-art methods on this topic. A case study was also conducted in a residence in Nova
Lima, Brazil, analyzing different waterproofing techniques, including their characteristics and stages.
Among the conclusions, it is highlighted that the implementation of adequate project, installation,
inspection, and maintenance techniques can significantly reduce the waterproofing failure rate and
repair costs, and that the excellent choice of materials, along with the skill of the labor force in the
application, is fundamental to guarantee the adequate performance of these materials in buildings.

Keywords: durability; waterproofing; infiltration; asphalt blankets; pathologies

1. Introduction
Building infiltration is a common problem when water penetrates the walls, floors,
or ceilings. This problem can be caused by several factors, such as lack of maintenance,
poor waterproofing, and exposure to rain or wind, among others, and has been a point
of extreme concern in all buildings since it is the leading cause of several pathologies in
Citation: Gomes, L.C.d.F.; buildings [1]. Among the various damages to the building structure, one can mention the
Gomes, H.C.; Reis, E.D. Surface weakening of the walls, the appearance of mold and mildew, rotting materials, corrosion
Waterproofing Techniques: A Case of metals, and the proliferation of insects and other animals [2]. In addition, the moisture
Study in Nova Lima, Brazil. Eng 2023, generated by infiltration contributes to an unhealthy environment due to the proliferation
4, 1871–1890. https://doi.org/ of fungi and bacteria, which can cause allergies, respiratory irritation, and other health
10.3390/eng4030106 problems for residents [3].
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi Investing in good waterproofing during the construction or renovation of the building
is crucial to avoid infiltration in buildings. In this sense, construction companies seek to
Received: 31 May 2023 isolate moisture and take necessary measures at each stage of construction, considering
Revised: 28 June 2023
which material is the most suitable for the place to be waterproofed and aiming to avoid
Accepted: 2 July 2023
as much water action as possible. The safest and most cost-effective way to ensure the
Published: 4 July 2023
water-tightness of a building is to conduct waterproofing planning from the project’s
conception [4]. This is important because, if infiltration has already occurred, it is necessary
to solve the problem as soon as possible, which may involve identifying the source of the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
infiltration, repairing the affected areas, and eliminating the conditions that allowed the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. infiltration. In more severe cases, hiring professionals who specialize in waterproofing and
This article is an open access article building restoration may be necessary to solve the problem correctly and safely. All this
distributed under the terms and makes the project more costly [5].
conditions of the Creative Commons In this context, waterproofing is a fundamental technique to protect structures against
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the action of water and moisture. One of the primary forms of waterproofing is the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ application of blankets, which consists of placing a layer of resistant and waterproof
4.0/). material on the surfaces to be protected. Blankets can be used in various construction areas,

Eng 2023, 4, 1871–1890. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030106 169 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

such as slabs, pools, bathrooms, kitchens, reservoirs, and basements [6]. Thus, it is essential
to know the proper techniques for applying blankets and the different types of materials
available on the market to ensure effective and lasting waterproofing.
With this perspective, the general objective of this paper is to present the surface-
waterproofing methods available in the construction market and their main applications,
focusing on asphalt blankets. It is worth mentioning that, in this paper, the term “asphalt”
refers to the asphalt binder, also known as “asphalt cement” or “bitumen,” and not to
a mixture of binder and aggregate. Specifically, it aims to: (i) explain the parameters
involved in the mechanism of water infiltration on surfaces; (ii) identify the techniques
used for surface waterproofing, focusing on asphalt membrane; (iii) describe the current
state of knowledge on the use of surface-waterproofing membranes; and (iv) present the
waterproofing techniques used in a real case that involved the application of membranes.

Research Significance
Concerns about waterproofing surfaces arose a long time ago. However, it was only in
the 20th century that it gained greater importance in civil construction. With the advance-
ment of technology and the development of new materials, applying more efficient and
durable techniques in different structures became possible. Today, waterproofing is consid-
ered an essential step in the construction or renovation of buildings because it prevents
problems caused by moisture and ensures the durability and safety of buildings [4].
Infiltration is a problem that can compromise the life of a structure, causing pathologies
in buildings and affecting the aesthetics of buildings. When uncontrolled, it can cause
severe damage, such as metal corrosion, the proliferation of fungi and bacteria, and rotting
materials, among others. These problems can decrease the structure’s life and affect its
stability, putting the safety of users at risk [7,8].
Therefore, proper waterproofing is a crucial element in planning construction projects,
as it prevents the occurrence of infiltrations and pathologies in buildings. It is essential that
waterproofing be planned from the project’s conception, considering the characteristics
of the region and the terrain, the purpose of the structure, and the materials used. Using
good-quality techniques and materials in waterproofing increases the structure’s durability,
maintains aesthetics, and avoids constant repairs [9].
With this perspective, studying the forms of waterproofing for each type of surface
becomes relevant because each surface presents different characteristics that can influ-
ence the choice of the most appropriate technique. This study should involve, but not
be limited to, factors such as durability, resistance, ease of application, costs, and the
necessary maintenance.

2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Surface Infiltration
Surface infiltration is a process by which water penetrates porous surfaces, such as
walls, roofs, slabs, floors, and sidewalks, or by flaws in the structure, such as cracks, fissures,
or leaks. It can occur in various ways, depending on the surface type and environmental
conditions, and cause damage and problems, such as humidity, mold, and structural
deterioration, among others [10].
The main mechanisms by which surface infiltration can occur include percolation,
capillarity, leaks, drainage-system failures, and condensation, described below.

2.1.1. Water Percolation

Water percolation on surfaces occurs when water penetrates a structure through cracks,
fissures, or other defects. It is a continuous process that can cause damage to the structure
over time [11].
The process begins when water from rain or another source comes into contact with
the structure’s surface. If the surface is in good condition and impermeable, the water will

170
Eng 2023, 4

run off it until it reaches the drainage system. However, if the surface has cracks or fissures,
the water will penetrate the structure.
Cracks and fissures in the structure can be caused by several factors, such as natural
wear and tear, aging of the structure, and water damage, among others. When water pene-
trates the structure, it follows the easiest path through the cracks and fissures, infiltrating
the porous structure [12].
As water penetrates the structure, it can cause significant damage. For example, water
penetrating a concrete wall can corrode the steel bars and weaken the structure. If water
penetrates a brick wall, it can damage the plaster and weaken the structure [13].
It is crucial to perform regular inspections and maintenance, repairing cracks, fissures,
and other defects immediately to prevent water from percolating onto building surfaces. It
is also essential to ensure the drainage system works correctly and uses waterproof and
water-resistant materials whenever possible.

2.1.2. Capillarity
Capillarity of water on surfaces occurs when water is absorbed by porous materials,
such as bricks, concrete, stones, and mortar. These materials have microscopic pores, also
known as capillaries, which allow water to rise through the surface through the action of
surface tension [4].
Surface tension is the physical property that causes water molecules to attract each
other, creating a force that holds water together on a surface. When water comes into
contact with a porous material, it spreads across surfaces. It penetrates capillaries, attracted
by the surface-tension force, which propels it and causes it to rise through the pores. As the
process occurs, water can cause damage to the structure, such as staining, discoloration,
deterioration, and corrosion of materials [10].
Water capillarity on surfaces can be minimized through waterproofing and surface-
treatment techniques. Waterproof coatings, such as paints, varnishes, and sealants, can help
prevent water penetration into porous materials. In addition, the use of water-resistant
materials, such as stone and tile, can also minimize capillarity. However, this natural
process can be difficult to prevent entirely. Therefore, regular maintenance and monitoring
of the structure are essential to ensure its integrity and to prevent water damage [14].

2.1.3. Condensation
Water condensation on surfaces occurs when water vapor in the air comes into contact
with a cold surface and condenses into liquid form. This process can occur on various
surfaces in buildings, such as walls, windows, and roofs [13].
Naturally, the amount of condensed water will depend on the surface temperature and
the relative humidity of the air. Thus, condensation may be more common in environments
with high humidity, such as bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry rooms [4].
Water infiltration caused by condensation can occur when condensed water penetrates
surfaces and seeps into the structure. This can cause damage, such as staining, discoloration,
detachment of coatings, and, in more severe cases, damage to the structure [15].
To prevent condensation and the infiltration caused by it, it is important to maintain
an adequate temperature on the surfaces and a balance in the relative humidity of the air,
which can be achieved through thermal insulation and adequate ventilation, among other
solutions. It is also essential to ensure that surfaces are adequately waterproofed to prevent
water infiltration and that the use and maintenance of waterproofing materials, such as
paints, varnishes, sealants, and membranes, is practical [6].

2.1.4. Leaks
Water leaks on surfaces occur when there is a rupture or failure in hydraulic systems
or structures, allowing the passage of water to unwanted areas. This can occur in different
parts of buildings, such as slabs, roofs, walls, floors, and windows [9].

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Eng 2023, 4

Among the leading causes of leaks are the aging of hydraulic systems, problems in con-
nections and welds, failures in construction materials, and changes in water pressure. The
infiltration caused by leaks can cause damage such as humidity, stains, mold, discoloration,
corrosion of structures, damage to coatings, and even structural problems [2].
To prevent infiltration caused by leaks, it is essential to perform regular maintenance
on hydraulic systems and building structures, ensuring that they are in good working
order. In addition, it is essential to ensure that areas vulnerable to leaks, such as slabs and
roofs, are adequately waterproofed. Suitable materials, such as asphalt blankets and liquid
waterproofing, can help prevent the problem [16].

2.1.5. Drainage-System Failures

Drainage-system failures can cause infiltration on surfaces, such as slabs and walls,
when water accumulates on the structure’s surface that needs to be adequately drained.
This accumulation can occur due to several factors, such as heavy rains, clogged gutters
and drains, and problems in rainfall drainage systems [17].
Water accumulating on the structure’s surface can infiltrate pores, cracks, and fissures
in the surface, which can be aggravated by water and weather. Water infiltration in slabs
can generate several problems, such as the formation of moisture, stains, bubbles, and
detachment of coatings, in addition to contributing to the corrosion process of structures
and aggravating structural problems [18].
To prevent infiltration caused by failures in the drainage system, it is vital to ensure
that the system is appropriately sized and sized for local rainfall conditions, in addition
to performing regular maintenance to ensure that gutters and drains are unobstructed [6].
In addition, one should ensure that the structure’s surface, such as the slab, is adequately
waterproofed, utilizing appropriate materials and conducting regular maintenance to
ensure its effectiveness.

2.2. Surface-Waterproofing Techniques

Surface-waterproofing techniques prevent water from entering structures and pre-
vent problems caused by infiltration, such as corrosion, humidity, and detachment of
coatings. Several waterproofing techniques can be chosen according to the characteristics
of the structure, exposure conditions, and level of demand regarding effectiveness and
durability [19].
In the construction market, waterproofing techniques are classified into flexible and
rigid. Rigid waterproofing does not resist the movement of the structure and, therefore,
should be used in stable locations that do not suffer much temperature variation. The
primary example of this technique is polymeric mortar, commonly used in base beams,
floors, walls, and basements. Scheidegger [20] states that flexible waterproofing, with
asphalt and polymers in its composition, better supports the contraction and dilation of the
substrate. Asphalt blankets applied to slabs, roofs, pools, and water tanks are mainly used
in the rigid system.
Furthermore, it is important to consider the water-resistance characteristics of building
materials, especially in areas exposed to water. Concrete, a widely used material in construc-
tion, has specific test methods and requirements to assess its water resistance [21]. These
tests evaluate water absorption, permeability, and durability under moisture conditions.
Adhering to the appropriate standards and conducting thorough testing can contribute to
the waterproofing strategies’ overall effectiveness.
Among the most common surfaces, waterproofing techniques are the application of
asphalt blankets, polymers, polymeric mortars, and special paints, as described below.

2.2.1. Waterproofing with Asphalt Membrane

Waterproofing surfaces using asphalt membrane is one of the most widely used in
construction due to its high efficiency and durability. The process involves applying asphalt

172
 conditions. Adhering to the appropriate standards and conducting thorough testing can
contribute to the waterproofing strategies’ overall effectiveness.
Among the most common surfaces, waterproofing techniques are the application of
asphalt blankets, polymers, polymeric mortars, and special paints, as described below.

Eng 2023, 4 2.2.1. Waterproofing with Asphalt Membrane

Waterproofing surfaces using asphalt membrane is one of the most widely used in
construction due to its high efficiency and durability. The process involves applying as-
blankets over the
phalt blankets oversurface to be waterproofed,
the surface forming
to be waterproofed, a continuous
forming and water-resistant
a continuous and water-re-
layer [4,6].
sistant layerFigure
[4,6]. 1Figure
shows1 the main
shows thesteps
mainofsteps
this of
technique [22]. [22].
this technique

Figure 1. General stages of waterproofing with asphalt blankets.

Figure 1. General stages of waterproofing with asphalt blankets.

The
The first
firststage
stageconsists
consistsof ofthe
theadequate
adequatepreparation
preparationofofthe thesurface
surfacetotoensure
ensurethe theadher-
ad-
ence of the
herence of asphalt
the asphaltmembrane.
membrane. This This
includes cleaning
includes the surface,
cleaning removing
the surface, loose loose
removing or poorly or
adhered parts, leveling,
poorly adhered and smoothing
parts, leveling, imperfections.
and smoothing imperfections.
The
The second
second occurs
occurs before the application
application of of the
themat,
mat,protecting
protectingthe theareas
areasthat
thatwill
willnotnot
be
be waterproofed
waterproofed with adhesive tape or or other
other materials
materialsto toprevent
preventthe theasphalt
asphaltmembrane
membrane
from
fromsticking
sticking toto these
these surfaces.
surfaces.
The
The third involvesapplying
involves applyingprimer, primer,a layer
a layer of of diluted
diluted asphalt
asphalt product,
product, which which
is ap-is
applied over the surface to be waterproofed. The primer improves the adhesion ofas-
plied over the surface to be waterproofed. The primer improves the adhesion of the the
asphalt membrane
phalt membrane and and ensures
ensures itsits fixation.
fixation.
The
The fourth
fourth consists
consists of applying
applying the the mat
mat over
over thethe primer,
primer, usingusingadhesives
adhesivesand andheat heat
for
for fixation.
fixation. The asphalt membrane comprises layers
membrane comprises layers ofof polymer-modified
polymer-modifiedasphalt asphaltand and
polyethylene
polyethylene or or aluminum
aluminum coatings, ensuring high mechanical mechanical resistance
resistanceand anddurability.
durability.
The
The fifth
fifth and
and last stage, in turn, turn, comprises
comprisesapplying
applyingaaprotective
protectivelayer,
layer,such
suchasasmortar
mortar
or a ceramic coating, on some types of asphalt membrane to protect it against the action of
or a ceramic coating, on some types of asphalt membrane to protect it against the action
ultraviolet
of ultraviolet rays, mechanical
rays, mechanical aggression,
aggression, andandother
other external
external agents.
agents.
In Brazil,
In Brazil, there are technical standards that regulate theuse
technical standards that regulate the useofofblankets
blanketsfor forwater-
water-
proofing
proofing surfaces,
surfaces, amongamongwhich whichNBR NBR 9574:
9574: Waterproofing
Waterproofing execution
execution [23], 9575:
[23], NBR NBR Wa- 9575:
Waterproofing—Selection
terproofing—Selection and and design
design [24],
[24], NBR
NBR 9952:
9952: Asphalt
Asphalt blanket
blanket forfor waterproofing[25],
waterproofing [25],
and
andNBRNBR9685—Asphalt
9685—Asphaltblankets blanketswith withreinforcement
reinforcement forfor
waterproofing—Specification
waterproofing—Specification [26]
stand out. out.
[26] stand
There
Thereare aredifferent
differenttypestypesofofasphalt
asphaltblankets
blanketson onthe
themarket,
market,and andthethechoice
choiceis is
based
based on
the characteristics of each one. The main types used are aluminized blankets, slate blankets,
on the characteristics of each one. The main types used are aluminized blankets, slate
and polyethylene
blankets, blankets, which
and polyethylene blankets, vary in additives,
which finish, andfinish,
vary in additives, thickness. These variations
and thickness. These
establish
variationsthe best technique
establish the besttotechnique
be used according
to be used to the place totobethe
according waterproofed.
place to be water-
The aluminized blanket comprises modified asphalt and polymers, is structured with
proofed.
polyester, and is covered
The aluminized blanket with an aluminized
comprises modified layer. Oneand
asphalt of the advantages
polymers, of using
is structured this
with
type of blanket
polyester, and is is covered
its abilitywith to reflect the sun’s layer.
an aluminized rays andOnereduce
of the indoor
advantages temperatures.
of using this The
disadvantage
type of blanket of is
itsits
use is its to
ability low mechanical
reflect the sun’s resistance,
rays and so it should
reduce indoor be temperatures.
used in places The with
no traffic. The aluminized asphalt blanket is used mainly on slabs without traffic, roofs,
disadvantage of its use is its low mechanical resistance, so it should be used in places with
ruffles, andThe
no traffic. gutters.
aluminized asphalt blanket is used mainly on slabs without traffic, roofs,
Theand
ruffles, slate blanket is composed of modified asphalt and polymers, and is structured
gutters.
with polyester, ensuringisexcellent
The slate blanket composed stability and flexibility.
of modified asphalt and Its surface
polymers,is coated
and iswith granules
structured
of mineral
with aggregate
polyester, ensuring (slate) available
excellent in green,
stability and gray, and red,
flexibility. providing
Its surface an esthetic
is coated finish
with gran-
on roofs.
ules This type
of mineral of asphalt
aggregate blanket
(slate) should
available inbe usedgray,
green, in places
and with no traffic, as
red, providing anitesthetic
has low
resistance to mechanical
finish on roofs. This typestress. Someblanket
of asphalt examples of itsbe
should application
used in places are inwith
slabsno with no traffic,
traffic, as it
marquees, and eaves.
In this context, it is worth mentioning that a protective layer does not cover the slate
and aluminized mats, although Figure 1 suggests this in a generalized way.
The polyethylene blanket comprises modified asphalt and polymers and has a polyethy-
lene finish, providing greater flexibility, adherence, and durability. Unlike other types of
asphalt membranes, the polyethylene membrane cannot be exposed to the sun for more
than 72 h and must be covered with mechanical protection, such as ceramic tiles. The
waterproofing with a polyethylene blanket can be conducted on slabs, pools, and reservoirs,
all with mechanical protection.

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Eng 2023, 4

2.2.2. Waterproofing with Polymers

The method of waterproofing surfaces using polymers is a process that involves
applying a polymer layer over the surface to be protected in order to prevent the penetration
of water or other liquids that could cause damage. Sometimes these technologies are also
called “liquid membranes”. The most common waterproof polymers are polyurethane,
acrylic, epoxy, and silicone [27].
The process is similar to using an asphalt blanket and begins with surface preparation.
The surface must be clean, dry, and free of dust, oil, or other contaminants that can impede
the adhesion of the polymer. Next, a primer is applied to help the polymer adhere to the
surface. After the primer is dry, a coat of the chosen polymer is applied, usually using a
roller or a sprayer. Depending on the thickness and desired properties, the final layer can
be wrapped in several thin layers [28].
Polymer curing, in turn, can vary depending on the type chosen but, generally, occurs
through solvent evaporation or a chemical reaction process [29]. It is worth noting that the
manufacturer’s instructions regarding curing time and the waiting time between layers
must be respected. Once the polymer layer is fully cured, it forms a liquid-resistant barrier.
This technique is commonly used in bathrooms, kitchens, slabs, roofs, and foundations to
protect against infiltrations and leaks.
Not least, it should be noted that the waterproofing of surfaces using polymers must
be carried out by qualified professionals, following the applicable safety standards and
regulations. In addition, it is essential to choose a high-quality polymer that is compatible
with the surface to be waterproofed to ensure the protection’s effectiveness and avoid
future problems [30].

