Pre-test

A. Differentiate
1. descriptive statistics from inferential statistics
2. discrete from continuous variables
3. dependent from independent variables
4. nominal from ordinal measurements
5. ratio and interval measurements
B. Classify each of the following data as to discrete and continuous variables.
Write “D” if discrete and write “C” if continuous.
6. I.Q. of college students
7. basketball scores
8. weight of baby in ounces
9. score in an algebra test
10. population of a certain barangay
C. Categorize each of the following as either nominal
“N”, ordinal “O”, interval “I”, or ratio
“R”measurement.
11. statistics test scores
12. first place, second place, and third place in a
declamation contest
13. metric measurement of electric bills
14. number of death rates in a given year
15. party affiliation as 1-PMP, 2-Lakas NUCD
 THE NATURE OF
STATISTICS

Elementary Statistics and Probability

At the end of the week, the pre-service teacher (PST)
should be able to:
At the end of the week, the pre-service teacher (PST)
should be able to:
A. Brief Historical Development of Statistics

The word statistics is derived from

the Latin word "status" or from the
Italian word "statista" which can be
attributed as “political state” or
“government”.
 17th and 18th Century
• Mathematician were asked by
gamblers to develop principles that
would improve the chances of
winning at cards and dice. The two
most noted mathematicians who
became involved in this, the first
major study of probability were
Bernoulli and DeMoivre .
In the 1730s DeMoivre developed the
equation for the normal curve.
 Important work on probability was
conducted in the first two decades of Carl Friedrich Gauss
the nineteenth century by two other
mathematicians, LaPlace and Gauss.
Their work was an application of
probability principles to astronomy.
Gauss introduced the theory of errors
in physical sciences at the end of
eighteenth century.
 Important work on probability was
conducted in the first two decades of Pierre Simon Laplace
the nineteenth century by two other
mathematicians, LaPlace and Gauss.
Their work was an application of
probability principles to astronomy.
Gauss introduced the theory of errors
in physical sciences at the end of
eighteenth century.
In the early nineteenth Adolphe Quetelet
century a famous Belgian
Statistician, Quetelet,
applied statistics to
investigation of social and
educational problems.
 19th Century
Beyond any doubt, Francis Galton has
the greatest effect on the introduction Francis Galton
and use of statistics in the social
sciences. Galton contributed in the
field of heredity and eugenics,
psychology, anthropology, and
statistics. Our present understanding
of correlation, the measure of
agreement betweentwo variables, is
credited to him.
 20th Century
The mathematician Pearson
Karl Pearson
collaborated with Galton in later
years and was instrumental in
developing many of the
correlation and regression
formulas that are in us today.
Among Galton’s contribution was
the development of centiles and
percentiles.
Though the importance of statistics was strongly felt,
its tremendous growth was in the twentieth century.
During this period, lot of new theories, applications in
various disciplines were introduced. With the
contribution of renowned statisticians several theories
and methods were introduced, naming a few are
Probability Theory, Sampling Theory, Statistical
Inference, Design of Experiments, Correlation and
Regression Methods, Time Series and Forecasting
Techniques.
 In early 1900s, statistics and statisticians were not given much
importance but over the years due to advancement of technology
it had its wider scope and gained attention in all fields of science
and management. It is pertinent to note that the continued
growth of statistics is closely associated with information
technology. As a result several new inter- disciplines have
emerged. They are Data Mining, Data Warehousing, Geographic
Information System, Artificial Intelligence etc. Now-a-days,
statistics can be applied in hardcore technological spheres such
as Bioinformatics, Signal processing, Telecommunications,
Engineering, Medicine, Crimes, Ecology, etc.
B. Definition of Statistics
The word statistics has several meanings.
• In the first place, it is a plural noun which describes a collection of
numerical data such as employment statistics, accident statistics,
population statistics, birth and death, income and expenditure, of exports
and imports etc. It is in this sense that the word 'statistics' is used by a
layman or a newspaper.

- The word ’statistics’ is defined by Professor Secrit as follows:- "By

statistics we mean aggregate of facts, affected to a marked extent by
multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated
according to reasonable standard of accuracy, collected in a systematic
manner for a predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other."
B. Definition of Statistics
•Secondly the word statistics as a singular noun, is used to
describe a branch of applied mathematics, whose purpose is
to provide methods of dealing with a collections of data and
extracting information from them in compact form by
tabulating, summarizing and analyzing the numerical data or
a set of observations.

