Psychological Study I

Title: Study of Memory

Aim: To measure the short-term memory of college undergraduate students

Introduction: Memory is one of the fundamental cognitive functions that allow

humans to retain, process, and retrieve information. Psychologists categorize
memory into different types based on its duration and capacity. The three primary
types are immediate memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term
memory (LTM). Each type plays a crucial role in information processing,
learning, and decision-making.

Immediate Memory

Definition and Function

Immediate memory is the briefest form of memory that retains information for a
fraction of a second to a few seconds. It acts as a temporary buffer for sensory
input before further processing occurs. This type of memory allows individuals to
perceive the world as continuous rather than fragmented.

Types of Sensory Memory

Immediate memory is divided into different sensory registers, each corresponding

to a different sensory modality:

1.​ Iconic Memory (Visual Memory)

o​ First identified by George Sperling (1960), iconic memory retains
visual information for approximately 250 to 500 milliseconds.
o​ It allows individuals to briefly perceive and process a large amount of
visual information.
o​ Example: If a person sees a lightning flash, their iconic memory
retains a visual impression for a split second after the flash disappears.
2.​ Echoic Memory (Auditory Memory)
o​ Coined by Ulric Neisser (1967), echoic memory holds auditory
information for 3 to 4 seconds.
o​ It helps in processing speech and environmental sounds.

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 o​ Example: When someone asks, "What did you say?" and instantly
recalls the last words, it is due to echoic memory.
3.​ Haptic Memory (Tactile Memory)
o​ This type of memory retains tactile sensations for about 1 to 2
seconds.
o​ It allows for quick reaction to touch stimuli.
o​ Example: The lingering feeling of an object after it is removed from
the skin.

Characteristics of Immediate Memory

●​ High capacity but brief duration: It can store a large amount of sensory
information but decays rapidly.
●​ Automatic processing: It does not require conscious effort.
●​ Precedes attention and perception: Only some sensory inputs move into
short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Definition and Function

Short-term memory (STM) refers to the temporary storage of information that lasts
for about 15 to 30 seconds unless rehearsed. It allows for active manipulation of
information before it is either discarded or encoded into long-term memory.

Capacity of Short-Term Memory

The Miller’s Law (1956) states that short-term memory can hold 7 ± 2 chunks of
information. However, more recent research suggests that it may be closer to 4±1
chunks (Cowan, 2001).

Encoding in Short-Term Memory

Information in STM is primarily encoded in the following ways:

1.​ Acoustic Encoding – Storing information based on sound patterns.

o​ Example: Remembering a phone number by repeating it aloud.
2.​ Visual Encoding – Storing images or spatial patterns.
o​ Example: Recalling the layout of a webpage.

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 3.​ Semantic Encoding – Processing the meaning of information.
o​ Example: Understanding the meaning of a word rather than just its
letters.

Ways to Improve Short-Term Memory

1.​ Chunking – Grouping information into meaningful units.

o​ Example: Remembering "FBICIAUSA" as "FBI-CIA-USA."
2.​ Rehearsal – Repeating information to maintain it in STM.
o​ Example: Repeating a phone number until it is dialed.
3.​ Mnemonics – Using memory aids such as acronyms or rhymes.
o​ Example: "VIBGYOR" for the colors of the rainbow.

Working Memory: A Modern View of STM

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) introduced the concept of working memory, which is
an extension of STM. Working memory consists of:

●​ The Phonological Loop – Processes verbal and auditory information.

●​ The Visuospatial Sketchpad – Stores and manipulates visual and spatial
information.
●​ The Central Executive – Directs attention and coordinates cognitive tasks.

Characteristics of Short-Term Memory

●​ Limited duration and capacity.

●​ Information is easily lost unless rehearsed.
●​ Essential for daily functioning, such as problem-solving and
comprehension.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Definition and Function

Long-term memory (LTM) refers to the storage of information over an extended

period, ranging from hours to a lifetime. Unlike STM, it has an unlimited capacity
and can retain vast amounts of information.

Types of Long-Term Memory

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LTM is categorized into two broad types: Explicit (Declarative) Memory and
Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory.