2.2.3. Waterproofing with Polymeric Mortar

The technique of waterproofing surfaces using polymeric mortar is a process that
consists of applying a mixture of cement, aggregates, and polymers on the surface to be
protected to create a layer resistant to water and other liquids. Polymeric mortars are
composed of an acrylic polymer, which gives the mixture waterproofing properties [11].
As with the techniques presented previously, the process begins with preparing the
surface, which must be dry and clean. Then, a primer is applied to help the mortar adhere
to the surface. When the primer dries, the polymeric mortar is applied using a straightener
or a spatula. The thickness of the layer depends on the area to be waterproofed and the
desired properties [31].
The curing of polymeric mortar can vary according to the type chosen but generally
occurs through water evaporation or a chemical reaction process. Following the manufac-
turer’s instructions regarding mixing, curing time, and the waiting time between coats is
essential. Once the mortar layer is cured, it will waterproof the surface [32].
The use of polymeric mortars in the waterproofing of surfaces, such as that of polymers,
requires skilled labor and care with safety during application. In addition, the material
chosen must be compatible with the surface to be staked.

2.2.4. Waterproofing with Special Paints

Waterproofing surfaces with special paints involves applying a layer of paint or special
coating over the surface to be staked. There are several special paints for waterproofing
options, including epoxy, polyurethane, acrylic, and liquid rubber [11].
Waterproofing begins by preparing the surface to be clean, dry, and free of dust, oil, or
other contaminants that can impede the adhesion of the special paint or coating. Next, a
primer is applied, and when it is dry, the paint is applied to the surface, usually using a
brush, roller, or sprayer. As with polymers, several thin layers can be applied to comprise
the final coat, depending on the expected properties [33].
The curing of the paint can vary depending on the type chosen but also occurs by
chemical reactions and/or solvent evaporation. After the special coating cures, a liquid-
resistant barrier is formed, waterproofing the surface [34].

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Eng 2023, 4

Once again, it is emphasized that trained professionals should perform this type of
service, using high-quality materials compatible with the surface to be waterproofed.

2.2.5. Waterproofing with Cold-Applied and Hot-Applied Bituminous Mastic Compounds

Cold-applied mastic compounds are bitumen-based materials typically supplied in a
ready-to-use form. They consist of bitumen, fillers, and additives that enhance their perfor-
mance. These mastics are applied directly onto the surface to be waterproofed, providing a
flexible and durable barrier against water ingress. The cold application eliminates the need
for heat during installation, making it a convenient and time-saving solution for various
waterproofing applications [35,36].
On the other hand, hot-applied mastic compounds involve heating bitumen to a
suitable temperature, typically using specialized equipment. The molten bitumen is then
applied to the prepared surface, forming a thick, cohesive layer upon cooling. This tech-
nique offers excellent adhesion, ensuring a solid bond with the substrate and providing
long-lasting waterproofing protection. Hot-applied mastics are commonly used in high-
performance waterproofing applications that require superior durability and resistance to
environmental factors [37].
Both cold-applied and hot-applied bituminous mastic compounds offer distinct advan-
tages in surface waterproofing. They possess excellent water-resistance properties, ensuring
the integrity of the protected surfaces. Additionally, their flexibility accommodates struc-
tural movements and temperature variations without compromising the effectiveness of
waterproofing [36,38].
These bituminous mastics are compatible with various substrates, including concrete,
masonry, and metal. They can be applied to horizontal and vertical surfaces, such as roofs,
terraces, foundations, and walls. The choice between cold-applied and hot-applied mastic
compounds depends on specific project requirements, including the expected durability,
application method feasibility, and environmental conditions.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Selecting the State-of-the-Art Bibliography
This step aims to select the bibliographic portfolio to present state-of-the-art infor-
mation on applying surface-waterproofing blankets. In other words, it aims to provide a
general and critical overview of the most relevant research and studies published so far to
situate the work concerning the advances already achieved in the study area, identify gaps,
and propose directions for future research.
The ProKnow-C (Knowledge Development Process—Constructivist) method [39],
commonly used in systematic literature reviews [40–43], was used to select the bibliographic
reference. Table 1 details all the steps of ProKnow-C.

Table 1. Stages of bibliographic selection by ProKnow-C.

Stage Description Details Articles

Definition of databases: Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Acadêmico.
Time frame: 2015 to 2022.
Keywords: (1) Waterproofing, sealing, or impermeabilization;
Preliminary (2) Blanket, coating, or covering; (3) Slab or floor; (4) Roof;
1 447
research (5) Infiltration or seepage; (6) Pathology or condition.
Keyword combinations: (a) 1 + 2 + 3; (b) 1 + 2 + 4; (c)1 + 2 + 5; (d) 1 + 4 + 5;
(e) 3 + 5 + 6; (f) 4 + 5 + 6; (g) 2 + 3 + 5.
Database filters: title, abstract and keywords.
Extraction of articles from
2 Type of work: full papers published in journals or conferences 250
the databases

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Table 1. Cont.

Stage Description Details Articles

Elimination
4 Exclusion of articles published in more than one database 232
of duplicates
Alignment
5 Articles with a title aligned with the research topic 45
by title
Alignment
6 Articles with the abstract fully aligned with the research topic 26
by abstract
7 Full-text retrieval Manuscripts made available in full by the databases 26
8 Full alignment Articles fully aligned with the research theme 17

Table 2 presents the articles that comprise the selected bibliographic portfolio and
their primary information: authors, title, journal/congress, and year of publication.

Table 2. Details of the selected bibliographic portfolio.

Reference Title Journal/Conference Year

Air leakage of concrete floor and foundation
Alev et al. [44] Energy Procedia 2015
junctions
Impermeabilização com manta asfáltica de uma
Figueiredo et al. [45] Construindo 2017
laje plana de cobertura
Sistema de impermeabilização com manta
Pinto and Aguiar [46] Projectus 2017
asfáltica e manta líquida em lajes de coberturas
4th International Conference on
Sriravindrarajah and Waterproofing practices in Australia for
Rehabilitation and Maintenance in Civil 2018
Tran [47] building construction
Engineering
Innovative carboxylic acid waterproofing Construction and Building
Coppola et al. [48] 2018
admixture for self-sealing water-tight concretes Materials
Environmental and economic comparison
Gonçalves et al. [49] of the life cycle of waterproofing solutions Journal of Building Engineering 2019
for flat roofs
Impermeabilização a base de polímero acrílico:
Revista Eletrônica da Estácio
Ribeiro et al. [50] estudo de caso no tratamento de infiltração 2019
Recife
da laje de cobertura
Liquid plastic films as a solution in terms
Ksit and Plich [51] of tightness problems and roofs aesthetics Budownictwo i Architektura 2019
improvement–review
Revista Científica
Impermeabilização de edificações: mantas
Scheidegger [20] Multidisciplinar Núcleo 2019
asfálticas e argamassas poliméricas
do Conhecimento
Pinto et al. [52] Infiltration: The disease of the structure ITEGAM-JETIA 2020
On the impact of porous media microstructure
Pettersson et al. [53] on rainfall infiltration of thin homogeneous Journal of Hydrology 2020
green roof growth substrates
Airtightness of sealed building joints:
Van Linden and
Comparison of performance before and Building and Environment 2020
Van Den Bossche [54]
after artificial ageing

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Table 2. Cont.

Reference Title Journal/Conference Year

Desenvolvimento de um guia de reparos
XVI Congreso Latinoamericano de
Neves et al. [55] para diferentes tipos de patologia relativos 2021
Patología de la Construcción
à umidade nas edificações
XVI International Conference
Pathological manifestations due to infiltration in
Silva and Coelho [56] on Pathology and Constructions 2021
garage floors–Case study in Salvador-BA
Rehabilitation
Pathologies caused by infiltration in
RECIMA21-Revista Científica
Reis et al. [57] a long-stay institution for the elderly: 2021
Multidisciplinar
A case study
Pre-applied bonded waterproofing
Construction and Building
Heinlein et al. [58] membranes: A review of the history and the 2021
Materials
state of the art in Europe and North America
The reasons for the loss of polyurea coatings
Maj and Ubysz [59] adhesion to the concrete substrate in Engineering Failure Analysis 2022
chemically aggressive water tanks

3.2. Case Study

A case study was conducted to analyze the application of surface-waterproofing
techniques and provide insights that can be useful for future research.
The study object was a high-standard residential building located in Nova Lima,
in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, built on a 526.23 m2 lot and with a constructed area of
245.77 m2 , distributed in four suites, two living rooms, two bathrooms, one kitchen, one
leisure area with a swimming pool, one fireplace, one laundry room, and two garages. For
confidentiality reasons, this work did not disclose the residence’s address and the company
name responsible for the construction.
The materials used and the execution of the waterproofing of the following environ-
ments or structures were evaluated: (i) floors and external areas; (ii) slab and water tank;
(iii) bathrooms; and (iv) swimming pool, fireplace, and deck. The technical standards NBR
9574 [23], NBR 9575 [24], NBR 9952 [25], and NBR 9685 [26] were taken as references.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Review and Discussion of the Selected Papers
The studies presented below, in chronological order, refer to those shown in Table 2
and address different aspects related to waterproofing, including sealing methods, slab
waterproofing procedures, concrete admixtures, and environmental and economic impacts
of different waterproofing options.
Alev et al. [44] investigated different sealing methods to evaluate their effect on air
leakage in construction joints. The research considered the air-leakage rate of several
commonly used foundation and slab-on-ground joints, such as limestone, external, and
separation walls constructed of lightweight blocks. Different sealing materials were applied
to these constructions, and it was found that the air-leakage rate decreased between 1.3 and
86 times, depending on the method used. In addition, the researchers found that the quality
of the constructions, such as the materials, method, and labor used, also significantly
affected the air-leakage rate.
Figueredo et al. [45] analyzed the waterproofing procedure of a roof slab in develop-
ment intending to achieve 100% water-tightness. The study emphasized the importance of
care in the preparation of the substrate, the knowledge of professionals, and the end user’s
attention regarding the use of the environment, maintenance, and periodic inspections
necessary to maintain efficient waterproofing.
The research by Pinto and Aguiar [46], in turn, aimed to clarify the importance of
waterproofing and the relevance of well-executed projects. The researchers concluded that

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the correct execution of waterproofing, with adequate materials and qualified professionals,
can avoid future inconveniences and high maintenance costs. Furthermore, it is important
to point out that the cost of this measure is reasonable if executed during construction.
Sriravindrarajah and Tran [47] point out that the successful waterproofing of a build-
ing depends on considering several factors, such as product selection, membrane detailing,
drainage design, substrate preparation, design, installation, quality assurance, and main-
tenance. The authors conducted a study in Australia intending to discuss the standards
and codes, membrane systems and performance, waterproofing practices, design and
installation techniques, inspection and testing, and quality assurance adopted by the water-
proofing industry. They stated that implementing proper design and installation techniques
and performing maintenance procedures can significantly reduce the waterproofing failure
rate and repair costs. Therefore, it is essential to consider all these factors to ensure the
effectiveness of a building’s waterproofing system.
In addition to waterproofing methods applied to surfaces, it is also possible to improve
the water-tightness of construction from an admixed concrete. In this sense, the study by
Coppola et al. [48] aimed to evaluate the performance of a carboxylic acid-based mixture
added to concrete. The results obtained experimentally showed that adding the additive did
not negatively affect the mechanical properties of concrete. It was observed that by adding
1% of the additive per mass of cement, there was a halving in water penetration under
pressure compared to concrete without the waterproofing additive at 28 days. In addition,
the mixture proved capable of sealing cracks resulting from plastic shrinkage, showing that
the additive is a promising solution to ensure the water-tightness of a construction.
The study by Gonçalves et al. [49] compared different waterproofing options for
various slabs, considering environmental and economic impacts. The authors analyzed
the risk of global warming, consumption of non-renewable primary-energy resources, and
life-cycle costs. After the analysis, it was concluded that bituminous membranes were the
best option for all slabs, while synthetic EPDM (ethylene–propylene–diene) membranes
showed the highest values.
Ribeiro et al. [50], from another perspective, pointed out the lack of waterproofing
as a significant flaw in daily construction, neglected by the lack of prioritization for the
prevention of construction problems in the country. They pointed out that this practice can
cause structural problems, resulting in much higher repair costs than prevention. In their
case study, they used acrylic and flexible polymer-based products to waterproof the roof of
a residential building, concluding that the roof infiltration was resolved and the products
used ensured the desired service life of the building.
Meanwhile, Ksit and Plich [51] presented liquid-plastic films as a waterproofing
solution composed of a mixture of polymers or polymers and bitumen. These authors’
studies demonstrated that using these plastic films could provide a smooth and uniform
surface, resulting in an excellent aesthetic result and even a “cool roof,” capable of reducing
the greenhouse effect in large cities.
Scheidegger [20] conducted a literature review on the two main waterproofing prod-
ucts: asphalt blankets and polymeric mortar. It was concluded that polymeric mortar is
easier to apply, but it is not recommended for structures subjected to thermal or settlement
movements, which can compromise its water-tightness. Asphalt blankets, on the other
hand, are more resistant to thermal movements or settlements, but their application may
be more complicated, generating possible complications later on.
In the work of Pinto et al. [52], the infiltration process and its consequences were
analyzed, concluding that the lack of adequate waterproofing is generally caused by the
lack of specialization of professionals and the lack of standards for project preparation. The
prioritization of cost over waterproofing can result in maintenance costs of up to 15% of
the total value of the work. In contrast, if proper waterproofing is not performed during
construction, the repair cost can reach up to 50% of the value of the work.
Considering green roofs, Pettersson et al. [53] warn about the need for more data on
their ability to retain and reduce stormwater under different climatic conditions. However,

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their study examined green roof water infiltration at the pore scale and evaluated the
relationship between porous microstructure in thin substrate layers and water infiltration.
Studies evaluating different microstructures and different heights of standing water on the
porous medium surface were conducted, which demonstrated the relationship between
microstructure and flow homogeneity by analyzing saturation, liquid–gas interfacial area,
pore-size distribution, porosity, and infiltration depth. Thus, the authors concluded that
the knowledge of these relationships allows for optimizing the performance of the green
roof concerning rainfall duration time from the material used in the substrate treatment.
Van Linden and Van Den Bossche [54] conducted an experimental study in Belgium
to evaluate the performance of different joint-sealing materials for the water-tightness
of constructed buildings. The materials evaluated were tapes, silicone, base materials,
coatings, foam sealing tapes, and polyurethane foams, which were subjected to different
parameters. The study’s results indicated that the choice of waterproofing materials should
be reached carefully, as all tested materials performed well in waterproofing. However, it
was observed that the labor skill used in applying the materials had a significantly more
significant impact on the materials’ performance than the life cycle. Therefore, it was
concluded that skilled labor is critical to ensure the proper performance of joint-sealing
materials in buildings.
Neves et al. [55] developed a guide to detect and solve the main pathological manifes-
tations in Brazilian residences related to moisture. The guide was created from a literature
review of the leading causes of pathology and included the types, manifestations, origins,
risks, and a repair guide. The material also contains information about the leading suppli-
ers of products for these repairs and a study of the processes to be carried out. Although
the valuable life of a repaired construction does not compare with a well-developed, ren-
dered compatible, and well-executed construction, the authors indicated, among other
aspects, that the Brazilian market has good-quality brands that offer good services and
assist their consumers.
Silva et al. [56] conducted a case study evaluating pathological manifestations due to
infiltrations in a building in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Diagnostic techniques were used to
identify the primary damage and determine the appropriate repair methodologies. It was
concluded that the investigation methods were essential to identify the risk in each pathol-
ogy found in the building and find the necessary repair method to prevent degradation.
Reis et al. [57], in turn, investigated the leading causes of pathology and moisture
damage to enable better health and mobility conditions for the elderly at the Carlos Romeiro
Asylum, located in Conselheiro Lafaiete, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. On-site inspections
were conducted to identify and analyze the damage and define the appropriate repairs in
each case. The authors concluded that, in addition to repairs, repairs to leaking pipes, im-
proving the water-tightness of the reservoirs, and cleaning and unblocking surface drainage
devices would be necessary. Installation of roofing and/or application of waterproofing
blankets were raised as ways to treat the damage.
According to Heinlein et al. [58], the use of waterproofing membranes has grown
in recent years, evidenced by the increase in the number of manufacturers, patents, and
membranes on the market. However, it is essential to note that these membranes are only
efficient if installed by qualified professionals due to possible adhesion problems that can
arise in the application and preparation of the surfaces to be waterproofed.
The study by Maj and Ubysz [59] finally analyzed the use of polyurea coating to protect
concrete surfaces, intending to reinforce waterproofing in water and other liquid tanks. To
ensure water-tightness, it is essential to pay attention to the phenomena of diffusion and
osmosis, and to take prudent measures in preparing the substrate, using primers, adequate
coating thickness, and avoiding micropores and holes. In addition, the authors state that it
is essential to schedule periodic coating inspections.
The analysis of the articles mentioned above reveals several relevant types of research
on the application of surface waterproofing blankets, covering a broad theme. These studies
address water infiltration in constructions, the importance of waterproofing forecasting,

179
Eng 2023, 4

analysis of existing techniques, and the feasibility of new approaches. The diversity of
studies on the subject highlights the importance of waterproofing in civil construction, with
the growing need to improve construction quality and increase structures’ life span.

4.2. Case Study

A case study was conducted in a residence located in Nova Lima, Minas Gerais State,
Brazil. The construction in question comprises structural masonry, two floors, and a water-
proofed slab roof. The project included solar and photovoltaic heating, air-conditioning
infrastructure, a sound system, an electric car-charging point, a swimming pool, and
a fireplace.
Next, the waterproofing methods used in this residence are presented, divided into
different areas: floors and external areas; slab and water tank; bathrooms; swimming pool,
fireplace, and deck. An analysis of the chosen waterproofing method and its application
techniques was performed based on the NBR 9574 standard [23].

4.2.1. Floors and External Areas

The floors were waterproofed from the beginning of the project in different stages and
methods, according to the infiltration risks and use of the area.
When the first slab was made, supported on the ground at the beginning of the project,
it was necessary to waterproof the contact between the concrete and the soil to avoid the
capillarity phenomenon. The first waterproofing was conducted using a 150-micron tarp
(Figure 2), thicker than an ordinary tarp, usually with 50 to 100 microns, and, therefore,
offering a better performance and useful life. After applying the tarp, EPS (expanded
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW polystyrene) sheets were placed over it (Figure 3) to increase the distance between 13 the
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 13
ground and the concrete, and to take advantage of the characteristics of EPS, which is
highly resistant to mold and moisture. The tarp method was also used under the concrete
ramp
ramp for
for vehicle access to
vehicle access to the
theupper
uppergarage
garage(Figure
(Figure4)4)
toto avoid
avoid capillarity
capillarity between
between soilsoil
ramp
and for vehicle
andconcrete.
concrete. access to the upper garage (Figure 4) to avoid capillarity between soil
and concrete.

Figure 2. Application of tarp on the floor before the concreting.

Figure 2. Application
Figure 2. oftarp
Application of tarpon
onthe
thefloor
floorbefore
beforethe
the concreting.
concreting.

Figure 3. Positioning of EPS plates.

Figure 3. Positioning of EPS plates.
Figure 3. Positioning of EPS plates.

180
Eng 2023, 4

Figure 3. Positioning of EPS plates.

Figure4.4.Application
Figure Applicationofoftarp
tarpon
onthe
theramp
rampfloor
floorbefore
beforeconcreting.
concreting.