-The word 'statistics' is defined by Croxton and Cowden as

follows:- "The collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of the numerical data."
Statistics is that branch of science
that deals with 1) collecting;
2)organizing; 3)summarizing; 4)
analyzing of data, and 5) making
inferences, or decisions and
predictions, about a population
based on the data of the sample.
•A population is a group, or a

Population
set of objects, or individuals,
that share a certain property,
or characteristics, and it is the
entire interesting group to be
studied. It is the entire set of
individuals or objectsof interest
or the measurements obtained
from all individuals or objects
of interest.
•A smalleror representative

Sample
part, or a subset of the
population is called sample.It is
a portion, or part, of the
population of interest
Figure 1. Illustration of population and
sample
Here are some examples of the aforementioned concepts

Example 1. The students officially enrolled in any class at the City of Malabon
University, form a
population since there are no more students that will have the same
property.

Example 2. Consider the number of students enrolled in a particular class,

and choose, at random a committee of five students. This committee is a
sample of that population.

Note: The elements in a population, or in a sample, are called observations,

measurements, scores or just data.
•
•
•
Using descriptive statistics, we can present the test scores in graphical form and other statistic
available.
These results indicate that the mean score of this class is 79.18. The scores range from
66.21 to 96.53, and the distribution is symmetrically centered around the mean. A score of at least 70 on the test
is acceptable. The data show that 86.7% of the students have acceptable scores.
Elements of a Descriptive Statistical
Problem
1. Define the population (or sample) of
interest
2. Select the variables that are going to be
investigated
3. Select the tables, graphs, or numerical
summary tools
4. Identify the pattern in the data
•
This requirement affects our process. At a broad level, we must do the
following:
1. Define the population we are studying.
2. Draw a representative sample from that population.
3. Use analyses that incorporate the sampling error.
Make sure that the sample mirrors the population on
average and this can be done using random sampling.
It allows us to have confidence that the sample
represents the population. Random sampling produces
statistics, such as the mean, that do not tend to be
too high or too low. Using a random sample we can
generalize from the sample to the broader population.
 The most common methodologies in inferential statistics are
hypothesis tests, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.
•

•
•
•
•
d. Variables and Types of Data
The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being
studied is commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-
consuming part of the entire research project. Statistical data
are usually obtained by counting or measuring items.

➢ Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis

desired
➢ Secondary data have already been compiled and are
available for statistical analysis
A variable is an item of interest that can take on many
different numerical values.
A constant has a fixed numerical value.
d. Variables and Types of Data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring
items. Most data can be put into the following categories:

1. Qualitative Data- data are measurements that each fail into

one of several categories. (hair color, ethnic groups and other
attributes of the population)

Qualitative data are generally described by words or letters.

They are not as widely used as quantitative data because many
numerical techniques do not apply to the qualitative data. For
example, it does not make sense to find an average hair color
or blood type.
d. Variables and Types of Data
Qualitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
➢dichotomic (if it takesthe form of a word
with two options (gender- male or female)
➢polynomic (if it takes the form of a word
with more than two options(education -
primary school, secondary school and
university).
 d. Variables and Types of Data
2. Quantitative Data - data are observations that are
measured on a numerical scale (distance traveled to college,
number of children in a family, etc.)

Quantitative data are always numbers and are the result of

counting or measuring attributes of a population.

Quantitative data can be separated into two subgroups:

➢discrete (if itis the result of counting(the number of
students of a given ethnic group in a class, the number of
books on a shelf, ...)
➢continuous (if it is the result of measuring (distance
traveled, weight of luggage, …)
 e. Numerical Scale of Measurement Used in the Study of
Variables (Stevens, 1946)
 Nominal – consist of categories in each of which the number of
respective observations is recorded. The categories are in no
logical order and have no particular relationship. The categories
are said to be mutually exclusive since an individual, object, or
measurement can be included in only one of them.
 The simple form of classification and the least sophisticated. It is
sometimes called categorical scales or categorical data.
 Data assume no natural ordering and nominal scales have no
numerical value.
 Largely allied to measuring qualitative characteristics such as eye
color, hair color, gender, nationality or even lifestyle groups,
i.e., singles, young married, retired .
 No mathematical relation of comparative magnitude exists
between two variables .
i.
The steps involved in sampling include:
1. Identify the target population

2.Identify the subject or respondent

population
3.Specify the criteria for subject or respondent

selection
4.Specify the sampling design

5.Recruit the subjects