1. Explicit (Declarative) Memory

This type of memory requires conscious recall and is further divided into:

●​ Episodic Memory – Stores personal experiences.

o​ Example: Remembering a family vacation.
●​ Semantic Memory – Stores general knowledge and facts.
o​ Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

2. Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

This type of memory is unconscious and includes:

●​ Procedural Memory – Involves motor skills and habits.

o​ Example: Riding a bicycle.
●​ Priming – Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.
o​ Example: Recognizing a word faster after seeing it multiple times.

How Information is Stored in Long-Term Memory

LTM relies on two primary processes:

1.​ Encoding – The process of converting information into a form that can be
stored.
o​ Example: Associating a new fact with prior knowledge.
2.​ Retrieval – Accessing stored information when needed.
o​ Example: Recalling the name of a childhood friend.

Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory

●​ Repetition and Practice – Frequent exposure strengthens memory.

●​ Emotional Significance – Events with strong emotions are remembered
better.
●​ Sleep – Adequate sleep enhances memory consolidation.

Forgetfulness in Long-Term Memory

Forgetting in LTM occurs due to:

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 1.​ Decay Theory – Information fades over time if not used.
2.​ Interference Theory – New or old information disrupts recall.
o​ Proactive Interference – Old memories hinder new learning.
o​ Retroactive Interference – New learning disrupts old memories.
3.​ Retrieval Failure – Inability to access stored information.

Characteristics of Long-Term Memory

●​ Unlimited storage capacity.

●​ Lasts from hours to a lifetime.
●​ Retrieval can be influenced by cues.

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Hypothesis: Meaningful Words Are Easier to Remember Than
Nonsensical Syllables
Memory helps us store and recall information, but not everything is remembered
equally. Words that have meaning are easier to remember compared to random
syllables that do not make sense. This is because meaningful words connect to
what we already know, while nonsensical syllables have no familiar connections.

Hypothesis Statement

"People will remember meaningful words better than nonsensical syllables because
meaningful words are easier to understand and relate to past knowledge."

Why Meaningful Words Are Easier to Remember

1. Connection to What We Know

●​ When we hear a meaningful word, we link it to things we already

understand.
●​ Example: The word “Himachal” reminds us of a fruit, its color, and taste.
●​ A random syllable like “KOD” has no meaning, so it is harder to remember.

2. Easier to Picture and Repeat

●​ Meaningful words can create images in our minds, which helps in

remembering them.
●​ Example: It’s easy to imagine a “dog”, but impossible to imagine “ZUF”.
●​ Words with meaning are also easier to repeat, making them stay in memory
longer.

3. Research Findings

●​ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) found that nonsense syllables are forgotten

faster than meaningful words.
●​ Paivio (1971) showed that words linked to images are remembered better.

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Types of Psychological Testing
Psychological testing is used to measure different aspects of human behavior,
emotions, and cognitive abilities. There are many types of psychological testing,
but two major ones are psychometric testing and psychological experiment
testing.

Psychometric Testing

Definition and Purpose

Psychometric testing refers to the use of standardized tests to measure

psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, and emotional
well-being. These tests help psychologists and researchers assess a person’s mental
abilities and characteristics in a structured and objective way.

Types of Psychometric Tests

Psychometric tests are divided into different categories, including:

1.​ Intelligence Tests – Measure cognitive abilities such as problem-solving,

reasoning, and memory.​

○​ Example: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

2.​ Personality Tests – Assess behavioral traits, emotions, and personality
characteristics.​

○​ Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).

3.​ Aptitude Tests – Evaluate specific skills and abilities related to career or
education.​

○​ Example: Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT).

4.​ Emotional and Behavioral Tests – Measure emotional states, mood
disorders, and behavior patterns.​

○​ Example: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).

How Psychometric Testing is Conducted

1.​ The test is administered in a controlled environment to ensure accurate

results.

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 2.​ The individual responds to a series of structured questions or tasks.
3.​ The results are compared to standardized scoring systems to assess mental
abilities or personality traits.

Strengths of Psychometric Testing

●​ Standardized and objective, allowing for accurate comparisons.

●​ Efficient and quick, providing results in a short time.
●​ Useful in education, career, and clinical psychology.

Limitations of Psychometric Testing

●​ Cultural bias: Some tests may not apply to all individuals.