4.2.2.
4.2.2.Slab
Slaband
andWater
WaterTank
Tank
Using
Usingwaterproof
waterproofslabs
slabsforforthe
theconventional
conventionalroof roofhashasbecome
becomemoremorecommon
commonin in high-
high-
end
endresidences.
residences.The
Theconventional
conventionalroof roofdemands
demandsmore moretimetimetotobuild
buildand
andrequires
requiresfrequent
frequent
maintenance.
maintenance. On Onthetheother
otherhand,
hand,thethe waterproofed
waterproofed slabslab requires
requires an advanced
an advanced water-
waterproof-
proofing system
ing system because
because it is directly
it is directly exposed
exposed to rain
to rain and and humidity,
humidity, andand concrete
concrete is not
is not a
a wa-
waterproof material.
terproof material.
The
The method chosen to
method chosen towaterproof
waterproofthe theslab
slabin in
thisthis
studystudy
waswas aluminized
aluminized asphalt
asphalt blan-
blanket. Despite the high cost of the material and labor, the material was
ket. Despite the high cost of the material and labor, the material was chosen due to its chosen duehigh
to
its high waterproofing
waterproofing capacity.capacity. In addition,
In addition, as the
as the slab is aslab is a non-traffic
non-traffic area, noarea, no additional
additional coating
coating (mechanical
(mechanical protection)
protection) was required,
was required, whichwhich
avoids avoids
extraextra
costs.costs. The same
The same material
material was
was used to waterproof the water tank, an area with a high risk of infiltration due to
possible leaks.
A specialized team should apply asphalt blanket on the slab due to the complexity of
the service, handling, and adherence of the blanket. The professional must be careful when
joining blanket rolls, dealing with corners, and, especially, when making the necessary
holes in the slab, such as drains for drainage and air-conditioning pipes.
The application method consists of preparing the slab by applying a layer of mortar to
render the surface smooth and free of imperfections to receive the blanket. This mortar layer
is also essential to ensure water drainage, foreseen at the moment of the slab’s concreting,
directing it to the drains and avoiding the accumulation that could damage the slab. Next,
general cleaning is conducted on the surface to be waterproofed, using a broom and a
powerful vacuum cleaner.
After this process, a primer composed of polycondensed asphalt cement diluted in
solvents is applied (Figure 5a,b), which increases the adhesion between the asphalt-based
waterproofing system and the surface. With the primer applied, modified asphalt sheets
are heated to dissolve and apply them, thus, beginning the process of adherence of the
asphalt mats to the surface (Figure 5c,d)—although not detailed above, applying a hot layer
is usually required for the blanket application. The professional distributes the roll of the
mat on the slab and uses a blowtorch to ensure the adherence of the mat and the modified
asphalt to the surface (Figure 5e).
After the blanket application is completed on the entire slab (Figure 5f), it is necessary
to wait for drying time and perform the water-tightness test. This test aims to verify the
effectiveness of the blanket applied and correct any details, if necessary. In the water-
tightness test, the slab is completely flooded with water to a certain height, usually above
the finished floor level. It is then observed whether leaks or seepage occur over a certain
time, usually 24 h. If any leakage is found by the inspection in the lower floor below the
slab, it will be evident by moisture stains under the slab, and the responsible team must
correct this failure and perform the test again, ensuring no more leaks. It is essential to
mention that no standards exist for performing this test. It is conducted based on the
experience of the professionals when dealing with these waterproofing materials.

181
 the finished floor level. It is then observed whether leaks or seepage occur over a certain
time, usually 24 h. If any leakage is found by the inspection in the lower floor below the
slab, it will be evident by moisture stains under the slab, and the responsible team must
correct this failure and perform the test again, ensuring no more leaks. It is essential to
Eng 2023, 4 mention that no standards exist for performing this test. It is conducted based on the ex-
perience of the professionals when dealing with these waterproofing materials.

g 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 15

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5.Figure
(a) Primer application
5. (a) Primer on theonslab;
application (b) primer
the slab; application
(b) primer in water
application tank
in water room;
tank room;(c)
(c)use
use of
of a
blowtorch to melt to
blowtorch themelt
modified asphalt;
the modified (d) application
asphalt; of modified
(d) application asphalt
of modified to to
asphalt receive
receivethe
theblanket;
blanket;
(e) positioning of the blanket
(e) positioning roll onroll
of the blanket theonslab; and (f)
the slab; andaluminized asphalt
(f) aluminized blanket
asphalt blanketapplied
appliedononthe
theslab.
slab.

4.2.3. Bathrooms
4.2.3. Bathrooms
As this is an environment with much contact with humidity, it is also necessary to
As this is an environment with much contact with humidity, it is also necessary to
worry about infiltration in this area. In the building under study, the method used for
worry about infiltration
waterproofing in this area.
the bathrooms wasInthe
the buildingofunder
application study,
polymeric the method
mortar. used was
This material for
waterproofing the bathrooms was the application of polymeric mortar. This material
chosen mainly due to its easy application, not requiring specialized labor, and low cost. The was
chosen product
mainly used,
due totheitswaterproofing
easy application,
materialnot“tec
requiring
plus top” specialized labor,
by Quartzolit, and lowforcost.
is intended use
in humid
The product used,areas
thesuch as bathrooms,
waterproofing kitchens,
material service
“tec plus areas, walls,
top” by baseboards,
Quartzolit, and planters.
is intended for
use in humidApplying the waterproofing
areas such as bathrooms, material followed
kitchens, the manufacturer’s
service recommendations
areas, walls, baseboards, and
and the NBR 9574 standard [21]. First, the liquid component was mixed with the powder
planters.
component
Applying the using a metal rodmaterial
waterproofing attachedfollowed
to a drill. the
Then, using a brush, recommendations
manufacturer’s the first layer of the
mixture was applied on the floors and walls (up to a height of approximately 1.80 m) of
and the NBR 9574 standard [21]. First, the liquid component was mixed with the powder
the bathrooms (Figure 6) and then reapplied after drying in the opposite direction to the
component using a metal rod attached to a drill. Then, using a brush, the first layer of the
application of the first coat. This way, the bathrooms were released for the finishing stage,
mixturecovering
was applied
floors on
andthe floors
walls withand walls
ceramic (up
tiles to protecting
and a height of approximately
them from humidity. 1.80 m) of
the bathrooms (Figure 6) and then reapplied after drying in the opposite direction to the
application of the first coat. This way, the bathrooms were released for the finishing stage,
covering floors and walls with ceramic tiles and protecting them from humidity.

182
 Applying the waterproofing material followed the manufacturer’s recommendations
and the NBR 9574 standard [21]. First, the liquid component was mixed with the powder
component using a metal rod attached to a drill. Then, using a brush, the first layer of the
mixture was applied on the floors and walls (up to a height of approximately 1.80 m) of
Eng 2023, 4
the bathrooms (Figure 6) and then reapplied after drying in the opposite direction to the
application of the first coat. This way, the bathrooms were released for the finishing stage,
covering floors and walls with ceramic tiles and protecting them from humidity.

Figure6.6.Bathroom
Figure Bathroomafter
afterapplying
applyingwaterproofing.
waterproofing.

4.2.4.
4.2.4.Pool,
Pool,Fireplace,
Fireplace,and
andDeck
Deck
The
Thepool,
pool,fireplace,
fireplace,and anddeck
deckwaterproofing
waterproofingwere wereconducted
conductedusing usingaapolyethylene
polyethylene
asphalt
asphaltblanket.
blanket.This
Thistype
typeof ofblanket
blanketis is chosen
chosen for
for these
these areas
areas duedue to
to its
its greater
greater flexibility,
flexibility,
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 16
resistance,
resistance,andanddurability.
durability.Unlike
Unlikeother
othersurfaces,
surfaces,the
thepool,
pool,the thefireplace,
fireplace,and
andthe
thedeck
deckare
are
subject
subjecttotoaamuch
muchhigher
highervolume
volumeand andtime
timeof
ofexposure
exposureto tohumidity,
humidity,besides
besidesbeing
beingplaces
places
with
withfoot
foottraffic,
traffic,which
whichrequire
requiremechanical
mechanicalprotection
protectionon onthetheasphalt
asphaltmembrane.
membrane.
The waterproofing
The waterproofingprocessprocessofofthe the deck,
deck, pool,
pool, andand fireplace
fireplace surfaces
surfaces started
started withwith
ver-
verifying
ifying the the drainage
drainage system
system andand testing
testing the water
the water flowflow
towardtoward the area’s
the area’s drains.
drains. AfterAfter
this
this verification, these areas were cleaned using brooms and vacuum
verification, these areas were cleaned using brooms and vacuum cleaners. Then, the pri- cleaners. Then,
the primer
mer was applied
was applied to thefireplace,
to the pool, pool, fireplace,
and deckand deck surfaces
surfaces (Figure
(Figure 7a), 7a), preparing
preparing them to
them tothe
receive receive theThen,
asphalt. asphalt. Then,
a layer a layer ofasphalt
of modified modifiedwasasphalt
appliedwas and applied and amelted
melted with blow-
with atoblowtorch
torch adhere the tomat
adhere
to thethesurface
mat to (Figure
the surface (Figure it
7b)—while 7b)—while it was not
was not explicitly explicitly
mentioned
mentioned
earlier, it isearlier, it isnecessary
typically typically necessary
to apply atolayer
applyof ahot
layer of hot material
material when using whentheusing the
blanket
blanket application
application method. method.

(a) (b)

7. (a) Pool with primer applied; and (b) use of modified asphalt on the pool surface.
Figure 7.
Figure

Then, applying
Then, applying thethe polyethylene
polyethyleneasphalt
asphaltblanket
blanketon
onthe
thesurfaces
surfaceswas wasstarted,
started,using
usinga
a blowtorch
blowtorch totomelt
meltthe
themodified
modifiedasphalt
asphaltand
andensure
ensurethe
the adherence
adherence of of the
the blanket. After
blanket. After
finishing the
finishing the application
application of
of the
the blanket
blanket on
on the
the pool
pool surfaces
surfaces (Figure
(Figure 8),
8), deck,
deck,and
andfireplace,
fireplace,
the water-tightness test was performed, as was conducted on the slab, to verify
the water-tightness test was performed, as was conducted on the slab, to verify the water-the water-
proofing guarantee. Next, the pool, fireplace, and deck were filled with water
proofing guarantee. Next, the pool, fireplace, and deck were filled with water up to up to the
the
limit of
limit of the
the edges
edges (Figure
(Figure 9).
9).

183
 Then, applying the polyethylene asphalt blanket on the surfaces was started, using a
blowtorch to melt the modified asphalt and ensure the adherence of the blanket. After
finishing the application of the blanket on the pool surfaces (Figure 8), deck, and fireplace,
Eng 2023, 4
the water-tightness test was performed, as was conducted on the slab, to verify the water-
proofing guarantee. Next, the pool, fireplace, and deck were filled with water up to the
limit of the edges (Figure 9).

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 17

Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 17
Figure8.8.Swimming
Figure Swimmingpool
poolwith
withpolyethylene
polyethyleneasphalt
asphaltblanket
blanketapplied.
applied.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 9. (a) Pool, fireplace, and deck in the water-tightness test; and (b) pool in the water-tight-
Figure 9.9.(a)(a)
Figure Pool,
Pool, fireplace,
fireplace, andand
deckdeck
in theinwater-tightness
the water-tightness test;
test; and (b)and
pool(b) poolwater-tight-
in the in the water-
ness test.
tightness test.
ness test.

As
Asproven
As provento
proven tobe
to bewater-tight
be water-tightafter
water-tight after the
after the test,
the test,the
test, the next
the next step
next step would
step would be
would be plastering
be plasteringthe
plastering thepool
the pool
pool
and
and fireplace
fireplace and
and the
the counter
counter flooring
flooring of
of the
the deck
deck to
to apply
apply the
the lining
lining
and fireplace and the counter flooring of the deck to apply the lining later. For this type later.
later. For
For this
this type
type of
of
of blanket
blanket
blanket used,
used,
used, before
before
before receiving
receiving
receiving the
thethe lining,
lining,
lining, chicken
chicken
chicken wire
wire
wire was
waswas applied
applied
applied to
to to the
thethe entire
entire
entire surface
surface of
surface
of
of the
the
the pool
pool
pool and
andand fireplace
fireplace
fireplace (Figure
(Figure
(Figure 10a)
10a)10a) using
using
using mortar
mortar
mortar toto facilitate
facilitate
to the
facilitate the adherence
adherence
the adherence ofofthe
of the plaster
plaster
the to
plaster
to
to the
the
the blanket
blanket
blanket and
and prevent
andprevent future
preventfuture detachment
futuredetachment
detachmentof of the
ofthe ceramic
theceramic linings.
linings. After
ceramiclinings. After the
After the preparation
the preparation
preparation
with
with the
with the chicken
the chicken wire
chicken wire and
wire and the
and the mortar
the mortar on
mortar on the
on the polyurethane
the polyurethane asphalt
polyurethane asphalt blanket,
asphalt blanket, the
blanket, the pool
the pool and
pool and
and
the
the fireplace
fireplace were
were plastered,
plastered, and
and the
the counter-flooring
counter-flooring was
was added
added to
the fireplace were plastered, and the counter-flooring was added to the deck. Then, theseto the
the deck.
deck. Then,
Then, these
these
surfaces
surfaceswere
surfaces were covered
were covered with
covered with porcelain
with porcelain tiles
porcelain tiles or
tiles or ceramic
or ceramic pieces
ceramic pieces (Figure
pieces (Figure 10b).
(Figure 10b).
10b).

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure10.
Figure (a)Application
10.(a) Applicationof
ofchicken
chickenwire
wireover
overpool
poolblanket;
blanket; and
and (b)
(b) pool,
pool, fireplace,
fireplace, and
and deck.
deck.
Figure 10. (a) Application of chicken wire over pool blanket; and (b) pool, fireplace, and deck.

5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
This
This paper
paper aims
aims to
to present
present the
the surface-waterproofing
surface-waterproofing methods
methods available
available on
on the
the Bra-
Bra-
zilian construction market and
zilian construction market and 184their main applications, focusing on asphalt blankets. The
their main applications, focusing on asphalt blankets. The
study analyzed how infiltration occurs and its pathologies, thus, showing the importance
study analyzed how infiltration occurs and its pathologies, thus, showing the importance
Eng 2023, 4

5. Conclusions
This paper aims to present the surface-waterproofing methods available on the Brazil-
ian construction market and their main applications, focusing on asphalt blankets. The
study analyzed how infiltration occurs and its pathologies, thus, showing the impor-
tance of surface waterproofing for construction. Specifically, the following conclusions
were reached:
(i) The main mechanisms of water infiltration into surfaces in construction are percola-
tion, capillarity, condensation, leaks, and drainage-system failures. These mechanisms
can cause damage to structures, such as humidity, stains, mold, deterioration, and
corrosion, compromising the integrity and durability of buildings;
(ii) Surface waterproofing techniques are widely used in civil construction to avoid
problems caused by water infiltration, such as corrosion, humidity, and detachment
of coatings. Among the available techniques are the application of asphalt blankets,
polymers, polymeric mortars, special paints, and cold or hot mastic compounds.
Waterproofing with asphalt blankets is one of the most used due to its high efficiency
and durability;
(iii) State-of-the-art information has shown, among several aspects, that (a) different seal-
ing methods can significantly reduce the rate of air leakage in construction joints,
depending on the sealing material used; (b) the correct execution of waterproofing,
with appropriate materials and qualified professionals, can avoid future inconve-
niences and high maintenance costs; (c) the implementation of proper design, installa-
tion, inspection, and maintenance techniques can significantly reduce waterproofing
failure rates and repair costs; (d) concrete admixtures can be used to improve the
water-tightness of construction without compromising the mechanical properties of
the material; and (e) the proper choice of waterproofing materials, along with the
skill of labor in the application, is critical to ensure the proper performance of these
materials in buildings;
(iv) The case study described the methods and materials used to waterproof different
areas of the residence. Specifically, it was shown that (a) for waterproofing the floors
and external areas, a 150-micron canvas, thicker than common canvas, was used,
along with EPS sheets to avoid the capillarity phenomenon; (b) the slab and the
water tank were waterproofed with the use of aluminized asphalt blanket due to
its high waterproofing capacity; (c) in the bathrooms, a polymeric mortar was used
as the waterproofing method due to its ease of application and low cost, with the
subsequent laying of ceramic tiles; (d) the waterproofing of the pool, fireplace, and
deck was conducted with the use of polyethylene asphalt blanket, due to its flexibility,
resistance, and durability, and later these surfaces were coated with porcelain tiles
or ceramic tiles. Thus, the importance of choosing the appropriate method for each
environment was highlighted, aiming to prevent damage caused by water infiltration.

Future Research Directions

This work presented the primary forms of waterproofing available on the market,
focusing on asphalt blankets. However, it was limited to a case study in a single residence.
The following topics are suggested for future research:
(i) Investigate the importance of labor skills and training in adequately applying sealing
materials and their relationship to the overall performance of building waterproofing;
(ii) Conduct experimental studies to evaluate the performance of different admixtures
that can be added to concrete to improve its waterproofing, considering mechanical
properties, resistance to water penetration, and crack-sealing ability;
(iii) Investigate the environmental, economic, and performance impacts of different water-
proofing options available on the market, considering factors such as global warming,
consumption of energy resources, life-cycle cost, and durability.

185
Eng 2023, 4

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.C.d.F.G.; methodology, L.C.d.F.G., H.C.G. and E.D.R.;

formal analysis, E.D.R.; investigation, L.C.d.F.G.; resources, E.D.R.; data curation, H.C.G. and E.D.R.;
writing—original draft preparation, L.C.d.F.G. and E.D.R.; writing—review and editing, H.C.G.;
visualization, E.D.R.; supervision, E.D.R.; project administration, E.D.R.; and funding acquisition,
E.D.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All the data in the analyses of this study have been listed in the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Article
Improved Structural Health Monitoring Using Mode Shapes:
An Enhanced Framework for Damage Detection in 2D and
3D Structures
Marzieh Zamani Kouhpangi 1 , Shaghayegh Yaghoubi 1 and Ahmadreza Torabipour 2, *

1 Department of Marine Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic),

Tehran 15916-34311, Iran
2 Department of Civil and Water Engineering, University of Laval, Quebec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Structural health monitoring (SHM) is crucial for ensuring the safety and performance of
offshore platforms. SHM uses advanced sensor systems to detect and respond to negative changes
in structures, improving their reliability and extending their life cycle. Model updating methods
are also useful for sensitivity analysis. It is feasible to discuss and introduce established techniques
for detecting damage in structures by utilizing their mode shapes. In this research, by considering
reducing the stiffness of elements in the damage scenarios, we conducted simulations of the models in
MATLAB, including both two-dimensional and three-dimensional structures, to update the method
suggested by Wang. Wang’s method was improved to produce a sensitivity equation for the damaged
structures. The sensitivity equation solution using a subset of mode shapes data was found to evaluate
structural parameter changes. Comparing the updated results for Wang’s method and the suggested
method in the two- and three-dimensional frames showed a noticeable modification in damage
recognition. Furthermore, the suggested method can update a model containing measurement
errors. Since Wang’s damage detection formulation is suitable only for 2D structures, this modified
framework provides a more accurate decision-making tool for damage detection of structures,
regardless of whether a 2D or 3D formulation is used.
Citation: Zamani Kouhpangi, M.;
Yaghoubi, S.; Torabipour, A.
Keywords: structural health monitoring; damage detection; model updating; modal parameters;
Improved Structural Health
offshore platform
Monitoring Using Mode Shapes: An
Enhanced Framework for Damage
Detection in 2D and 3D Structures.
Eng 2023, 4, 1742–1760. https:/
/doi.org/10.3390/eng4020099
1. Introduction
Due to distinct reasons, such as earthquakes, waves crashing, fatigue, and erosion,
Academic Editors: Antonio Gil Bravo
offshore platforms are faced with some changes in their structural properties, which can
and Alessio Cascardi
cause structural failure, people’s deaths, and economic damage [1]. Thus, structural safety
Received: 11 April 2023 and performance require early detection, monitoring, and analysis of the damaged structure.
Revised: 12 June 2023 Different methods have been developed to identify the damage location and severity using
Accepted: 15 June 2023 non-destructive tests and detection algorithm responses [2]. According to the damaging
Published: 19 June 2023 effect, the damage detection algorithms can lead to a detectable change in a structure’s
response [3].
There are generally two methods used to update the trends in structural health moni-
toring: applying forces or stresses and measuring the structural response. Damage detection
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
using dynamic data has more advantages in comparison with static techniques, which
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
can be more sensitive to changes in structural parameters and structural damage [4]. The
distributed under the terms and
dynamic characteristics of a structure, such as its mass, stiffness, and damping, can vary
conditions of the Creative Commons because of damage. As a result, damage detection techniques often rely on changes in
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// these characteristics, as measured by modal data, such as natural frequencies, mode shapes,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and damping ratios. In practice, natural frequencies can be measured more accurately
4.0/). than mode shapes and are, therefore, often used to update structural models [5]. However,

Eng 2023, 4, 1742–1760. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4020099 189 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

changes in natural frequencies alone do not provide detailed information about the location
or extent of damage. Therefore, utilizing mode shape data is considered to be a more
valuable approach for model updating, despite the mathematical and practical challenges
that it poses [6]. Modal data covering the natural frequencies and the mode shapes have
been considered by researchers in recent decades.
Regarding the response, updating techniques can be classified into methods based on
the mode and response. Updating a technical model based on the mode involves obtaining
modal properties, which are given by indirectly measured frequency response function
(FRF) data. Structural parameters are updating techniques that are applied using direct
methods or iterative approaches [7,8]. A straightforward method for calibrating structural
models involves adjusting the mass and stiffness parameters to match the numerical data
to the measured modal data [9]. However, these changes may not be easily interpreted
in terms of physical changes to the structure. An iterative updating approach that uses
experimental data or frequency response function (FRF) data and techniques for updating
finite element (FE) models to account for sensitivity may be required to better understand
the effects of damage on a structure [10–13].
Detecting damage using experimental modal data [14] can be difficult due to noise
and limited nodal points. There are different methods to address this issue, such as
using the imperialist competitive optimization algorithm with damage functions and
incorporating variable widths and weights. Another approach [15] involves combining
incomplete modal data with sparse regularization techniques to improve the accuracy and
robustness of damage identification. This method does not require sensitivity analysis or
complete modal data and uses a new goal function. Structural damage is detected by using
mode shape changes or the mode shape itself. Wang et al. [16] undertook a sensitivity
analysis of the structural parameters. They also achieved dynamic modification directly
and indirectly through modal data analysis. Kim and Stubbs [17] presented an algorithm
for identifying structural damage in jacket offshore structures using few-mode shapes.
Ren et al. [18] used mode shape data to locate and quantify structural damage. They
proposed using sensitivity equations that involve all mode shapes of the undamaged and
damaged structures. However, the need for complete mode shape data can be a limitation
in structures with a high degree of freedom, making it difficult to apply the method in
real-world scenarios. Lee et al. [19] used the cross-modal method as a reliable proposed
method to recognize the damage in jacket offshore platforms when incomplete modal data
is available.
Shahsavari et al. [20] undertook a mode shape analysis with the likelihood ratio (LR)
test to specify damage. Wang et al. [21] introduced the kriging model as a secondary model
to optimize by frequency response function instead of focusing just on the one FE model
repeatedly. Umar et al. [22] remarked on a new response surface methodology (RSM), which
used both the natural frequencies and mode shapes to upgrade the damage recognition.
Hariri-Ardebili et al. [23] coupled a polynomial chaos expansion metamodel and
modal analysis to find the most vulnerable areas of arch dams in an efficient way.
Dahak et al. [24] declared an approach based on normalized natural frequencies using
experimental data in order to recognize damage in a cantilever beam. Khatir et al. [25]
achieved a new method for the determination of cracks, which simultaneously investi-
gates changes from measured frequencies experimentally and by using particle swarm
optimization.
Model updating methods use the modal parameters elicited from vibration data in
the structures, which were measured before and after damage. In order to distinguish
the damage intensity in structures, Park et al. [26] presented a damage intensity function
to clarify the relationship between damage intensity and multiple-per-revolution (MPR)
changes for the baseline model. Schacht et al. [27] produced a modified method for damage
evaluation in which the modified indexes were found using a given function combined with
a genetic algorithm (GA). The identification of damage in truss and beam-like structures
which was achieved using FRF data combined with optimization techniques [28], presenting

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Eng 2023, 4

the fastest solution compared with other approaches that used a GA and bat algorithm
(BA) to find the location and severity of the damage.
Pérez and López [29] developed a fully functional SHM system based on spectral
domain indices. They characterized a comparison between experimental data and nu-
merical data, which led to a careful assessment of proposed spectral correlation indices
(SCIs) for structural evaluation and damage identification. Khatir et al. [30] indicated one
specific approach that has two steps in order to assess damage in beam-like structures
using two dimensions, namely, isogeometric analysis (IGA) and finite element method
besides optimization techniques. Abasi et al. [31] presented a damage identification method
using the nearest neighbor search method to evaluate structures. Consequently, the nearest
neighbor search method was rather strong for noisy data in comparison to the artificial
neural network.
Sensitivity-based model updating can be done based on mode shape changes [32]. The
accurate assessment of mode shape changes by considering unknown structural parameters
is a crucial issue for updating a model. A sensitivity equation can be linear or of a higher
degree. Linear sensitivity needs measurement in all freedom degrees, which is a challenging
issue for real structures. Furthermore, the first-order Taylor series expansion enables the
calculation of a linear formula for updating the model.
Iannelli et al. [33] researched using deep learning to identify damage in large space
antennas. They explored the use of a long short-term memory neural network for the
classification of various types of damage, and the results indicate successful detection.
Wang ad Wu [34] suggested an enhanced version of explicit connectivity Bayesian networks
for analyzing system reliability. Their approach considers multiple failure modes and the
probabilistic relationships between different components.
To understand the relationship between changes in the mode shapes and structural
parameters, a sensitivity equation was employed to revise the model. This equation
utilizes eigenvector derivatives, and various techniques were proposed by researchers to
calculate these derivatives. One method is the modal method, which is used to estimate
the derivative of mode shapes based on design variables. Another method, which is called
the Nelson method, is a reliable way to evaluate eigenvalue derivatives. Additionally, the
Wang method, which improves upon the modal method by incorporating a quasi-static
term into the eigenvector derivative equation, was shown to accelerate the convergence
of the modal method [35–37]. Damage detection by using both modal and Wang methods
leads to similar results, which were confirmed using the equation. The superiority of the
Wang method is because of its better convergence [38].
In this article, a brief consideration of both standard damage recognition methods
(modal and Wang’s methods) is presented. An improved model updating method based
on natural frequencies combination was suggested. To enhance Wang’s method [37] for
accurate damage recognition in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional frames, an
updated model incorporating measurement errors and precise damage identification was
employed. This update involved utilizing the natural frequency of the damaged structure
to establish a more precise correlation between changes in mode shapes and structural
parameters. Wang’s damage detection formula is limited to 2D structures, but this adapted
framework provides a precise tool for identifying damage in structures, irrespective of their
2D or 3D formulation.
According to our detailed review in Section 1, the need for proposing a modified
damage detection framework based on Wang’s model formed the backbone of the current
study. Since Wang’s damage detection formulation is suitable only for 2D structures,
this study was centered on extending the applicability of Wang’s model to 3D structures.
Furthermore, one may note that it can be appealing to increase the accuracy of Wang’s
model by adding an error metric during updating the model. To meet these two major
contributions of this study, some ingredients are required, which are comprehensively
described in the following.

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Eng 2023, 4

In Section 2, the background theory of Wang’s model is introduced, along with the
basis of the updating procedure. Next, assumptions for numerical simulation and the
configuration of strain gauges are described briefly in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. The
application of the proposed formulation for 2D and 3D structures is demonstrated in
Section 5. Finally, the major contributions and outputs of this study, in conjunction with
some recommendations for future works, are described in Section 6. This research de-
veloped an improved SHM method that extends the capability of existing techniques,
enabling accurate damage detection in both 2D and 3D structures, and accommodating
model updates and measurement errors. This advancement can significantly enhance the
reliability and effectiveness of structural health monitoring systems for offshore platforms
and other structures.

2. Description of Theory and Analysis Method

2.1. Theory
This section provides a brief overview of the methods presented in Wang’s model [37]
and the modal method. It also mentions the characteristic equation of eigenvalues for an
undamaged structure (without damping), which is introduced by Equation (1).

Kϕi = (λi M) ϕi f or i = 1, . . . , n (1)

In the equation provided, Knxn and Mnxn represent the structural stiffness matrix and
mass matrix, respectively. The variable ϕi is the eigenvector and λi is the ith eigenvalue.
The square of the ith natural frequency is represented by ωi and the number of freedom
degrees is represented by n. By taking the derivative of both sides of the equation, the
equation can be rewritten.


K 0 − λi M0 ϕi + (K − λi M ) ϕi0 − λi0 Mϕi = 0 (2)

The derivative of an eigenvalue can be found by multiplying Equation (2) through by

ϕiT , as shown in Equation (3).


λi0 = ϕiT K 0 − λi M0 ϕi (3)

where λi0 , K 0 , and M0 give the derivatives of eigenvalues, stiffness matrix, and mass matrix,
respectively. Based on the modal method, the derivative of the ith eigenvector is expressed
as a series expansion of all eigenvectors:
n
ϕi0 = ∑ cij ϕ j (4)
j =1

Moreover, the factor cij is defined as follows:

( 1
)
λi − λ j ϕ 0 j ( K 0 − λi M 0 ) ϕi i f i 6= j
cij = (5)
−0.5ϕ0 j Mϕ j if i = j

The modal method or Fax formula is a common way to appraise the derivative of a
mode shape. Wang [37] presented the modified modal method. Using Wang’s method
leads to expressing the derivative of the ith mode shape as a linear combination of mode
shapes, as indicated by Equation (6).
n
ϕi0 = ϕi0
0
+ ∑ aij ϕ j (6)
j =1

0
ϕi0 = −K −1 K 0 − λi0 M − λi M0 ϕi (7)

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Eng 2023, 4

In Equation (6), the combinatory coefficients demonstrate the share of the jth mode
shape, as expressed by Equation (8).
( )
1
λi
− ϕ j T ( K 0 − λi M 0 ) ϕi i f i 6 = j
aij = λ j λ i λ j (8)
−0.5ϕ j T M0 ϕ j if i = j

Wang’s method [37] is employed for determining the derivative of the modal shapes.
In this method, the derivatives of the eigenvalues must be taken into consideration.
Equation (3) serves as the sole means of evaluating the derivatives of natural frequen-
cies in response to design variables. Accordingly, the initial evaluation of alterations in
modal shapes is presented by Equation (9), wherein p constitutes a diagonal matrix of
stiffness parameters.
    n  
∂ϕi −1 ∂k ∂λi ∂M T λi 1 ∂K ∂M
δϕi = δp = −K δp − δp M − λi δp ϕi + ∑ ϕ j ϕ j δp − λi δp ϕi (9)
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p j =1
λ j λi − λ j ∂p ∂p

The matrices of mass and stiffness of linear function are unknown matrices from
structural parameters:
∂K
δp = δK (10)
∂p

∂M
δp = δM (11)
∂p
As a result, eigenvalue changes can be found as follows:

∂λi
δp = δλi (12)
∂p

A method was developed for determining structural damage by analyzing changes in

the natural frequencies. δλi can be calculated using the following equation:

δλi = λid − λiI (13)

Equation (13) can be used to account the accuracy and logical value for δλi in compari-
son to Equation (3). Consequently, the mode shape changes can be revealed by replacing
Equation (13) in Equation (9), and thus, rewriting it as Equation (14).
n
λ 1
δϕi = δλi K −1 Mϕi − K −1 (δK − λi δM ) ϕi + ∑ ϕ j ϕTj λij λi − λ j (δK − λi δM) ϕi (14)
j =1

The first term of Equation (14) is calculated by utilizing the damaged structure, which
measures the natural frequencies, mass, stiffness, and mode shapes. Therefore, it can be
utilized instead of the parametric formula of this term for updating the model.
To define the term δϕia , Equation (9) is rewritten as follows:
n
λ 1
δϕi = δϕi − δϕia = −K −1 (δK − λi δM ) ϕi + ∑ ϕ j ϕTj λij λi − λ j (δK − λi δM) ϕi (15)
j =1

δϕia = δλi K −1 Mϕi (16)

Since the changes in the structure’s mass matrix are minimal, even after destruction,
the difference in mass can be discarded. The stiffness matrix as a function of structural
parameters is depicted by Equation (17).

[K ] = [ A][ P][ A] T (17)

193
Eng 2023, 4

Matrix A, with dimensions of npxnp, is referred to as the stiffness connectivity matrix.

It is a diagonal matrix, with the stiffness parameters of elements, which are represented by
npx1 P-forms and P-vectors, serving as its input.

diag[ P] = { P} (18)

The total stiffness matrix, as stated in Equation (19), is a linear function of the stiffness
parameters. Furthermore, the matrix [A] is not dependent on the matrix [P].

[K + δK ] = [ A][ P + δP][ A] T (19)

Expanding Equation (19) and subtracting it from Equation (17) leads to obtaining a
parametric form of the total stiffness matrix, as revealed in Equation (20).

[δK ] = [ A][δP][ A] T (20)

If Equation (20) is accommodated in Equation (19), the changes in the ith mode shape
can depend on changes in the stiffness parameters:

δϕi = SKϕi δPk (21)

Equation (22) illustrates the relationship between the strain and the displacement.

δε i = SεiK δPk (22)

n
λ 1
SεiK = −K −1 AS diag( AST ϕi ) + ∑ ϕ j ϕTj λij λi − λ j AS diag( AST ϕi ) (23)
j =1

As an overview, the steps for updating the model are provided in the following
flowchart (Figure 1). The purpose of updating the model is to align the predicted results of
the model with actual measurements by adjusting certain key parameters. The distance
between the theoretical and experimental outcomes is often measured using the mean of
the least squares, and thus, updating the model can be seen as a problem of structural
optimization. Since the variation of the ith mode shape is related to changes in the stiffness
parameters, by altering the natural frequency and mode shape of healthy modes and mea-
suring the strain, we can obtain changes in the diagonal matrix, including the eigenvalues
of the combined stiffness matrix of the components. Finally, the structural update process is
compared with the individual components. If the results are not in agreement, the process
is repeated with variations in stiffness. The steps in the flowchart are as follows:
∅iI : ith eigenvector in the healthy state;
λiI : ith eigenvalue in the healthy state;
Knew : updated stiffness;
δk: stiffness variation;
δεi : strain variation.

2.2. Analysis Method

In practical applications, the successful utilization of vibration information models
is limited due to measurement errors. These errors can arise from factors such as noise
during frequency and mode measurements of the structure being tested. Such errors have
undesirable consequences, as they can lead to failures going undetected or result in exces-
sive predictions of failure. To simulate the presence of errors and noise in the measurement
process, random noise of 1% was generated using MATLAB software. This noise was then
multiplied by the mode shape of the damaged structure. The noise application loop, which
operated outside the failure detection loop, generated a noise matrix for each iteration.
The loop ran fifty times, creating fifty noise matrices. Each time, failure detection was

194
Eng 2023, 4

performed, and the average of the detected failures over fifty iterations was calculated.
Additionally, the standard deviation was computed and plotted to indicate the dispersion
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 7
of failure detections across the fifty noise applications. By simulating fifty measurement
errors, the goal was to mimic a scenario where the structure’s response was measured fifty
times in a laboratory,
𝛿𝑘: stiffness variation; with failure detection performed each time. This method aimed to
assess thevariation.
𝛿𝜀 : strain accuracy of the approach in the presence of measurement errors.

Figure
Figure 1. Flowchart
1. Flowchart of for
of the steps themodel
stepsupdating.
for model updating.
2.2. Analysis Method
3.InAssumptions and Constraints
practical applications, of Numerical
the successful utilization Modeling
of vibration information models is
limited due In to
this research, errors.
measurement we assumed thatcan
These errors damage causes
arise from factorsasuch
change in the
as noise dur-stiffness of structural
ing elements,
frequency and and mode
thismeasurements
change, along of the structure
with reducedbeingflexural
tested. Such errors have
stiffness, applies to the structure.
undesirable consequences, as they can lead to failures going undetected or result in exces-
The proposed method links the alterations in the valid parameters
sive predictions of failure. To simulate the presence of errors and noise in the measure-
to the mode shape of a
structurally damaged object, as informed by the data. The
ment process, random noise of 1% was generated using MATLAB software. This noise stiffness matrix can be computed
wasby thenadding together the stiffness matrices of the parts, as outlined in Equation (24).
multiplied by the mode shape of the damaged structure. The noise application
loop, which operated outside the failure detection loop, generated a noise matrix for each
nE Each time, failure detection
iteration. The loop ran fifty times, creating fifty noise matrices.
was performed, and the average of the detected failures ∑
K = overKfifty
r iterations was calcu- (24)
lated. Additionally, the standard deviation was computed and r plotted to indicate the dis-
persion of failure detections across the fifty noise applications. By simulating fifty meas-
Here,the
urement errors, Krgoal
represents theacontribution
was to mimic of astructure’s
scenario where the specificresponse
part to was
the meas-
overall stiffness matrices,
uredandfiftyntimes
E stands for the number
in a laboratory, of elements.
with failure Hence,each
detection performed the time.
behavior of the stiffness matrix can
This method
be to
aimed rewritten
assess the as follows:
accuracy of the approach in the presence of measurement errors.

nE
3. Assumptions and Constraints of Numerical nE
Modeling nE
In this research, we assumed ∑
= damage
δKthat ∑
= a(change
δKrcauses K rd −inKrthe ∑
) =stiffness δKofr Kstruc-
r (25)
r=1reduced flexural
tural elements, and this change, along with r=1 r=1to the struc-
stiffness, applies
ture. The proposed method links the alterations in the valid parameters to the mode shape
Krd symbolizes
of a structurally the as
damaged object, stiffness
informedof
bythe
the rth
data.element when
The stiffness it iscandamaged,
matrix be com- and δKr is a scalar
multiplier
puted by addingthat demonstrates
together the proportional
the stiffness matrices changes
of the parts, as outlinedin
in the stiffness
Equation (24). of the rth element in
both damaged and undamaged states. The fluctuation of axial rigidity is indicated by the
value of δKr , which is obtained K= from Kthe truss elements. Equation (25) (24) is utilized to modify
both the bending and axial rigidities in frame elements through decomposition.
Here,ToKruse methods
represents of damageofidentification,
the contribution a specific part to the response
the overall of the
stiffness structure should continue
matrices,
andtonE display
stands forlinear behavior
the number afterHence,
of elements. a seismic load; ofthis
the behavior the method supposed
stiffness matrix can which analytical
be rewritten as follows:
model of the structure should be obtained before applying this method. The linear finite
element modeling for a healthy structure was monitored as a basic model update to detect
parameters of δK = δK = K K =
[26]. ForδK K (24)
structural model stiffness verification, the simulated structure was
updated with the finite element method of the structural model and the behavior of the
existing model was consistent with the realistic structural model.
The proposed method’s effectiveness was examined in two models in this study. The
approach was tested on a two-dimensional frame with 32 elements that underwent multiple
damage scenarios. Additionally, the same method was tested on a three-dimensional frame
that had 48 elements.
In the study, the mode shapes of the damaged structure were subjected to noise [14]
about fifty times. Furthermore, by applying the same noise level (around 1%), the mea-

195
Eng 2023, 4

surement error and standard deviation value were calculated. To ensure a reliable solution,
several factors needed to be considered, including the type and location of the sensor,
the type and location of the excitation, the quality of the measurement data (measure-
ment error), the accuracy of the mathematical model (modeling error), and the numerical
methods used.