●​ Anxiety factor: Test results may be affected by stress or nervousness.
●​ Limited scope: Does not always capture complex human emotions and
behaviors.

Psychological Experiment Testing

Definition and Purpose

Psychological experiment testing is a scientific method used to study human

behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes under controlled conditions. These
experiments help researchers understand cause-and-effect relationships in
psychology.

Types of Psychological Experiments

1.​ Laboratory Experiments – Conducted in a controlled setting to study

specific psychological processes.​

○​ Example: Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Experiment, where dogs

learned to associate a bell with food.

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 2.​ Field Experiments – Conducted in real-world settings to observe natural
behaviors.​

○​ Example: Milgram’s Obedience Study, where people followed

instructions from authority figures.
3.​ Natural Experiments – Researchers study events that occur naturally,
without direct manipulation.​

○​ Example: Examining the psychological effects of natural disasters

on survivors.

How Psychological Experiment Testing is Conducted

1.​ Researchers develop a hypothesis about a psychological phenomenon.

2.​ Participants are exposed to controlled variables in an experimental setting.
3.​ Observations and data are collected to analyze patterns and behaviors.

Strengths of Psychological Experiment Testing

●​ Controlled conditions ensure accurate and reliable results.

●​ Can identify cause-and-effect relationships in behavior.
●​ Useful for understanding learning, memory, and emotions.

Limitations of Psychological Experiment Testing

●​ Ethical concerns: Some experiments may cause stress or discomfort to

participants.
●​ Artificial settings: Laboratory experiments may not reflect real-life
behavior.
●​ Observer bias: Participants may change behavior if they know they are
being observed.

Methodology
Study Design

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The study was designed to test whether meaningful words are easier to remember
compared to nonsensical syllables. A simple memory recall test was conducted in
which the subject was shown a list of both meaningful words and nonsensical
syllables. After a short period, she was asked to recall as many items from the list
as possible. The number of remembered words and syllables was recorded to
compare memory retention.

Selection of Subject

The subject for this study was a fellow undergraduate student. The details of the
participant are as follows:

●​ Name: Pooja Sahni

●​ Age: 29 years
●​ Gender: Female
●​ Educational Qualification: 10+2
●​ Lab Experience: None

Pooja was selected as a representative undergraduate student with no prior

experience in laboratory research.

Instructions Given to Subject

Before starting the experiment, the subject was informed about the following:

1.​ Informed Consent: She was given the right to decide whether or not to
participate in the study.
2.​ Privacy and Confidentiality: She was reassured that her identity and data
would be kept confidential.
3.​ Right to Withdraw: She was informed that she could leave the study at any
time if she felt uncomfortable or unwilling to continue.
4.​ How the rest is to be performed: Subject was thoroughly instructed on
how the test will be conducted and what she must do.

Materials Used

The following materials were used to conduct the study:

●​ Pen – For recording the subject’s responses.

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 ●​ Paper – For writing the word lists and taking notes.
●​ Tablet Computer – For displaying the list of words and syllables.
●​ Printer – For printing the word lists if needed.

●​ Precautions Taken

To ensure accurate results, certain precautions were followed:

●​ Eliminating Distractions: The experiment was conducted in a quiet

environment to avoid noise or interruptions.
●​ Maintaining a Neutral Tone: No hints or encouragement were given that
could influence the subject’s recall ability.
●​ Ensuring Clear Visibility: The words and syllables were presented in a
clear, readable font to avoid any difficulty in reading.

Actual Performance

1.​ The subject was shown a list of 8 meaningful words and 8 nonsensical
syllables.
2.​ She was given 5 minutes to memorize them.
3.​ After a 30 second gap, she was asked to dictate down as many words and
syllables as she could remember.
4.​ The number of correctly recalled words and syllables was recorded.

The results from this experiment will help determine whether meaningful words
are easier to remember than nonsensical syllables.