4. Installation of the Strain Gauge

The placement of strain gauges on 2D and 3D frames depends on the specific require-
ments of the structure and the type of information needed for the analysis. Typically, strain
gauges are placed at critical locations on the structure, such as near joints, supports, or
areas susceptible to damage. For 2D frames, strain gauges are typically installed at the top
and bottom of the frame, while for 3D frames, they can be placed on different faces of the
structure to capture the deformations in different directions. The specific positioning of
strain gauges can be determined through careful analysis and modeling of the structure to
ensure the accuracy and reliability of the collected data. In this study, natural frequencies
and mode shapes were acquired from sensors and applied to the damaged structure. The
data was used to detect damage by using optimized equations, which improved Wang’s
method. The performance and validity of this approach were verified and investigated for
both 2D and 3D frames. Due to various factors that affect the detection of the structure,
a limited number of sensors must be used to measure strains, including determining the
sensor location for access to different sides of the structure and measuring capabilities.
Hence, the sensor location was determined based on the element’s strain energy density,
which is calculated using Equation (26).

1
 T 
Uie = 2 ϕie k e ϕie f or e = 1, . . . , ne i = 1, . . . , n (26)

The strain energy density is close to the same strain energy density of the whole
structure assigned as a target element, and it can generally be used to find the behavior
of the structure. According to the circumscription of the use of strain gauges, the number
of gauges in the 2D frame and 3D frames were limited to 18 and 20 units, respectively.
Moreover, by using trial and error as a fundamental method for solving the problem, the
strain gauges were placed in various positions along the length of the elements, where
these distances were 3/4, 1/2, and 1/4. The positions of the strain gauges in the 2D and 3D
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 9
frames are depicted in Figure 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Installing the strain gauges in (a) two-dimensional and (b) three-dimensional frames.
Figure 2. Installing the strain gauges in (a) two-dimensional and (b) three-dimensional frames.
5. Damage Detection of Offshore Structures Using the Proposed Formulation
5.1. Two-Dimensional Frame Analysis
Based on Figure 3, a one-bay four-story frame was modeled to investigate the suffi-
ciency of the proposed method in order to complete the model and identification of the
structural damages.
196 All 32 elements of the frame were constructed of steel material. The
specification of the steel structure, including the elasticity modulus, density, circular
cross-section with a thickness of 2 cm, and moment of inertia were 2.1 GPa, 7850 kg/m3,
 Eng 2023, 4

5. Damage Detection of Offshore Structures Using the Proposed Formulation

5.1. Two-Dimensional Frame Analysis
Based on Figure 3, a one-bay four-story frame was modeled to investigate the suffi-
ciency of the proposed method in order to complete the model and identification of the
structural damages. All 32 elements of the frame were constructed of steel material. The
specification of the steel structure, including the elasticity modulus, density, circular cross-
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW section with a thickness of 2 cm, and moment of inertia were 2.1 GPa, 7850 kg/m3 , 307 cm2 ,
and 91,430 kg/m2 respectively. During the simulation of a damaged two-dimensional
frame structure, measurements were taken at specific locations. These locations include
elements at positions 32, 31, 30, 28, 25, 24, 21, 20, 17, 16, 15, 14, 12, 9, 8, 7, 5, and 1.

Figure 3. Two-dimensional frame structure equipped with gauges.

Figure 3. Two-dimensional frame structure equipped with gauges.
The unknown parameters in the two-dimensional frame were flexural rigidity (EI)
andThe
axialunknown
rigidity (EA), parameters
where E and in theused
A are two-dimensional frame
to define the elasticity wereand
modulus flexural
cross- rigidit
section of the element, respectively. The structural response of the two-dimensional
and axial rigidity (EA), where E and A are used to define the elasticity modulus and frame
is influenced
section of the by both therespectively.
element, flexural and axial Thebehavior,
structuralby response
which the rigidities should be
of the two-dimensional
allocated to update the model.
is influenced
However,by theboth the of
excitation flexural andin axial
a structure behavior,
axial mode differs by
fromwhich
reality.the
The rigidities
measur- shou
allocated
able mode toshapes
update arethe
oftenmodel.
low mode shapes, which are dominated by flexural behavior.
TheHowever,
axial rigiditytheas an unknown of
excitation parameter has a in
a structure minimum contribution
axial mode differs rate on the
from sen- The
reality.
sitivity equations, which can lead to obtaining incompatible
urable mode shapes are often low mode shapes, which are dominated by flexuralsensitivity equations and a b
lack of convergence. Hence, this article places significant emphasis on the consideration of
ior. The axial rigidity as an unknown parameter has a minimum contribution rate o
flexural rigidity.
sensitivity equations,
The geometry of thewhich canentered
frame was lead tointo
obtaining incompatible
the numerical modeling and sensitivity
the damage equation
was modeled. To estimate and investigate the effectiveness of the parameters, the locationconside
a lack of convergence. Hence, this article places significant emphasis on the
ofand severity
flexural of several instances of damage were classified, as shown in Table 1.
rigidity.
The geometry of the frame was entered into the numerical modeling and the da
was modeled. To estimate and investigate the effectiveness of the parameters, the lo
and severity of several instances of damage were classified, as shown in Table 1.
For instance, the damage for case 3 was modified by three modes, where an in
ing trend in element number from 22 to 31 correlated with downward and upwar
centage changes in damage 197 of approximately 10% and 20%, respectively.
Eng 2023, 4

Table 1. Percentage of stiffness reduction of elements for the considered damage scenarios(2D).

Damage Case 1 2 3 4 5 6
Element no. 11 25 22 7 21 15
Damage rate 20% 20% 30% 20% 30% 20%
Element no. 13 26 27 10 23 17
Damage rate 40% 30% 20% 30% 20% 20%
Element no. 16 32 31 20 25 24
Damage rate 20% 40% 40% 30% 20% 30%
Element no. ... ... ... 30 29 25
Damage rate ... ... ... 40% 40% 30%
Element no. ... ... ... ... ... 29
Damage rate ... ... ... ... ... 40%

For instance, the damage for case 3 was modified by three modes, where an increasing
trend in element number from 22 to 31 correlated with downward and upward percentage
changes in damage of approximately 10% and 20%, respectively.
Measurement errors are inevitable, where this issue is due to the preparation process
of the experimental and real data; determining the damage using Wang’s method [37] and
the proposed method was influenced by measurement errors. In this study, we assumed
the measurement spread between the lowest and highest measured values. To resemble
the measurement errors, some errors with uniform distribution were added to the correct
information. To correctly simulate the measured data, one percentage of error was added
to strain data with a uniform distribution.
Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) is the most robust and accurate method for estimating
the probability of failure [39]. MCS [40] is a statistical method that uses random variables
with a probability distribution to simulate measurement errors for unknown inputs in
a problem. The damage detection algorithm repeatedly uses a set of data errors that
are randomly simulated, and similar conditions are applied in the damage recognition
process based on the absolute difference between the methods. Numerical simulations were
performed using 50 observations, and the average of all results was used as the predicted
damage for each damage scenario. The results of the parameter estimation, including the
predicted and actual damage ratio of the 2D frame model in six cases, are displayed in
Figures 4 and 5.
Figure 4 illustrates that the proposed method was accurate in diagnosing the location
and severity of the damage while the Wang method [37] did not have the ability to recognize
the damage. The given information and the input data were mostly the same for both
methods. Consequently, the sensitivity equation was accurate and reliable, and it improved
the results of the model updating.
Scattering of the obtained damage detection results using 50 Monte Carlo simula-
tions [40] around the average value could be measured by using a standard statistical
measurement known as the coefficient of variation (COV) or relative standard deviation
(RSD), which gives the ratio of the standard deviation to the average value. The COV index
is used for robustness evaluation against measurement errors, and a low level of the COV
denotes the power of the method. In more detail, a higher COV value indicates that small
changes in the monitored variable can have a larger impact on the structure, making it
more sensitive to variability. In terms of health monitoring, higher COV values can affect
reliability and safety, introducing uncertainty and variability that may impact the overall
performance. When assessing risks and making decisions related to health monitoring,
higher COV values suggest a higher level of risk and uncertainty, calling for additional
measures to mitigate potential failures or accommodate variability in the design. Therefore,
COV values in health monitoring provide important insights into the variability and its
implications for reliability, safety, and risk assessment.

198
 problem. The damage detection algorithm repeatedly uses a set of data errors that are
randomly simulated, and similar conditions are applied in the damage recognition pro-
cess based on the absolute difference between the methods. Numerical simulations were
performed using 50 observations, and the average of all results was used as the predicted
damage for each damage scenario. The results of the parameter estimation, including the
Eng 2023, 4
predicted and actual damage ratio of the 2D frame model in six cases, are displayed in
Figures 4 and 5.

Case 1 Case 2

Case 3 Case 4

Case 5 Case 6

Figure 4. Predicted and actual damage ratio of the 2D frame model using the present method.

The COV does not have a limited number or an upper bound. The COV is calculated
as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean of a variable, expressed as a percentage.
Since both the standard deviation and mean can take any positive value, the COV can
theoretically range from 0% to positive infinity. However, it is important to note that the
COV is not a suitable measure for variables with a mean close to zero or approaching
zero, as it can lead to undefined or misleading results. The coefficients of variation of the
predicted damage are shown in Figure 5.

199
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 12

Eng 2023, 4

Figure 4. Predicted and actual damage ratio of the 2D frame model using the present method.

Case 1 Case 2

Case 3 Case 4

Case 5 Case 6
Figure 5. The coefficient of variation of the predicted damage ratio for the 2D frame model using
Figure 5. The coefficient of variation of the predicted damage ratio for the 2D frame model using the
the current method.
current method.
Figure
The COVs 4 illustrates
indicatedthatlessthe proposedinmethod
variability was of
the results accurate in diagnosing
the evaluated the location
parameters in the
and severity
proposed of theCertain
method. damagemetrics
while the
are Wang method
employed [37] did not have
to quantitatively the ability
compare to recog-
the accuracy of
nizeresults.
the the damage. The given
This accuracy caninformation
be assessed and the input
through data were
the closeness mostly
index (CI),the samemeasures
which for both
methods.
the proximityConsequently,
between thethe sensitivity
actual equation
and predicted was accurate
damage vectors. and reliable, and it im-
proved the results of the model updating.
Scattering of the obtained damage detection |δPP − δPa | using 50 Monte Carlo simulations
results
CI = 1 − (27)
[40] around the average value could be measured δpbyp using a standard statistical measure-
ment known as the coefficient of variation (COV) or relative standard deviation (RSD),
whichThe closeness
gives index
the ratio of (CI) [41] is a measure
the standard of the
deviation accuracy
to the averageof the predicted
value. The COV damage
indexpa-is
rameters. It is calculated
used for robustness as the distance
evaluation againstbetween the actual
measurement damage
errors, and vector
a low (δp p ) and
level theCOV
of the pre-
dicted
denotes damage
the power vector
of (δP ), with dimensions
theamethod. of npxp,
In more detail, as shown
a higher COVin Equations
value (17)that
indicates andsmall
(27).
The CI quantitatively evaluates how similar the predicted damage
changes in the monitored variable can have a larger impact on the structure, making vector is to theit
actual damage vector. Higher values of the CI indicate greater similarity between the
predicted and actual damage vectors, leading to more accurate damage detection results.

200
Eng 2023, 4

Using the CI as a performance metric allows researchers to compare the effectiveness of

different damage detection methods, which can result in the development of more precise
and dependable techniques for structural systems. The use of the CI can also enhance
the overall safety and performance of structural systems by enabling the early detection
of damage, which can be repaired or reinforced before a catastrophic failure occurs, thus
increasing the system’s durability and resilience.
The accuracy of the proposed method based on the results obtained is presented
in Table 2. The CI index is defined in this table to determine the accuracy of the failure
detection. The closer the CI value is to one, the more accurately the failure value is
predicted, and the closer it is to zero, the less accurately the failure value is calculated [41]
The proposed method in this study identified the damaged elements (Table 1) with high
accuracy. The accuracy of the method was evaluated by calculating the proximity index;
for example, in the first case, 0.64768 was obtained, indicating the accuracy of the proposed
method. Additionally, this table demonstrates that the results were reliable and had
low variability.

Table 2. Closeness indexes of the estimated parameters of the 2D frame model using the
present method.

Damage Case Closeness Index (CI)

1 0.64768
2 0.74341
3 0.76866
4 0.66808
5 0.62217
6 0.64667

The results of the CI for different damage cases are presented in Table 2 and indicate
the effectiveness of the proposed method in improving the sensitivity equation.

5.2. The Assessment of the 3D Frame

Referring to Figure 6, a one-bay four-story frame was modeled to investigate the
usefulness of the proposed method in order to produce the model and identify the damage.
Finite element analysis was performed for a three-dimensional frame element to simulate
and compare the experimental data.
In the 3D frame, the steel element properties were as follows: elasticity modulus
of 2.1 GPa, a density of 7850 kg/m3 , and a moment of inertia limited to 91,430 kg/m2 .
Moreover, the cross-section’s element was 307 cm2 . To process data of a damaged structure,
measurements were made using elements 2, 4, 7, 12, 8, 15, 16, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35,
37, 38, 43, 44, and 46.
The unknown parameters in a three-dimensional frame are the torsional rigidity GJ,
flexural rigidity EI, and axial rigidity EA, where E is the elasticity modulus, G is the shear
modulus, and A is the cross-section of each element. In three-dimensional mode, torsional
and flexural rigidity appeared too. Several instances of damage are explained in Table 3.
For instance, for damage case 2, the number of elements changed simultaneously with the
damage percent. In more detail, for element number 32, when the damage rate was limited
to 50 percent, and for element number 45, the damage rate remained the same.

201
 5.2. The Assessment of the 3D Frame
Referring to Figure 6, a one-bay four-story frame was modeled to investigate the u
fulness of the proposed method in order to produce the model and identify the dama
Eng 2023, 4 Finite element analysis was performed for a three-dimensional frame element to simu
and compare the experimental data.

Figure
Figure 6. Three-dimensional frame
6. Three-dimensional framestructure.
structure.
Table 3. Percentage of stiffness reduction of elements for considered damage scenarios(3D).
In the 3D frame, the steel element properties were as follows: elasticity modulu
2.1 GPa,Damage Case of 7850
a density 1 kg/m3, and 2 a moment3 4
of inertia limited5 to 91,430 6 kg/m2. Mor

ver, theElement no.

cross-section’s 29element was 32 307 cm 10 2. To process
17 data5 of a damaged17 structu
Damage percent 50% 50% 30% 30% 30% 40%
measurements
Element no.were made33 using 45 elements 2, 18 4, 7, 12, 25
8, 15, 16, 20,14 23, 24, 27,21 28, 29, 30,
37, 38,Damage
43, 44,percent
and 46. 50% 50% 20% 30% 20% 30%
Element no. ... ... 23 34 20 27
The unknown parameters
Damage percent ...
in. .a. three-dimensional
40% 30%
frame are50%
the torsional
20%
rigidity
flexuralElement
rigidityno. EI, and. .axial
. rigidity
. . . EA, where... E is the
. . . elasticity
46 modulus, 40 G is the sh
Damage
modulus, percent
and ...
A is the cross-section . . . of each .element.
.. . . .three-dimensional
In 30% 20%mode, torsio
and flexural rigidity appeared too. Several instances of damage are explained in Tabl
In order
For instance, forto check the
damage effects
case of number
2, the the damage location and
of elements severity simultaneously
changed to estimate the with
considered parameters, we updated the model results by using 50 sets of data containing
damage percent. In more detail, for element number 32, when the damage rate was limi
modeling errors, as shown in Figure 7. A comparison between the damage prediction
to 50results
percent,
usingand for element
the Wang and proposednumber 45, the
methods damage
indicated that rate remained
accurate results ofthe same.
parameter
estimation could be achieved using the presented method, while Wang’s method was
not able to recognize the damage. Results of the parameter estimation base using the CI
index are shown in Table 4. The obtained CI values denoted the accuracy of the proposed
method for predicting the stiffness parameters of a moment frame. The COV values for the
predicted damage are shown in Figure 8.

Table 4. Closeness index of the estimated parameters of the 3D frame model using the
present method.

Damage Case Closeness Index (CI)

1 0.88691
2 0.60954
3 0.7718
4 0.6474
5 0.55761
6 0.62643

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Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 16

Eng 2023, 4

Figure 7. Predicted and actual damage ratio of the 3D frame model using the present method.
Figure 7. Predicted and actual damage ratio of the 3D frame model using the present method.

203
Eng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 17
Eng 2023, 4

Figure 8. The coefficient of variation of the predicted damage ratio for the 3D frame model using the
current8.
Figure method.
The coefficient of variation of the predicted damage ratio for the 3D frame model using
the current method.
6. Conclusions
TableThis research
4. Closeness focused
index of the on the goals
estimated of structural
parameters health
of the 3D framemonitoring
model using(SHM) and the
the present
method.
limitations of Wang’s method in accurately assessing damage in two-dimensional and three-
dimensional structural
Damageelements,
Case particularly in offshoreCloseness
structures.Index
This (CI)
study reviewed
Wang’s method and proposed a new method to enhance its accuracy and applicability for
1 0.88691
2D and 3D structural elements.
2 0.60954
In this study, six damage cases were considered for assessing and achieving the CI
3 0.7718
and COV indexes, and by using the proposed equation, the failure rates in 2D and 3D
4
structural elements were calculated with appropriate accuracies. 0.6474
For example, a COV
value of 0.04 suggests5that the standard deviation is only 4% of the 0.55761
mean value, indicating
that the data points are 6 relatively close to the mean and exhibit 0.62643
limited variability. This
level of consistency can be advantageous in applications where precision, accuracy, and
reliability are critical, such as in high-precision manufacturing, quality control processes,

204
Eng 2023, 4

or safety-critical systems. This method can be used to improve structures with axial and
bending behavior. Due to the high sensitivity of the strain to failure and the high accuracy
of the sensitivity equations, an enhanced SHM method for accurate damage detection in 2D
and 3D structures that accommodates model updates and measurement errors enhances
the reliability and effectiveness of structural health monitoring systems.
The following could be the focus of potential future studies: Due to the importance
of seismic loads for offshore structures, the impact of the ground motion record [42,43]
on the SHM of offshore structures using the proposed damage detection method can be
investigated in future works.
Combining the probabilistic risk assessment methodology introduced in [44] and the
proposed damage detection formulation for assessing the lifecycle of offshore structures.
A comparison of the proposed method with other well-known damage detection
techniques, such as the finite element method, to evaluate the performance and accuracy of
the method in different structures.
An evaluation of structural damage through the soil–structure interaction by consider-
ing the seismic analysis results of soil deposits, which can obtain a better understanding
of the behavior of the soil–structure system and design structures that can withstand the
effects of earthquakes [45].
An extension of the proposed method to more complex structures, such as bridges [46]
and post-tensioned joints [47,48], to validate the method’s adaptability to a wider range of
structures. The damage assessment of joints in the frame structure [49] can be a useful way
to produce better designs based on performance.
An integration of the proposed method with other structural health monitoring tech-
niques, such as strain and load monitoring, to provide a comprehensive view of a structure’s
behavior and health.
An extension of the proposed method to include the analysis of non-linear struc-
tures, such as those with large deformations and material non-linearities, to evaluate its
applicability to a wider range of structures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Z.K. and A.T.; methodology, M.Z.K. and S.Y.; software,
M.Z.K.; validation, M.Z.K., A.T. and S.Y.; formal analysis, A.T.; investigation, S.Y.; resources, M.Z.K.;
data curation, S.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Z.K.; writing—review and editing, A.T.;
visualization, S.Y.; supervision, A.T.; project administration, A.T. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not Applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

A Structure stiffness joint matrix

Ae Non-zero eigenvector stiffness matrix
B Strain–displacement matrix
d Damage mode index
I Healthy mode index
K Structure stiffness matrix
M Structure mass matrix
ne Number of elements
P Diagonal matrix of stiffness parameters
Pe Stiffness parameters vector
T Transform matrix
Ue Displacement vector’s eth element
εe Strain of eth element
∅I ith mode shape
λI ith natural frequency

205
Eng 2023, 4

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207
Article
Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical FEA as a Support Tool for Damage
Diagnostic of a Cracked Concrete Arch Dam: A Case Study
Noemi Schclar Leitão 1, * and Eloísa Castilho 2

1 Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC), Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal
2 Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Most of the larger hydropower plants in Western Europe, the former Soviet Union, North
America and Japan were constructed between the 1940s and 1970s. This implies that the rehabilitation
or repair of existing dams is a top priority, which entails new challenges for the dam engineering
community. Since no two dams are the same, in cases in which abnormal behavior is suspected, an
in-depth diagnosis of the state of the dam to define the causes and consequences of the damage is
required. To illustrate the diagnostic process, an old concrete arch dam is presented which showed
signs of reservoir water seepage through some construction joints, resulting in a buildup of calcium
carbonate on the downstream face. After analyzing the available data, we put forward a hypothesis
that the high temperature gradient promoted the opening of some construction joints on the upstream
face during the first filling of the reservoir. Over time, water penetration expanded the cracks,
reaching the downstream face. To prove our diagnosis, a chemo-thermo-mechanical finite element
analysis was carried out in order to simulate the behavior of the dam during its construction and
initial impoundment.

Keywords: concrete arch dam; finite element chemo-thermal-mechanical analysis; diagnosis; first filling

1. Introduction
Citation: Leitão, N.S.; Castilho, E.
Between the 1940s and 1970s, spurred initially by World War II and followed by
Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical FEA as a
strong post-war economic and population growth, state-owned utilities built significant
Support Tool for Damage Diagnostic
hydropower developments throughout Western Europe, as well as the former Soviet
of a Cracked Concrete Arch Dam: A
Union, North America and Japan [1]. These water infrastructural projects were critical to
Case Study. Eng 2023, 4, 1265–1289.
economic development of the agriculture and energy sectors. Since the 1980s, however,
https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4020074
the number of new dams in developed countries has started to decline. This slowdown
Academic Editor: Alessio Cascardi in dam construction resulted from several political-ecological factors: (i) the economics of
Received: 21 March 2023
construction (the best and most economical sites were exploited first); and (ii) the increased
Revised: 15 April 2023
awareness of the need to consider the environmental impact of large dams [2,3].
Accepted: 20 April 2023 Concurrently, water availability and climate change have been topics of increasing
Published: 22 April 2023 concern in recent decades. To face this situation without constructing new dams, devel-
oped countries have no other option than continue using the existing dams as much as
possible [4]. This implies that the repair, rehabilitation or strengthening of existing dams
should be carried out in order to enhance their performance, extend their service life and
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. increase their load-carrying capacity.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Similar to other concrete structures, concrete dams are inherently durable and usually
This article is an open access article require a minimum amount of repair and maintenance. However, with the passage of
distributed under the terms and time, the exposure of a dam to various external and internal aggressions can lead to the
conditions of the Creative Commons
deterioration of the structure.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
One of the most harmful distress mechanisms affecting the durability and service-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
ability of aging structures is the alkali–aggregate reaction (AAR). Due to its impact on the
4.0/).

Eng 2023, 4, 1265–1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4020074 208 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/eng

Eng 2023, 4

safety and durability of concrete structures, many efforts to harmonize and coordinate the
diagnosis, prognosis and assessment of evaluating AAR damage are underway through
the International Union of Laboratories and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems
and Structures (RILEM) [5,6].
However, there are many causes of concrete damage in dams apart from AARs [7,8].
Freezing–thawing and drying–wetting cycles, structural overload, cracking due to seismic
actions or non-uniform foundation movements, thermal and shrinkage volumetric changes,
cavitation, abrasion–erosion, and sulfate attack are some examples of causes of damage to
concrete. Design and construction defects, poor-quality concrete, poor finishing and poor
curing can lead to concrete suffering damage.
In addition, there are a number of other factors that may affect service life, resulting in
the necessity of strengthening dams. Changes in the design criteria (hydrology and seismic
hazards) based on new information obtained since the initial design of a dam, changes in
methods of analysis, and new safety concepts or the results of risk assessments (new risks
and changes in risk acceptance criteria) can trigger the need to strengthen actions [8].
The planning, design, implementation and monitoring of a repair and/or strengthen-
ing project should always begin with a careful assessment of the existing structure. The
purpose of this assessment is to identify all defects and damage, to diagnose their causes
and hence to assess the present and likely future adequacy of the structure. The information
obtained from the structural assessment can then be used to determine whether corrective
work is required. Without prior planning and proper assessment, any program of corrective
work is likely to prove ineffective [9].
However, historically, the repair of concrete dams has been based at least as much
on art as on science [7]. Determining the cause of damage has often been given very little
importance by technicians, who make decisions based on their expertise and intuition [10].
In order to improve practices and knowledge in concrete dam repair, the U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation, which operates and maintains hydroelectric and water resource structures
in the Western United States, has invested a lot of effort into formulating a consistent
and systematic approach to repairing concrete. In this regard, the importance of a correct
diagnosis was emphasized:
The first and very important step of repairing damaged or deteriorated concrete
is to correctly determine the cause of damage. Knowing what caused the damage,
and reducing or eliminating that cause, will make the repair last longer. If no
attempt is made to eliminate the original cause of damage, the repair may fail
as the original concrete did, resulting in wasted effort and money (von Fay [7],
p. 1–13).
With the purpose of organizing a diagnostic procedure, Pardo-Bosch and Aguado [10]
and Blanco et al. [11] outlined a framework to aid in the diagnosis of different pathologies
that affect concrete dams based on the theory used in medical diagnosis. In this context,
numerical models have been proven to be important tools for the study and validation of
hypotheses elaborated during this diagnosis procedure [12–14].
Following the above approach closely, the present article illustrates the diagnostic
process of an old concrete arch dam, which shows signs of reservoir water seepage through
some construction joints, resulting in a buildup of calcium carbonate on the downstream
face. After analyzing the available data, we put forward a hypothesis that the high tem-
perature gradient promoted the opening of some construction joints on the upstream face
during the first filling of the reservoir. Over time, water penetration expanded the cracks,
reaching the downstream face. To prove this diagnosis, a chemo-thermo-mechanical finite
element analysis (FEA) was carried out in order to simulate the behavior of the dam during
its construction and initial impoundment.

2. Diagnosis Procedure
According to [10,11], the sequence of activities can be divided into two main stages:

209
Eng 2023, 4 1267

Eng 2023, 4
2. Diagnosis Procedure
According to [10,11], the sequence of activities can be divided into two main stages:
1. The first stage, which usually lasts a few weeks, involves the following:
1. The first stage, which usually lasts a few weeks, involves the following:
a. Clinical history;
a. Clinical history;
b. Filed (dam) inspection;
b. Filed (dam) inspection;
c. Initial cabinet works;
c. Initial cabinet works;
d.d. FirstFirst
hypothesis.
hypothesis.
2.2. The
Thesecond
secondstage,
stage,which
whichmaymaytake
takeweeks
weekstotomonths,
months,entails
entailsthe
thefollowing:
following:
a.a. Laboratory tests;
Laboratory tests;
b.b. Numerical modeling;
Numerical modeling;
c.c. Validation
Validationthe
of hypothesis;
of the hypothesis;
d.d. Prediction of future behavior.
Prediction of future behavior.

3.3.Dam
DamDescription
Description
The
Thedamdamstudied
studiedininthisthisarticle
articlewas
wascompleted
completedinin1955
1955and
andisislocated
locatedininthe
thecentral
central
region
regionof ofPortugal.
Portugal. ItIt is
is aa double-curvature,
double-curvature,thin thinconcrete
concretearch
archdam
dam with
with 1717 keyed
keyed mono-
monoliths,
a maximum
liths, a maximum height of 63
height of m
63 and
m anda crest
a crestlength
lengthofof175
175mmatatan
anelevation
elevation of m. The
of 181 m. The
widthisis2 m
width 2m at the
at the crest
crest andand
7 m 7atmtheatbase
the of
base
theof the largest
largest monolith.
monolith. The dam The
hasdam has a
a surface
surface uncontrolled
uncontrolled spillway spillway
along its along its crest designed
crest designed for a maximum
for a maximum dischargedischarge
capacity capacity
of 2200
mof 3
2200 m /s. The reservoir’s normal level is 175 m. A concrete pad (called socle
3/s. The reservoir’s normal level is 175 m. A concrete pad (called socle in Portugal) wasin
Portugal)
added was
to the added to the
foundation foundation
to make the sitetosymmetrical
make the siteand symmetrical
to provideand to provide
a better a better
distribution
ofdistribution
stresses on ofthestresses on theasfoundation,
foundation, shown in Figureas shown
1. in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Upstream view and vertical cross section of the dam.

Figure 1. Upstream view and vertical cross section of the dam.
The dam foundation corresponds to a contact zone of Cambrian and Silurian forma-
The
tions, dam
with thefoundation corresponds
special feature being thattothe
a left
contact
bankzone of Cambrian
consists of granite and Silurian
and the for-
right bank
mations,
consists with the special
of schist. feature
Both rocks arebeing that the left
very siliceous and,bank consiststhe
in general, of rock
granite andis the
mass right
fractured
and presents weathering near the surface [15].
The monitoring system consists of several devices to measure concrete and air temper-
atures, water level, displacements in the dam and its foundation, joint movements, strains
and stresses in the concrete, pressure and discharges in the foundation.

210
 bank consists of schist. Both rocks are very siliceous and, in general, the rock mass is frac-
tured and presents weathering near the surface [15].
Eng 2023, 4 The monitoring system consists of several devices to measure concrete and air tem-
peratures, water level, displacements in the dam and its foundation, joint movements,
strains and stresses in the concrete, pressure and discharges in the foundation.
Because of
Because of the
thelack
lackof
ofpendulum,
pendulum,the thegeodetic
geodeticsurveying
surveying method
method isisthe
theexclusive
exclusive
source of horizontal displacements. This planimetric system consists of triangulation
source of horizontal displacements. This planimetric system consists of triangulation net-
works on the downstream banks, as shown in Figure
networks on the downstream banks, as shown in Figure 2. 2.

IJ
GH KL

EF MN

ED EE

EEN

EDN

P1

P4
P2
RE

RD

Legenda
Legend
- Reference
Ponto de Refer阯cia
Point
Implanta玢 o - Station
Ponto Estacao
Point
50 m - Object
Ponto Alvo
Point

P3

Figure2.2.Triangulation
Figure Triangulationnetwork.
network.
4. Clinical History and Field Inspections
4. Clinical History and Field Inspections
Apart from the already cited article [15] published by the former owner of the dam,
Apart from the already cited article [15] published by the former owner of the dam,
Hidroeléctrica do Zêzere, which describes the preliminary studies, design, construction
Hidroeléctrica
and material testsdo of
Zêzere, which
the dam, describes
most the preliminary
of the information usedstudies, design, work
in the present construction
comes
and material tests of the dam, most of the information used in the present
from internal technical reports by the National Laboratory for Civil Engineering (LNEC).work comes
from internal
However, it is technical
importantreports
to noteby thethe
that National Laboratory
most relevant for Civil
results Engineering
of these (LNEC).
reports have also
been previously published in different conferences and journals [16–19]. Descriptionalso
However, it is important to note that the most relevant results of these reports have of
been
the previously
concrete published
composition used in in
different
the damconferences and journals
and other relevant thermal [16–19]. Description
information of
are also
the concrete composition used
available in Silveira’s thesis [20]. in the dam and other relevant thermal information are also
available in Silveira’s thesis [20].
4.1. Dam Design
It is important to note that in the 1950s, two different approaches were used to perform
stress analyses of dams on both sides of the Atlantic. In the USA, the design of dams was
based on an extensive analytical method, the so-called trial-load method, developed by
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Meanwhile, European countries, mainly France, Italy and

211
 4.1. Dam Design
It is important to note that in the 1950s, two different approaches were used to per-
form stress analyses of dams on both sides of the Atlantic. In the USA, the design of dams
Eng 2023, 4
was based on an extensive analytical method, the so-called trial-load method, developed
by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Meanwhile, European countries, mainly France, Italy
and Portugal, preferred the use of small-scale structural models rather than the time-con-
suming trial-load method to find the final shape of the dam. As a result, the arch dams
Portugal, preferred the use of small-scale structural models rather than the time-consuming
constructed in Europe were thinner than those constructed in the USA [21,22].
trial-load method to find the final shape of the dam. As a result, the arch dams constructed
In the present case, the preliminary design of the dam was based on the “independent
in Europe were thinner than those constructed in the USA [21,22].
arch” theory. According to this theory, the dam was assumed to be divided by horizontal
In the present case, the preliminary design of the dam was based on the “independent
planes into arch rings of units of vertical height. These rings were considered to work as
arch” theory. According to this theory, the dam was assumed to be divided by horizontal
independent arches.
planes into arch rings of units of vertical height. These rings were considered to work as
For the final design of the dam, small physical (or scale) model tests were carried out
independent arches.
in the LNEC. The tests were performed in homogeneous plaster–diatomite models at a
For the final design of the dam, small physical (or scale) model tests were carried out
scale of 1/200. Figure 3 illustrates the principal stress path obtained using brittle varnish
in the LNEC. The tests were performed in homogeneous plaster–diatomite models at a
technique, the average principal stresses obtained in the tests for a reservoir water level of
scale of 1/200. Figure 3 illustrates the principal stress path obtained using brittle varnish
177.5 m and the composition of these stresses with the stresses computed by analytical
technique, the average principal stresses obtained in the tests for a reservoir water level
method
of 177.5 mfor thethe
and self-weight of the
composition of dam.
these stresses with the stresses computed by analytical
method for the self-weight of the dam.

Figure3.3.Principal
Figure Principalstress onon
stress thethe
downstream
downstream faceface
(on (on
the left) and on
the left) andthe
onupstream face (on
the upstream the(on
face right)
the
obtained by model tests (adapted from [16]).
right) obtained by model tests (adapted from [16]).

At
Atthethesame
sametime, in in
time, order to reach
order a more
to reach meaningful
a more estimate
meaningful of the of
estimate margin of safety,
the margin of
tests up to failure were also performed. To this aim, a technique was employed of
safety, tests up to failure were also performed. To this aim, a technique was employed loadingof
with jacks that simultaneously increased the dead weight and water load, thus reproducing
loading with jacks that simultaneously increased the dead weight and water load, thus
progressive reductions in the concrete strength, as shown in Figure 4.
reproducing progressive reductions in the concrete strength, as shown in Figure 4.
4.2. Dam Construction and Initial Impoundment
The construction of the dam took place between October 1954 and September 1955.
The first filling of the reservoir began in 1955, with the dam still under construction.
The grouting of the contraction joints was carried out in various stages between May
1955 and March 1956. During May and June 1955, with the dam still under construction,
the grouting of the lower part was performed, between the foundation and the level at 135
m. The middle part between the levels at 135 m and 155 m was performed in August 1955.
Finally, the grouting of the upper part took place between February and March 1956, in
correspondence with the first emptying of the reservoir.
Between August and September 1958, a second emptying of the reservoir took place,
however no work was reported at that time.

212
Eng 2023, 4

Figure 4. Tests up to failure of the dam (adapted from [18,23]).

4.2. Dam Construction and Initial Impoundment

The construction of the dam took place between October 1954 and September 1955.
The first filling of the reservoir began in 1955, with the dam still under construction.
The grouting of the contraction joints was carried out in various stages between May
1955 and March 1956. During May and June 1955, with the dam still under construction,
the grouting of the lower part was performed, between the foundation and the level at 135
A.- Compressive
m. The middlefailure at part
the arch crown
between the levels at 135 m and 155 m was performed in August 1955.
B.- Flexural failure at the arch abutments
Finally,
C.- Failure due tothe grouting of the upper part took place between February and March 1956, in
thrust
D.- Secondary failures
correspondence with the first emptying of the reservoir.
Between August and September 1958, a second emptying of the reservoir took place,
Figure 4. Tests
however noupworkto failure of the dam
was reported (adapted
at that time. from [18,23]).

4.3. 4.3.
Cracking Evolution
Cracking Evolution
TheThe
existence
existenceof of
water
waterseepage
seepagethrough
through somesome construction jointshas
construction joints hasbeen
beenknown
known since
1976. As1976.
since timeAs passes, the leaching
time passes, fromfrom
the leaching the the
concrete
concretehas
hasbeen
beenforming
forming calcium carbonate
calcium car-
deposits
bonateon the downstream
deposits face offace
on the downstream the ofdam. Besides
the dam. these
Besides water
these leaking
water leakingcracks,
cracks, several
construction joint openings
several construction also exist
joint openings alsoatexist
a lower level.level.
at a lower
Figure
Figure 5 shows
5 shows thethe evolutionofofthe
evolution thedownstream
downstream face’s
face’s appearance
appearance overovernearly
nearly2525 years.
The oldest photograph of the damage that the authors could find goes backtoto
years. The oldest photograph of the damage that the authors could find goes back some
some time
time before 1992 and corresponds to the inventory of dams in Portugal published in 1992
before 1992 and corresponds to the inventory of dams in Portugal published in 1992 [24].
[24]. The rest of the photographs correspond to the periodic inspections carried out by
TheLNEC
rest ofsince
the2002.
photographs
The major correspond
change observed to the periodic
in this period inspections
corresponds to carried
Januaryout by LNEC
2007,
since
when a new seepage path through another construction joint appeared in the monolith when a
2002. The major change observed in this period corresponds to January 2007,
newG–H.
seepage path through another construction joint appeared in the monolith G–H.

Eng 2023, 4 1271

Early 1990s July 2004

May 2007 January 2009

May 2011 January 2015

Figure 5. Downstream
Figure 5. Downstreamsurface
surface appearance from
appearance from early
early 1990s
1990s to January
to January 2015. 2015.

As part of the safety inspection, the owner of the dam has performed periodical crack
surveys since 1982. These surveys allow us to identify and locate the existent cracks, as
well as follow their evolution, as shown in Figure 6.
213
 May 2011 January 2015
Eng 2023, 4
Figure 5. Downstream surface appearance from early 1990s to January 2015.

As part of the safety inspection, the owner of the dam has performed periodical crack
As part of the safety inspection, the owner of the dam has performed periodical crack
surveys since 1982. These surveys allow us to identify and locate the existent cracks, as
surveys since 1982. These surveys allow us to identify and locate the existent cracks, as
well
well as
as follow theirevolution,
follow their evolution,asasshown
showninin Figure
Figure 6. 6.

Figure 6. Crack survey carried out in March 2012.

FigureIn6.addition,
Crack survey
somecarried
cracksout in March
were 2012. with joint meters. Figure 7 shows, from
instrumented
Eng 2023, 4 top to bottom, in the first graph, the monthly average temperature and the water level, and
Infollowing
in the addition,three
somegraphs,
cracks the
were instrumented
monitored with
opening of joint meters.installed
joint meters Figure 7inshows, from
crack 3,
top to bottom, in the first graph, the monthly average temperature
crack 5 and crack 7, respectively, for the period between 2002 and 2016. and the water level,
and in the following three graphs, the monitored opening of joint meters installed in crack
3, crack 5 and crack Monthly
7, respectively,
average for the period [°C]
air temperature between
[ºC] 2002 and 2016.
30 Water level [m] 185
25 180

[m]
20 175
[°C]

15 170
10 165
5 160
0.50 Crack 3
0.25
0.00
0.50 Crack 5
0.25
Opening [mm]

0.00
1.50
1.25 Crack 7
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
01 January 2002

01 January 2003

01 January 2004

31 December 2004

01 January 2006

01 January 2007

01 January 2008

31 December 2008

01 January 2010

01 January 2011

01 January 2012

31 December 2012

01 January 2014

01 January 2015

01 January 2016

31 December 2016

Figure 7. Monthly average air temperature, reservoir levels, and monitored crack openings between
2002 and 2016.Figure 7. Monthly average air temperature, reservoir levels, and monitored crack openings
2002 and 2016.