Table Presented To Subject For Memorization

Meaningful words Nonsensical syllables
Himachal KOD

Aft BET

Bohr NOG

Torpedo DIT

Starboard LOB

Sigmund TUG

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Horrendous DOD

Lucubrate GOT

Results
After conducting the experiment, the subject’s recall ability was measured based on
how many meaningful words and nonsensical syllables she was able to remember.
The findings are as follows:

1st Memory Recall Test

Meaningf Nonsensic Total Total errors

ul words al errors
recalled syllables (Nonsensic
recalled (Meaningf al)
ul)
3 out of 8 1 out of 8 5 7

2nd Memory Recall Test

Meaningf Nonsensic Total Total errors

ul words al errors
recalled syllables (Nonsensic
recalled (Meaningf al)
ul)
6 out of 8 2 out of 8 2 6

Discussion

The experiment aimed to test whether meaningful words are easier to remember
than nonsensical syllables. Based on the subject's performance in both memory
recall tests, the results indicate a clear difference in retention between the two types
of stimuli.

Analysis of the First Recall Test

In the first memory recall test, the subject recalled:

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 ●​ 3 out of 8 meaningful words correctly.
●​ 1 out of 8 nonsensical syllables correctly.
●​ 5 errors in recalling meaningful words.
●​ 7 errors in recalling nonsensical syllables.

These results suggest that the subject initially struggled to retain both types of
information, but the difficulty was more pronounced for nonsensical syllables. The
higher number of errors in recalling nonsensical syllables indicates that words
lacking meaning are harder to remember.

Analysis of the Second Recall Test

In the second memory recall test, the subject’s recall improved:

●​ 6 out of 8 meaningful words were remembered correctly.

●​ 2 out of 8 nonsensical syllables were remembered correctly.
●​ Errors in meaningful words decreased to 2, while errors in nonsensical
syllables reduced to 6.

This improvement suggests that repetition and practice played a role in enhancing
recall. However, despite the improvement, meaningful words were still
remembered at a much higher rate than nonsensical syllables.

Comparison Between Recall Tests

●​ The recall of meaningful words improved from 3 to 6, showing a 100%

increase in retention.
●​ The recall of nonsensical syllables improved from 1 to 2, showing only a
50% increase in retention.
●​ The total number of errors decreased, but errors remained significantly
higher for nonsensical syllables.

This confirms that meaningful words are easier to encode and retrieve from
memory compared to nonsensical syllables. The larger improvement in
meaningful word recall suggests that prior knowledge and associations help in
memory retention.

Possible Explanations for the Results

1.​ Semantic Encoding Advantage: Meaningful words are processed at a

deeper cognitive level, making them easier to remember. In contrast,

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 nonsensical syllables lack meaningful connections, making recall more
difficult.
2.​ Repetition and Familiarity: The second recall test showed improved
performance, suggesting that exposure and practice strengthen memory.
However, the improvement was greater for meaningful words, reinforcing
the role of prior knowledge in retention.
3.​ Cognitive Load: Nonsensical syllables require more mental effort to
memorize since they have no pre-existing associations in memory. This
could explain why the subject made more errors with them.

Conclusion
The findings from this experiment support the hypothesis that meaningful words
are easier to remember than nonsensical syllables. The subject consistently
recalled more meaningful words, with a significant improvement in the second
recall test, while nonsensical syllables remained difficult to retain. This suggests
that semantic connections and prior knowledge play a crucial role in memory
retention, making words with meaning easier to encode and retrieve. Additionally,
the results indicate that repetition can enhance memory recall, but meaningful
words benefit more from this effect than nonsensical syllables. Overall, this study
highlights the importance of meaning in memory processing and reinforces the
idea that information with context is easier to remember.

Introspective Report

This experiment provided valuable insights into how memory works and the role of
meaning in recall. As expected, the subject remembered more meaningful words
than nonsensical syllables, confirming that familiar concepts are easier to retain.
The second recall test showed improvement, but meaningful words had a greater
advantage, highlighting the importance of semantic connections in memory.

Conducting the experiment required careful planning, ensuring the subject felt
comfortable and minimizing distractions. It reinforced that memory is not just
about repetition but also about understanding and association. This experience
deepened my appreciation for cognitive psychology and the challenges of studying
memory. If repeated with more participants, the study could provide even stronger
evidence for these findings.

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References APA

1.​ Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology.

Teachers College, Columbia University.
2.​ Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
3.​ Baddeley, A. D., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2009). Memory (2nd
ed.). Psychology Press.
4.​ Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed
system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The
psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory
(Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic Press.
5.​ IGNOU BAPCH Notebook

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