5. Cabinet Works
214 and Initial Diagnosis Hypothesis
Apart from the open construction joints, the dam did not present any other
Eng 2023, 4

5. Cabinet Works and Initial Diagnosis Hypothesis

Apart from the open construction joints, the dam did not present any other significant
signs of concrete deterioration. The classic symptom of map cracking induced by AAR
was not observed. Nevertheless, the displacements of the dam were analyzed in order to
detect any signs of irreversible displacements. As it has already been established, in arch
dams, internal concrete swelling phenomena usually induce upstream drift and crest rises,
even before cracking takes place. Since irreversible displacements were not detected, any
swelling processes could be excluded from our study.
Additionally, with respect to progressive deformation, it is important to note that,
although there is no sign of non-recoverable deformation in the no-stress strain meters
located in most of the dam, the no-stress strain meters installed near the foundation have
been showing signs of concrete swelling since 2001. However, this phenomenon is limited
and does not justify, at this moment, further investigation.
After excluding an ongoing swelling process effect, thermal stresses were identified as
the main cause of the opening of the construction joints.
It is worth noting that the properties of construction joints are greatly influenced
by how the joints are prepared before pouring the next lift of concrete. Even with good
preparation, the strength and fracture energy at a construction joint are much lower than
the values for mass concrete, creating horizontal planes of weaknesses [25]. Therefore, it
is not surprising that vertical tensile stresses were released by the opening of the nearest
construction joints.
As the open construction joints with water seepage (cracks 3, 5 and 24) show a very
slight opening seasonal variation compared with the cracks situated under the level of
150 m, as illustrated by Figure 7, the phenomenon associated with each type of cracking
was considered as a different type.
For the lower cracks, the high seasonal fluctuation together with the absence of seepage
suggest that they are thermal fatigue cracks due to the seasonal thermal variation acting
on the downstream face of the dam. These fatigue cracks do not propagate a lot in depth.
Thus, they do not compromise the behavior of the structure under static loads and their
formation will be not studied in this paper.
On the other hand, the formation of the cracks located over the level of 150 m was asso-
ciated with the fact that the initial impoundment started with the dam under construction.
The upper concrete lifts did not have enough time to release all the heat of hydration before
being in contact with the cold water. Once opened, the water pressure within the cracks
triggered additional damage and weakened the fracture properties. This effect coupled
with the hydrostatic pressure slowly opened a water path to the downstream face, leaching
calcium carbonate.
In the following section, the formation of the cracks over the level at 150 m due to
thermal stresses generated during the initial impoundment will be investigated using FEA.

6. Finite Element Model

In their guidelines for nonlinear FEA of existing concrete structures and infrastructures,
Hendrix et al. remark:
A finite element model of a structure is an abstraction of the physical structure
with a number of assumptions, generalizations, and idealizations. The abstraction
process has two distinct steps: first, the abstraction from the structure to the
mechanical model, and then the abstraction from the mechanical model to the
finite element model. In the first step, assumptions and simplifications have to
be made regarding to which extent and to which detail the structure has to be
modeled, how the boundaries of the model are described, which loads on the
structure are significant and how they are described, et cetera. The second step
is to discretize the mechanical model into a finite element model, and attach the
necessary attributes such as material models, boundary conditions, and loading
to the finite element model (Hendrix et al. [26], p. 9).

215
Eng 2023, 4

Indeed, FEA requires a great number of a priori modeling decisions. These decisions
require a certain level of expertise and are quite subjective in nature, leading to considerable
differences in the approaches adopted. As pointed out by Saouma and Hariri-Ardebili [27]
(p. 243), “the selected finite element analysis is often a compromise between: (a) needs and
Eng 2023, 4
time constraint, (b) our understanding of the problem and of nonlinear analysis, (c) tools
available, and (d) quality of results expected”.
Based on previous experience in modeling the behavior of concrete arch dams during
6.1. Finite
initial impounding [28], aElement Mesh
chemo-thermal-mechanical model is elaborated to investigate the
crack formation during the finite
For the first filling of the
element reservoir.
analysis, theFirst, a chemo-thermal
double analysis
curvature concrete archusing
dam and an
the chemical affinity concept is
quate volume ofcarried out to determine
the foundation the temperature
are represented as shown distribution during
in Figure 8.
the construction and Thethe initial
dam impoundment
model comprises of thelayers
four dam. ofThen, a nonlinear
20-node viscoelastic
solid elements. To facilitat
analysis is performed in order to obtain the structural response of the dam, with
transmission of data from the chemo-thermal analysis to the mechanical analysi particular
focus on the nonlinear
same solid behavior
elements’caused
meshbyisthe opening
utilized forand
bothclosure of the contraction
the thermal joints analy
and the mechanical
as well as the interface between
In order to taketheinto
damaccount
and thethefoundation.
influence of the contraction joints in the mecha
analysis, the arch is divided into 17 monoliths. The contraction joints and the dam–
6.1. Finite Element Mesh
dation interface are represented by 16-node zero-thickness interface elements. The m
For the finite element
consists analysis,
of 5200 the double
solid elements andcurvature concrete
968 interface arch dam and an ade-
elements.
quate volume of the foundation are represented as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Finite element model of the dam.

Figure 8. Finite element model of the dam.
The dam model comprises four layers of 20-node solid elements. To facilitate the
transmission of data
6.2. from the
Thermal chemo-thermal analysis to the mechanical analysis, the same
Analysis
solid elements’ mesh is utilized for both the thermal and the mechanical analysis.
6.2.1. Governing Equations
In order to take into account the influence of the contraction joints in the mechani-
Forisa divided
cal analysis, the arch stationary medium,
into the transient
17 monoliths. heat conduction
The contraction jointsequation is given as fol
and the dam–
foundation interface are represented𝜕 by 16-node
𝜕𝑇 𝜕zero-thickness
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 interface
𝜕𝑇 elements.
𝜕𝑇 The
model consists of 5200 solid elements 𝑘 968 interface
and + 𝑘 elements.
+ 𝑘 +𝐺 =𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
6.2. Thermal Analysis
with the following boundary conditions:
6.2.1. Governing Equations
𝑇=𝑇 in Γ
For a stationary medium, the transient heat conduction equation is given as follows:
  𝜕𝑇  𝜕𝑇  𝜕𝑇
∂ ∂T 𝑘 ∂ 𝑙 + ∂T𝑘 ∂𝑚 + ∂T
𝑘 𝑛 + 𝑞 +∂T𝑞 + 𝑞 = 0 in Γ
kx + 𝜕𝑥 k y +𝜕𝑦 k z 𝜕𝑧+ G = ρ c (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
and the following initial condition:
with the following boundary conditions:
𝑇= 𝑇 in Ω for 𝑡 = 𝑡
−
where 𝑡 is the time; 𝑇 isTthe in Γ T
= Ttemperature; 𝑘 , 𝑘 and 𝑘 are the thermal (2)conductiv
𝐺 is the internally generated heat per unit of volume and time; 𝜌 is the material de
𝑐 is the specific heat; 𝑇 is the temperature at the boundary Γ ; 𝑞 is the heat flux d
convection; 𝑞 216is the heat flux due to radiation and 𝑞 is the solar radiation absor
at the boundary Γ ; 𝑙 , 𝑚 and 𝑛 are the direction cosines; and 𝑇 is the temperatu
Eng 2023, 4

∂T ∂T ∂T
kx l + k y m + k z n + qc + qr + qq = 0 in Γq (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
and the following initial condition:

T = To in Ω for t = to (4)

where t is the time; T is the temperature; k x , k y and k z are the thermal conductivities; G is
the internally generated heat per unit of volume and time; ρ is the material density; c is the
−
specific heat; T is the temperature at the boundary Γ T ; qc is the heat flux due to convection;
qr is the heat flux due to radiation and qq is the solar radiation absorption at the boundary
Γq ; l, m and n are the direction cosines; and To is the temperature at time to . It is noteworthy
that the convention in expression (3) is positive when heat flux flows outwards from the
body [29].
The convective heat transfer between the structure’s surface and the air is influenced
by the wind speed and air temperature. The heat gain or loss from a surface due to
convection is given as follows:
qc = hc ( T − Ta ) (5)
where hc is the convection heat transfer coefficient and Ta is the air temperature.
Due to the difference in temperature between the structure’s surface and the sur-
rounding air, the surface of the structure emits electromagnetic radiation known as thermal
radiation. This radiation is measured by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as follows:
 
qr = ε σ T 4 − Ta4 (6)

where ε is the emissivity of the surface and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant given as
5.669 × 10−8 W(m2 K). However, when T and Ta are close, which is the normal condition
in civil engineering structures, it is possible to rewrite (6) in a quasi-linear form as follows:

qr = hr ( T − Ta ) (7)

where hr is the radiation linear coefficient defined as follows:

 
hr = ε σ T 2 − Ta2 ( T − Ta ) (8)

As a result, the total heat transfer can be calculated by combining the contribution of
both heat transfer mechanisms, convection and radiation, leading to the definition of a new
coefficient called total thermal transmission coefficient, ht . In essence, this new coefficient
is a convection heat transfer coefficient that is updated to consider radiation.
Finally, the solar radiation boundary condition is given as follows:

q q = a IT (9)

where a is the absorption coefficient and IT is the solar irradiance.

6.2.2. Chemo-Thermal Model

Different mathematical formulations as a function of time, representing the evolution
of heat of hydration in adiabatic conditions, have been proposed. In reality, however,
hydration does not evolve adiabatically, and the heat source is greatly affected by the actual
values of the temperatures that develop inside the concrete. As a result, the time parameter
by itself is insufficient to accurately describe the progress of the hydration reaction. Due
to the reciprocal relationship between the rate of hydration and the temperature of the
concrete, it is necessary to explicitly model the effect of the actual temperature and the

217
Eng 2023, 4

rate of reaction when calculating both the temperature development and the hardening
process [30].
The evolution of the hydration reaction is represented by an Arrhenius-type equation
that takes into consideration the thermo-activation and exothermic nature of the reaction,
following the hydration kinetic model based on the thermodynamics of multiphase porous
media proposed by Ulm and Coussy [31], in which the variation of the skeleton mass
(reaction velocity) dm
dt in [mol/s] is expressed as follows:
 
dm 1 Ea
= A exp (10)
dt η RT

where η is a viscosity term representing the increase in physical barrier of calcium silicate
hydrates (CSH), which tends to isolate the cement grain from the free water, and depends
on the state of the hydration reaction; A is the affinity of the chemical reaction or, in other
words, the thermodynamic force associated to the rate of hydration formation, which also
depends on the state of the hydration reaction; Ea is the apparent thermal activation energy,
which is considered to be constant with relation to the hydration degree; R is the universal
constant of gases [8.314 J/(mol K)]; and T is the temperature in K.
For practical reasons, it is helpful to rewrite the model in terms of the normalized
variable called hydration degree, defined as the relation between the mass of the skele-
ton at time t normalized by the mass of the skeleton when hydration is complete, i.e.,
ξ (t) = m(t)/m∞  
. ∼ Ea
ξ = A(ξ ) exp − (11)
RT
. ∼
where ξ is the time derivative of ξ, and the function A(ξ ) is the normalized affinity which
completely characterizes the macroscopic hydration kinetics for a given concrete mixture.
Then, the problem of heat transfer during concrete hydration is obtained from Equation (1),
.
substituting the internally generated heat per unit of volume and time G by the term Lξ,
where L represents the latent heat of hydration of the material:
      .
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
kx + ky + kz + Lξ = ρ c (12)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

The simultaneous solution of the two last equation represents the thermochemical
coupling, which is a nonlinear problem in T and ξ.
Among the different empirical relationships used to represent the normalized affinity
∼
A(ξ ), the empirical relationship reported by Cervera et al. [32] was adopted in this work:
   
∼ kξ Aξo − ξ
A(ξ ) = + ξ (ξ ∞ − ξ ) exp − η (13)
ηξo kξ ξ ∞ ξ∞

−
where ξ ∞ is the asymptotic degree of hydration, and kξ , Aξo , ηξo and η are material properties.

6.2.3. Thermal Properties

The thermal properties of the concrete were determined using the method reported
by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in [33]. This method is based on the mix proportions
and petrographic composition of aggregates. It assumes that each material composing the
concrete contributes to the conductivity and specific heat in proportion to the amount of the
material present in the concrete. Taking into account that the average composition of the
concrete used in the dam, expressed in part by weight, was 1:1.66:6.66 (cement:sand:granite)
with a water/cement ratio of 0.52 [20], and assuming a reference temperature of 20 ◦ C, we
found that k = 2.65 W/(m ◦ C) and c = 866 J/(kg ◦ C).
Table 1 lists the concrete and rock mass foundation parameters that were employed in
the thermal analysis.

218
 Eng 2023, 4

Table 1. Thermal material properties.

Properties Rock Mass Foundation Concrete

Density ρ [kg/m3 ] 2657 2460
Specific heat c [J/(kg ◦ C)] 715 866
Thermal conductivity k [W/(m ◦ C)]] 4.91 2.65

The computation of the S-shape function representing the heat of hydration of the
concrete was based on the data given in [15], which refers to three samples of cement tested
at the ages of 3, 7 and 28 days. Additionally, the heat at the ages of 90 and 365 days was
estimated applying a percentage of increase based on the 28 days’ value given in [20],
resulting in the following:  
B
23, 4 Q = A exp (14)
t
where Q is the heat of hydration in [kJ/m3 ], t is the time in [h], A = kJ/m3 and B = −65 h,
as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Concrete heat of hydration development.

After
Figure 9.applying
Concretethe approach
heat ofpresented in [34] and
hydration assuming ξ ∞ = 0.75 and Ea /R = 4000 K,
development. −1 −2
the parameters of Equation (13) result in the following: k ξ /ηξo = 34.17 s ; Aξo /kξ = 1.34 × 10 ;
−
and η = 6.26.
After applying the approach presented in [34] and assumin
6.2.4. Boundary Conditions
4000 K, the parameters of Equation (13) result in the following: 𝑘
Convection/radiation heat transfer and solar radiation flux absorption boundary
=conditions
1.34 × 10 −2; and 𝜂̅ = 6.26.
were used for the dam’s air-exposed boundaries. Fixed reservoir water tem-
perature boundary conditions were used for the dam’s submerged boundaries. Convec-
tion/radiation heat transfer boundary conditions were used for the air-exposed boundaries.
6.2.4. Boundary
Furthermore, adiabaticConditions
boundary conditions at the lateral faces and a fixed temperature
boundary condition of 12 ◦ C at the bottom were applied to the artificial boundaries of the
Convection/radiation
rock mass foundation. heat transfer and solar radiation flux abs
ditionsThe average
were monthly
used for temperature recorded
the dam’s at the dam site during
air-exposed the construction,
boundaries. Fixed re
initial impoundment and first period of operation, along with a daily variation extrapolated
ture
from boundary conditions
more recent readings, were usedwere used
to estimate the for
dailythe dam’s submerged
air temperature variation. The boun
diation heat transfer boundary conditions were used for the air-exp
thermore, adiabatic boundary conditions at the lateral faces an
boundary condition of 12 °C at the bottom were applied to the arti
rock mass foundation.219

The average monthly temperature recorded at the dam site d

Eng 2023, 4

solar irradiance was represented by an exponential function derived from the graphics
presented in [20] for the different Portuguese regions:

Ib
= Io exp(−0.968 + 0.760cos Z ) (15)
cos Z
where Ib is the beam component of the solar radiation, Z is the solar zenith angle and Io is
the solar constant (1367 W/m2 ).
The total heat transfer coefficient ht was set to a constant value of 24 W/(m2 K) for
the whole model, with the exception of the formwork-insulated surfaces. Due to the lack
of information about the formwork characteristics, an empirical value of 0.10 times the
total heat transfer coefficient of the concrete was adopted, yielding ht = 2.4 W/(m2 K). The
concrete absorption coefficient was assumed as 0.5.
As mentioned before, the reservoir water temperature was introduced as a prescribed
temperature. For the initial period, from the start of the impoundment to 31 December
1956, a constant value over the completed depth of 11 ◦ C was adopted. After 31 December
1956, the approximation given by Bofang [35] was adopted as follows:
 
water water water 2π
T (y, d)= T m (y)− T a (y) cos [d − do (y)] [◦ C] (16)
365

with
Tmwater (y) = 11 + 5 exp(−0.16y) [◦ C] (17)

Tawater (y) = −6exp(−0.067y) [◦ C] (18)

do (y) = 4450[1 − exp(−0.00038y)]+24.6 [days] (19)

where y is the depth of the water; d is the fractional day of the year; and Tmwater , Tawater
and do are the annual mean temperature, the amplitude of annual variation and the phase
difference of water temperature at depth y, respectively.
More details about how to apply dam boundary conditions can be seen in [36].

6.2.5. Concrete Placement Schedule

Due to the lack of sufficient data on the concrete placement schedule, it was determined
using the data available in the original LNEC technical reports by trial-and-error processes.
In particular, the quarterly construction progress (Figure 10a), the volume of concrete
pouring per month (Figure 10b) and the installation date for embedded monitoring devices
were used.
The concrete placement of the dam was performed with a lift thickness of 2 m and an
interval of placement of 3 days. However, the lift thickness and the intervals of placement
adopted in the simulation have to be adapted to the 5 m height of the finite element used
to represent the dam, resulting in one-week interval of placement. Therefore, the “birth”
of a new element in height occurred, at least, one week after the “birth” of the underlying
element. Figure 10c shows the final one-week interval placement schedule adopted for the
simulation.

6.2.6. Analysis and Results

The in-house code PATQ [34], which uses a fully implicit backward Euler finite dif-
ference scheme for the time discretization and a finite element scheme for the spatial
discretization, was used to perform the transient thermal analysis. Due to the dependence
of the hydration rate on temperature, it uses a two-level iterative procedure. At the struc-
tural level, the iteration is caused by the nonlinear dependence of the “thermal body force”
on the temperature. At the local level (that is, at each integration point), the iteration is a

220
 phase difference of water temperature at depth 𝑦, respectively.
More details about how to apply dam boundary conditions can be seen in [36].

6.2.5. Concrete Placement Schedule

Eng 2023, 4 Due to the lack of sufficient data on the concrete placement schedule, it was deter-
mined using the data available in the original LNEC technical reports by trial-and-error
processes. In particular, the quarterly construction progress (Figure 10a), the volume of
concrete pouring per month (Figure 10b) and the installation date for embedded monitor-
result of the nonlinear dependence of the degree of hydration (internal variable) on the
ing devices were
temperature (free used.
variable).

Concrete volume [×103 m3]

8 Actual
7 Simulated
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure
Figure 10. Concrete placement
10. Concrete placementschedule:
schedule:(a(a) quarterly
) quarterly construction
construction progress;
progress; (b)(b) comparison
comparison of
of the
actual
the andand
actual simulated volume
simulated ofofconcrete
volume concretepouring
pouringper
permonth; c) concrete
month; ((c) concrete placement
placement schedule
schedule
adoptedfor
adopted forthe
thesimulation.
simulation.

The
The birth andplacement
concrete death approach was used
of the dam to update with
was performed the finite
a lift element
thicknessmodel
of 2 matand eachan
step of construction.
interval of placementTheof 3analysis was carried
days. However, outthickness
the lift using anand
incremental timeofstepping
the intervals placement of
1adopted
h. in the simulation have to be adapted to the 5 m height of the finite element used
To evaluate
to represent the performance
the dam, of the model,
resulting in one-week the simulation
interval of placement. was performed
Therefore, theover an
“birth”
extended period from
of a new element the beginning
in height ofleast,
occurred, at the construction, in the
one week after October
“birth”1954, to underlying
of the December
1958. In this
element. way,10c
Figure theshows
simulation encompasses
the final one-week the construction
interval placementphase, the first
schedule filling for
adopted of the
the
reservoir
simulation.and the two first times the reservoir was emptied.
A comparison of the predicted and measured temperatures was performed to validate
the model. Figure 11 compares the temperatures measured by thermometers T12, T14, T17,
T20 and T22 located at an elevation of 150 m in monolith I–J to those obtained with the
numerical model at the same position.

221
Eng 2023, 4
Eng 2023, 4 1280

Monthly average air temperature [°C]

[ºC]
Water level [m]
30 180
25 170
20 160

[m]
[°C]
15 150
10 140
5 130
0 120
35

Temperature [°C]
30
T12
25
20
15
10
5
0
45
40
T14
Temperature [°C]

35
30
25
20
15
T17 10
T12 T22
5
T14 T20 0
45
40
T17
Temperature [°C]

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
45
40
Thermometer T20
Temperature [°C]

35
30
25
20
15
10 T22
5
0
35
Temperatue [°C]

30
25
T22
20
15
10
5
0
8 March 1956
3 May 1956

6 March 1958
1 May 1958
26 August 1954

23 August 1956

21 August 1958
1 July 1954

21 October 1954

10 February 1955
7 April 1955

28 July 1955

17 November 1955
12 January 1956

28 June 1956

18 October 1956

4 April 1957
30 May 1957
25 July 1957

14 November 1957
9 January 1958

26 June 1958

16 October 1958
22 September 1955

19 September 1957
16 December 1954

2 June 1955

13 December 1956
7 February 1957

11 December 1958

Numerical results Monitored values

Figure 11. Monthly average air temperature, reservoir levels and comparison of predicted and
Figure 11. Monthly average air temperature, reservoir levels and comparison of predicted and mon-
monitored temperatures at thermometers in monoliths I–J at an elevation of 150 m.
itored temperatures at thermometers in monoliths I–J at an elevation of 150 m.

222
Eng 2023, 4

It is important to note that monitoring data measured before 1970 were stored in the
form of hand-drawn lines charts. Therefore, WebPlotDigitalizer [37] was used in order to
extract the corresponding numerical data for the analysis.
Overall, between the numerically calculated temperatures and the monitored data, a
very good agreement was observed. Consequently, we had confidence that the thermal
model could accurately describe the temperature loads.

6.3. Mechanical Analysis

Lombardi’s paper, which was presented at the Dam Fracture Workshop in Locarno in
September 1990, pointed out that a dam:
. . . is not a simple, ideal, elastic body. Vertical contraction joints subdivide the
dam in blocks. Even after grouting they will represent a discontinuity in as much
as they cannot be grouted to the dam faces but only to the water-stops. Addi-
tionally, the grouting is seldom carried out in a completely satisfactory manner.
Furthermore, the concrete is placed in layers and lifts making weakness planes
possible at frequent elevations, and inhomogeneities and anisotropies – which
can hardly be detected – are likely to exist in the concrete mass (Lombardi [38],
p. 4).
Therefore, as the above quotation suggests, a model considering elastic, isotropic, and
homogeneous materials which are free from discontinuities is not a true representation
of the concrete of the dam or the rock mass foundation. Nevertheless, it will be always
necessary to adopt some degree of simplification. For one, it is impossible to know and
more so to represent all the inhomogeneities, anisotropies and discontinuities present in
the dam and its foundation. Moreover, an idealized simple model can better explain and
characterize the dominant features of the physical phenomena studied.
Therefore, in order to characterize the actual behavior of the dam, two different finite
element models were adopted. The two models were selected in order to demarcate the
bandwidth within which the behavior of the dam is expected. The first one is a linear
continuous model, which is the standard model used in a dam analysis. In the second
model, the nonlinear model, the contraction joints and the dam–foundation interface are
represented explicitly by no-tension interface elements.

6.3.1. Mechanical Properties

In order to take into account the creep effect, the double power law [39] was adopted
for the concrete as follows:

1 ϕ  −m 
n
J t − t0 = + 1 t0 + α t − t0 (20)
Eo Eo

where J (t − t0 ) is the compliance function (or the creep function), i.e., the strain at age t
caused by a unit of uniaxial constant stress acting since age t0 ; Eo is the asymptotic modulus;
and n, m, α and ϕ1 are the material parameters.
Actually, as the finite element code uses the library MATPAR given by Bažant in [40],
the input data for expression (20) are expressed in terms of the following five parameters:
E28 , Eo /E28 , n, m and α. By calibrating the model with the recently recorded displacements,
Eo = 40.5 GPa was obtained. Based on this value and using the standard relationship
Eo /E28 = 1.5, E28 was fixed in 27 GPa. The remaining three parameters n, m and α were
estimated using the empirical formulas given in [39] for w/c = 0.52 and f 0 c = 27.5 MPa.
The rock mass foundation was considered as a linear elastic material. According to
the rock field tests carried out by LNEC, the rock mass foundation was divided in three
different zones, reflecting that near-surface rock is more weathered and fractured, as shown
in Figure 8.
Zero-thickness interface elements were used to represent the contraction joints and
the dam–foundation interface. In this formulation, the contact constraint is enforced by the

223
Eng 2023, 4

penalty method, where the normal stiffness k n and the tangential stiffnesses k s and k t play
the role of penalty coefficients. This means that they have to be set as high as possible to
guarantee that no penetration takes place while the joints are closed, but not so high to avoid
ill-posed problems. Hence, the normal and tangential stiffness have no physical meaning,
eliminating the need for extra experimental investigations. Moreover, the assumptions of
no-tension and no-sliding conditions to characterize the normal and tangential behavior,
respectively, also help us avoid the need for additional material parameters.
The material parameters utilized in the mechanical analysis are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Mechanical material properties.

Material Properties Values

Double power law
Eo [GPa] 40.50
n 0.12
m 0.34
Concrete
α 0.048
ϕ1 1.78
Poisson’s ratio ν 0.20
Coefficient of thermal expansion α
10−5
[1/◦ C]
Young0 s modulus E [GPa] 15.00, 5.00 or 1.80
Rock mass foundation Poisson0 s ratio ν 0.20
Coefficient of thermal expansion α
0.00
[1/◦ C]
k s = k t [GPa/m] 2000.00
Joints k n [GPa/m] 2000.00
ft 0.00

6.3.2. Loads
The analysis was carried out considering the dead load, normal water load and internal
strains caused by temperature changes.
The dead load corresponds to the weight of the concrete, and it was applied staggered
at the “birth” of each element. As the contraction joints are open during the construction
phase, the corresponding interface elements were considered inactive at this stage in order
to simulate the cantilever behavior of the monoliths during construction.
The normal water load corresponds to the hydrostatic pressures acting on the dam’s
upstream face resulting from the reservoir. For the computation of the normal water
load, the pressure is considered to vary linearly with depth and to act normally on the
dam surface.
The thermal load was computed from the temperature variation obtained in the
chemo-thermal analysis.
The uplift load at the dam–foundation interface was ignored because the dam is
very thin.

6.3.3. Analysis and Results

The phases of the construction, the initial impoundment and the first period of opera-
tion were solved incrementally through time. The in-house code PAVK [28] was used for
this analysis.
During the construction phase, the time intervals were constrained by the concrete
placement and formwork striking dates. After that, until 30 April 1956, a smaller time
interval of 1 or 2 days was used in order to follow the effect of the reservoir rise on the
upstream face of the dam. Finally, the analysis was completed with a two-week interval,
except when a geodetic survey was carried out.

224
 ation were solved incrementally through time. The in-house code PAVK [28] was used for
this analysis.
During the construction phase, the time intervals were constrained by the concrete
placement and formwork striking dates. After that, until 30 April 1956, a smaller time in-
Eng 2023, 4 terval of 1 or 2 days was used in order to follow the effect of the reservoir rise on the
upstream face of the dam. Finally, the analysis was completed with a two-week interval,
except when a geodetic survey was carried out.
Figure 1212
Figure compares
compares thethe
radial displacements
radial displacements obtained
obtainedwith thethe
with numerical
numericalmodel
modelwithwith
thethe corresponding values measured by geodetic survey triangulation. This figure shows,
corresponding values measured by geodetic survey triangulation. This figure shows,
from
from toptop
to to bottom,
bottom, in in
thethe first
first graph,
graph, thethe monthly
monthly average
average temperature
temperature andandthethe rising
rising
reservoir
reservoir water
water level;
level; andand in following
in the the following
threethree graphs,
graphs, the comparison
the comparison of the of the dis-
radial radial
displacements
placements at elevations
at elevations of 170of m,
170150
m, 150
m and m and
130 130 mblock
m in in block
I–J.I–J.
TheThe negative
negative direction
direction
indicates
indicates that
that thethe dam
dam moved
moved downstream.
downstream.

Figure 12. Monthly average air temperature, reservoir levels and comparison of predicted and
monitored radial displacements in monoliths I–J at elevations of 170 m, 150 m and 130 m.

As can be observed, the nonlinear model shows a better agreement with the monitored
radial displacements than the linear one. The comparison of the models shows that during
impoundment and emptying periods, the nonlinear model reflects larger displacements
than the linear one. This apparent greater flexibility of the nonlinear model is due to the
opening/closing of the contraction joints and the dam–foundation interface in response to
the stress changes.
In contrast, when the reservoir is full, leading to the closing of the contraction joints,
both models show almost similar displacement fluctuations. This fact corroborates that the
greater flexibility in the response of the dam for periods of low reservoir levels is due to the
movements of the discontinuities and not to a lower concrete modulus of elasticity.
The importance of considering the discontinuities in the model is also confirmed by
Figure 13, which shows the vertical stresses estimated and measured near the upstream
heel and the downstream toe of monoliths I–J.
The measured stresses were recorded by stress meters located at 1 m from the faces
of the dam. It is worth noting that the stress meter is a device that allows the direct
measurement of compressive stress. In contrast with strain meters, the stress meter is
fully responsive to compressive stress and very closely indicates the true stress at all times
without any further analysis, i.e., no elasticity modulus needs to be adopted, and without
regard to deformation due to causes other than stress [41].

225
 both models show almost similar displacement fluctuations. This fact corroborates that
the greater flexibility in the response of the dam for periods of low reservoir levels is due
to the movements of the discontinuities and not to a lower concrete modulus of elasticity.
The importance of considering the discontinuities in the model is also confirmed by
Eng 2023, 4
Figure 13, which shows the vertical stresses estimated and measured near the upstream
heel and the downstream toe of monoliths I–J.

Figure 13. Monthly average

Figure 13. air temperature,
Monthly average air reservoir
temperature,levels and
reservoir comparison
levels of pre-
and comparison of predicted and
monitored vertical stresses in monoliths I–J at elevations
dicted and monitored vertical stresses in monoliths I–J at elevations of 118 m.of 118 m.

The measured stressesAnalyzing

were Figure
recorded13 (stress meter meters
by stress CT3m), itlocated
can be observed that when
at 1 m from the the reservoir
faces
reaches approximately the level of 160 m, the two models no longer stay together. This is
of the dam. It is worth noting that the stress meter is a device that allows the direct meas-
because tensile stresses appear in the upstream heel of the dam, inducing the opening of
urement of compressive stress. In contrast
the corresponding with strain
dam–foundation meters,
interface the This
element. stress meterisisfully
behavior fully re- by
validated
sponsive to compressive stressmeasured
the stresses and very in closely indicates
stress meter CT3m. the true stress at all times with-
The opening of the interface element
out any further analysis, i.e., no elasticity modulus needs alsotomodifies the stresses
be adopted, andat without
the downstream
re- toe
gard to deformationofduethe to
dam, as shown
causes otherbythan
Figure 13 (stress
stress [41].meter CT1j). This is due to the redistribution
of the stresses, which causes the decrease in the cantilever stresses at the expense of an
Analyzing Figure 13 (stress meter CT3m), it can be observed that when the reservoir
increase of the arch stresses. This fact is validated by the stress meter CT1j.
reaches approximately the level of 160 m, the two models no longer stay together. This is
7. Validation
because tensile stresses appear inof the
theDiagnosis
upstream Hypothesis
heel of the dam, inducing the opening of
According to the previous
the corresponding dam–foundation interface element. Thisanalysis, the nonlinear
behavior model is thevalidated
is fully most representative
by
model of the behavior of the dam. Therefore, this model was used to study the cracking of
the stresses measured in stress meter CT3m.
the upstream face of the dam.
Figures 14 and 15 show the principal stress plots obtained during the initial impound-
ment over the upstream face of the dam. The surface stresses were computed in the center
of each external face by extrapolating the stresses obtained in the integration points.
The length and direction of the arrows show the relative magnitude and direction of
compression (blue) and tension (red).
The initial impoundment started on 3 September 1955 with an empty reservoir. The
rise in the reservoir level took place at a very high rate, reaching a level of 160 m on
26 September 1955.

226
 7. Validation of the Diagnosis Hypothesis
According to the previous analysis, the nonlinear model is the most representative
model of the behavior of the dam. Therefore, this model was used to study the cracking
of the upstream face of the dam.
Figures 14 and 15 show the principal stress plots obtained during the initial im-
Eng 2023, 4
poundment over the upstream face of the dam. The surface stresses were computed in the
center of each external face by extrapolating the stresses obtained in the integration points.

3 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

5 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

137,00 m
137.00 m

12 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

149.00 m

COMPRESSION

TENSION 0 5 10 MPa

Figure 14. Distribution of principal stresses over the upstream surface for the empty reservoir with a
water level of 137 m and 149 m.
As the water rose, the surface in contact with it cooled rapidly. The surface contraction
due to the cooling was restrained by the hotter interior concrete, which did not contract as
rapidly as the surface, and by the concrete located above the water level. As a result, an
equilibrium deformation was obtained, inducing thermal compressive stresses in the hotter
concrete and tensile stresses in the colder concrete, as can be observed in the principal stress
distributions represented in the figures.
Up to the water level of 149 m, the self-weight counterbalanced the vertical (cantilever)
stresses generated by the temperature variation. However, when the water level reached a
level of 153 m, the thermal vertical stresses started to be predominant, with a maximum
expression at a water level of 155 m. The nine days between the water levels of 155 m and

227
Eng 2023, 4 4
Eng 2023, 1285

16014.
Figure m Distribution
were enough of time to cool
principal the emerged
stresses concrete and
over the upstream lower
surface theempty
for the vertical tensile with
reservoir stresses.
a water level of 137 m and 149 m.

15 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

153,00 m
153.00

17 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

155,00 m
155.00

26 September 1955
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

160,00 m
160.00 m

COMPRESSION

TENSION 0 5 10 MPa

Figure 15. Distribution of principal stresses over the upstream surface for water levels of 153 m,
155 m and 160 m.
Figure 15. Distribution of principal stresses over the upstream surface for water levels of 153 m, 155
8. Prediction
m and 160 m. of Future Behavior
In order to corroborate that the presence of cracks has no influence on the static
The length
behavior of and direction
the dam, of the arrows
a comparison of show the relative
the radial magnitude
displacements and direction
measured of
by geodetic
compression (blue)
triangulation andand tension
those (red).
obtained with the finite element model are represented in Figure 16
The initial impoundment
for the period of 2001–2016. started on 3 September 1955 with an empty reservoir. The
rise in the reservoir level took place at a very high rate, reaching a level of 160 m on 26
September 1955.

228
 tensile stresses.

8. Prediction of Future Behavior

In order to corroborate that the presence of cracks has no influence on the static be-
havior of the dam, a comparison of the radial displacements measured by geodetic trian-
Eng 2023, 4 gulation and those obtained with the finite element model are represented in Figure 16 for
the period of 2001–2016.

Monthly average air temperature [°C]

[ºC]
Water level [m]
30 180
25 170
20 160

[m]
[°C]
15 150
10 140
5 130
0 120

10
0
-10
-20 GH 170
Radial displacement [mm]

-30
10
0
-10
-20 IJ 170
-30
10
0
Eng 2023, 4 -10 1287
-20 KL 170
-30
2 January 2002

2 January 2003

2 January 2004

1 January 2005

2 January 2006

2 January 2007

2 January 2008

1 January 2009

2 January 2010

2 January 2011

2 January 2012

1 January 2013

2 January 2014

2 January 2015

2 January 2016

1 January 2017
As for its potential seismic performance, an explanation can be found in the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineering Manual EM 1110-2-6053, illustrated in Figure 17:
In arch dams, potentially opened contraction joints and cracked lift lines may
subdivide the monolithic Nonlinear
arch numerical
structureresults
into partially free cantilever blocks, ca-
pable of transmitting only compressive
Monitored or frictional
values (owner surveys) forces. In this situation, any
failure mode of the arch structure
Monitored would
values (LNECmore likely involve sliding stability of
surveys)
the partially free cantilevers. For small and moderate joint openings, the par-
Figure Monthly
16.free
tially16. average blocks,
cantilever air temperature,
bounded reservoir levels andjoints,
by opened monitored
mayradial displacement
remain stable
Figure
between Monthly
2002 average air temperature, reservoir levels and monitored radial displacement
and 2016.
through interlocking
between 2002 and 2016. (wedging) with adjacent blocks. The extent of interlocking
depends onpotential
As for its the depth andperformance,
seismic type of shear ankeys and the
explanation canamount
be foundofinjoint opening
the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineering Manual EM 1110-2-6053, illustrated in Figure 17:
(EM 1110-2-6053 [42], p. 2–9).

Figure 17. Response of arch dams to major earthquakes (adapted from [42]).
Figure 17. Response of arch dams to major earthquakes (adapted from [42]).

9. Discussion and Conclusions

This paper presented the229
study, characterization and numerical simulation of the di-
agnosis procedure of the pathology affecting an old, thin dam. The cause of the main dam-
Eng 2023, 4

In arch dams, potentially opened contraction joints and cracked lift lines may
subdivide the monolithic arch structure into partially free cantilever blocks, ca-
pable of transmitting only compressive or frictional forces. In this situation, any
failure mode of the arch structure would more likely involve sliding stability
of the partially free cantilevers. For small and moderate joint openings, the
partially free cantilever blocks, bounded by opened joints, may remain stable
through interlocking (wedging) with adjacent blocks. The extent of interlocking
depends on the depth and type of shear keys and the amount of joint opening
(EM 1110-2-6053 [42], p. 2–9).

9. Discussion and Conclusions

This paper presented the study, characterization and numerical simulation of the
diagnosis procedure of the pathology affecting an old, thin dam. The cause of the main
damage observed in the dam was attributed to the thermal cracking of weak construction
joints during the initial impoundment. This hypothesis was validated through a chemo-
thermo-mechanical finite element model.
For the thermal analysis of its construction, initial impoundment and first period of
operation, a chemo-thermal model based on the chemical affinity concept was used.
Sequentially, a nonlinear viscoelastic analysis was performed in order to obtain the
structural response of the dam. In this analysis, the contraction joints and the dam–
foundation interface were modelled using zero-thickness interface elements under no-
tension and no-sliding conditions, which avoided the need to determine new material
parameters.
The conclusion of the analysis was that tensile vertical stresses developed on the
upstream face of the dam during the initial impoundment together with weak construction
joints caused the appearance of cracks in the upstream face of the dam. Over time, water
penetration expanded these cracks, reaching the downstream face.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.S.L.; methodology, N.S.L.; software, N.S.L. and E.C.;
validation, N.S.L. and E.C.; formal analysis, N.S.L.; investigation, N.S.L. and E.C.; writing—original
draft preparation, N.S.L.; writing—review and editing, N.S.L.; visualization, N.S.L.; supervision,
N.S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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